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logging methods
edited by G. Pethő & P. Vass
For Petroleum Engineer & Geoengineer MSc
Students
Porosity measurements
There are three conventional porosity logging methods:
• sonic or acoustic logging,
• density logging,
• and neutron logging.
Two of them, the density and neutron logging, belong to the group of
nuclear measurements.
Although they are called “porosity” logging methods, none of them
measures the porosity directly.
For all the three methods the value of the measured quantity is influenced
by not only the formation porosity but also the fluid content and rock
matrix.
If the types of fluid and matrix are known or can be determined from other
log curves, the porosity of the formation can be calculated from the
porosity logs.
Their depth of investigation is very shallow (only a few centimetres from
the borehole wall), so they generally measure the effect of the flushed
zone.
Sonic or acoustic log
Acoustic wave theory
Rocks can be considered as elastic bodies from the perspective of
acoustic wave propagation.
The acoustic logging method is based on the fact that high frequency
(tens of kHz) ultrasonic waves coming from a transmitter are able to
propagate through rocks.
The acoustic wave propagation is a spatial and temporal variation of
the stress and strain fields within the rock formations.
There is a very close interaction between the stress and strain fields.
A change in one of them causes the change of the other, and vice
versa.
It is important to note that not the particles travel through the medium
during the propagation of an elastic wave, but the change in the stress
and strain fields.
The particles of a medium are oscillating about their equilibrium
positions during the wave propagation.
Sonic or acoustic log
There are two principal types of elastic waves:
• body waves
• and interface or surface waves.
Body waves
Two types of deformation pattern can propagate as a body wave through a
solid medium.
When periodic alternations of contraction and expansion are taking place
during the wave propagation, the particles are oscillating along axes
parallel to the direction of the wave propagation.
That type of body wave is called compressional wave or P-wave (primary
wave).
Sonic or acoustic log
Body waves
The compressional wave belongs to the group of longitudinal waves.
Compressional wave motion entails both volume change and deformation.
It can propagate in both solids and fluids.
http://www.geo.mtu.edu/UPSeis/waves.html
Sonic or acoustic log
Body waves
The other type of body waves is called shear wave or S-wave (secondary
wave)
In the case of a shear wave only the shear component of the stress field
plays role in the shear wave motion.
The particles of the medium are oscillating along axes perpendicular to the
direction of wave propagation.
So, that type of wave belongs to the group of transverse waves.
The propagation of shear waves entails only deformation without any
volume change in the medium.
A shear wave cannot propagate in fluids because fluids are not able to
resist shear forces.
Sonic or acoustic log
The deformation pattern of the propagation of a shear wave.
http://www.geo.mtu.edu/UPSeis/waves.html
Sonic or acoustic log
Physical principles of the measurement
High frequency (tens of kHz) acoustic pulses are emitted periodically from
a transmitter installed in the logging tool.
The impulse-like ultrasonic wave packets (or wave trains) propagate
through the mud and arrive at the borehole wall.
Here, each wave train divides into different types of acoustic waves which
travel on their own way with their own velocities along the borehole wall or
inside the rock formation.
The deformation patterns of the waves entail the oscillating movement of
the borehole wall.
Thus, the points of the borehole wall act as secondary sources of waves.
These secondary waves propagate in the mud and can be detected by the
receiver located at some distance from the transmitter in the logging tool.
The time elapsed between the generation of a wave train and the
detection of the first arrival at the receiver is recorded and processed to
produce an interval transit time called delta t (t or DT).
The delta t gives the transit time needed for the wave front of the
compressional wave to travel one foot distance in the formation (s/ft). It is
also known as the slowness, because it is the reciprocal of the velocity.
Sonic or acoustic log
If a new acoustic pulse is generated by the transmitter, a synchronizing
signal is sent to each receiver to start listening.
The time between two subsequent acoustic pulses is selected in such a
way that a receiver can not detect a later arrival of the wave train
belonging to the previous pulse.
When not only the first arrival but the entire acoustic waveform is
captured, arrival times and amplitude attenuations (energy decrease) of
several portions of the waveform can be measured.
Each of these parts of the full waveform represents one type of the
acoustic waves, which has its own deformation pattern and way of
propagation.
The most important ones are the following:
• compressional wave or P wave (it gives the standard delta t, because it
is the fastest of all waves, DTC),
• shear wave or S wave (it follows the compressional wave in most
cases, DTS),
• and Stoneley wave (it is an interface wave propagating along the
borehole wall, and generally slower than the shear wave).
Sonic or acoustic log
Acoustic pulse generation
• a single pulse typically ranges from 100 to 200 s depending on the
type of logging tool,
• the time gap between two neighbouring pulses is about 50 ms (at least
250 times longer than the duration of a pulse,
In practice, more than one pulse is used to determine a single (average)
interval transit time value for a given depth level.
Remark:
a special sonic tool geometry with a single transmitter and two receivers is
used for cement bond logging (CBL) in cased and cemented holes.
Sonic or acoustic log
Interpretation goals
• determination of porosity (from interval transit time, DT),
• lithology identification (with density and/or neutron logs),
• production of synthetic seismograms (with the density log),
• determination of formation mechanical properties (from the full acoustic
waveform, with density log),
• detection of zones with abnormal formation pressure,
• permeability identification (from the full acoustic waveform),
• determination of cement bond quality (in a cased hole after cementing).
The interval transit time of minerals with higher density have lower interval
transit time (it means that the compressional wave propagates faster
inside them).
The interval transit time of the most important minerals were determined
by laboratory measurements, and the values can be looked up in tables.
The effect of porosity and the type of fluids filling the pore space
As the porosity of the rock increases, the interval transit time decreases.
This is because the fluids filling the pore space have significantly higher
interval transit time than the solid components of a rock.
As for the fluids, the interval transit time depends on their density similarly
to the solid materials.
So, the natural gas (because of its lowest density) increases the interval
transit time of a porous rock in the greatest measure.
Sonic or acoustic log
Velocities of compressional wave and interval transit times for different
rock matrix and fluids.
The equation used for calculating the total, primary porosity is based on a
very simple rock model which is made up of a homogeneous rock matrix
and a single fluid phase filling the pore space:
Δ𝑡𝑙𝑜𝑔 = 𝜙 ∙ Δ𝑡𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 + 1 − 𝜙 ∙ Δ𝑡𝑚𝑎
porosity, tlog interval transit time in the formation, tma interval transit
time in the solid rock matrix, tfluid interval transit time in the fluid.
By the arrangment of the linear equation above, we can get the so-called
Wyllie time-average equation (Wyllie et al., 1958):
Δ𝑡𝑙𝑜𝑔 − Δ𝑡𝑚𝑎
𝜙𝑆 =
Δ𝑡𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 − Δ𝑡𝑚𝑎
where S is the sonic-derived porosity.
The formula is valid for clean, water-filled, consolidated rocks with primary
porosity.
Relation between interval transit time and porosity in
a dolomite formation
If the energy level of a gamma photon decreases below 150 keV, the
occurrence of a photoelectric effect will become more and more probable.
In the course of a photoelectric effect, a gamma photon with lower energy
collides with an electron.
The electron absorbs the gamma ray, which disappears and transfers its
entire energy to the bound electron. If the energy of the incident gamma
ray is not so low, the exited electron can leave the atom.
Due to the gamma ray absorption, the photoelectric effect decreases the
number of gamma photons in the formation.
Density log
As a result of these two interactions, both the number and the average
energy of gamma rays decreases with the distance from the source.
The rate of change depends on the properties of the formation (rock
matrix, porosity, fluid content etc.).
Two detectors (a near and a far detector) in the tool count the number of
returning gamma rays in the unit of counts per second (cps).
The ratio of near-to-far detector count rates is related to the average
electron density of the formation.
For the most frequent elements in the Earth’s crust, the electron density is
proportional to their bulk density.
In spectral density tools, both detectors measure the count rate at two
different energy ranges simultaneously.
The count rates of higher energy gamma rays (from Compton scattering)
are related to the bulk density, while the count rates of lower energy
gamma rays (strongly influenced by the photoelectric effect) are used to
determine formation lithology.
The lower energy gamma rays are related to the lithology of the formation
and show little dependence on porosity or fluid type.
Density log
Operational constraints of density logging:
• the tool can be run either in open holes or in cased holes,
• it requires an eccentric position in the borehole because of its shallow
investigation depth (15-20 cm),
• there is no limit for the types of borehole fluids (gas or air, water or
water-based mud, oil or oil-based mud can be used).
http://www.gowellpetro.com/product/litho-density-logging-tool-ldlt.html
Density log
Figure: Spectral density tool, SDL (Halliburton)
Operational Constraints :
The tool can be run in both open holes and cased holes.
But, it requires an eccentric position in the borehole, which is implemented
by means of a steel bow spring.
It can be used with any type of borehole fluids (gas or air, water or water-
based mud ,oil or oil-based mud).
Neutron log
Calibration
A primary calibration standard for neutron tools was produced in the API
test pit of the University of Houston.
It contains four zones with different porosities:
• a zone of pure water, which represents a porosity of 100%,
• a zone of Carthage Marble with a porosity of 1.9%,
• a zone of Indiana Limestone with a porosity of 19%,
• a zone of Austin Limestone with a porosity of 26%.
By means of the standard pit, manufacturers can calibrate their neutron
tools in the so called limestone (or neutron) porosity unit during the
development, and make their own secondary workshop standards (water-
filled calibrating tanks by which environments with different porosities can
be simulated).
Wellsite verification of the tools is also performed before and after logging
by means of a portable calibrator providing a known thermal neutron
count rate.
For other lithology, the measured limestone porosity value can be
converted to a porosity value of a given rock matrix by using correction
data from lithology tables.
Neutron log
Figure: the structure of API test pit used as
a primary calibration standard for neutron
logging tools.
The measured porosity value of a
calibrated CNL tool is valid for only a clear,
water-filled limestone formation.
In other cases, the measured value has to
be corrected to the effects of the factors to
be taken into account (e.g. lithology,
hydrocarbon, shale or clay).