Advanced Concrete1

ADVANCED CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY
Dimensional stability
Concrete shows elastic as well as inelastic strains on loading and shrinkage strains on drying or
cooling. Deformations in concrete, which often lead to cracking, occur as a result of materials
response to external load and environment. When freshly hardened concrete (whether loaded or
unloaded) is exposed to the ambient temperature and humidity, it generally undergoes thermal
shrinkage (shrinkage strain associated with cooling) and drying shrinkage (shrinkage strain
associated with the moisture loss).Which one of the two shrinkage strains will be dominant under
a given condition depends among other factors, on the size of the member, characteristics of
concrete making materials and mix proportions. Generally in thick members (e.g. larger than a
few meters, the drying shrinkage is less important a factor than thermal shrinkage.
Hardened concrete are always under restraint, usually from sub grade friction, end members, re-
inforcing steel etc. When the shrinkage strain in an elastic material is fully restrained, it results in
elastic tensile stress.
Non linearity of the stress-strain relationship

Relative to aggregate and cement paste, concrete is really not an elastic material. Neither the strain
on instantaneous loading of a concrete specimen is found to be truly directly proportional to the
applied stress, nor is it fully recovered upon unloading. The cause for nonlinearity of the stress
strain relationship has been explained from studies on the process of progressive micro cracking in
concrete under load.
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Fig 4-3 reflects four stages of concrete behaviors. It is now well known that even before the
application of external load, micro cracks already exist in the transition zone between the matrix
mortar and coarse aggregate in concrete. The number and width of these cracks in a concrete
specimen would depend among other factors on bleeding characteristics, strength of the transition
zone and the curing history of concrete.
Under ordinary curing conditions (when a concrete is subjected to drying or thermal shrinkage
effects), due to differences in their elastic moduli, differential strains will be set up between the
matrix and the coarse aggregate, causing cracks in the transition zone. Below about 30% of the
ultimate load, the transition zone cracks remain stable, therefore, σ-є curve remains linear. Above
30% of the ultimate load (stage-2), as the stress increases, the transition zone micro-cracks begin to
increase in length, width and numbers. Thus with increasing stress, the є / σ ratio increases and the
curve begins to deviate appreciably from a straight line. However until about 50% of the ultimate
stress a stable system of micro cracks may be assumed to exist in the transition zone. At this stage
the matrix cracking is negligible. At 50 to 60 percent of the ultimate load, cracks begin to form in
the matrix. With further increase in stress upto about 75 percent of the ultimate load, not only will
the crack system in the transition zone become unstable, but also the proliferation and propagation
of cracks in the matrix will increase, causing the σ-є curve to bend considerably toward the
horizontal. About 75% of the ultimate load, with increasing stresses very high strains are developed
indicating that the crack system is becoming continuous due to rapid propagation of cracks in both
the matrix and the transition zone.
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TYPES OF ELASTIC MODULI

Since the curve for concrete is nonlinear, three methods of computing the modulus are used.
Tangent Modulus is given by the slope of a line drawn tangent to the stress strain curve at any
point on the curve .Tangent to the curve at the origin is initial tangent modulus .
Secant Modulus is given by the slope of a line drawn from the origin to a point on the curve
corresponding to a say 40% stress of the failure load. Because the secant modulus decreases with an
increase in stress, the stress at which the modulus have been determined must always be stated.
Chord Modulus: The chord modulus is given by the slope of a line drawn between two points on
the stress-strain curve.
The dynamic modulus of elasticity, corresponding to a very small instantaneous strain, is
approximately given by the initial tangent modulus for a line drawn at the origin. It is generally 20,
30 and 40 percent higher than the static modulus of elasticity. For stress analysis of structures
subjected to earthquake or impact loading, it is more appropriate to use the dynamic modulus of
elasticity.
Drying shrinkage and creep

Both drying shrinkage and creep originate from the same source, the hydrated cement paste. The
factors that influence the drying shrinkage also influence the creep. A saturated cement paste will
not remain dimensionally stable when exposed to ambient humidity that is below saturation, mainly
because the loss of physically absorbed water from C-S-H results in shrinkage strain. Similarly,
when a hydrated cement paste is subjected to sustained stress, depending on the magnitude of and
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duration of applied stress, the C-S-H will lose a large amount of the physically absorbed water and
the paste will show creep strain. In addition to moisture movements there are other causes that
contribute to the creep. Increase in creep strain, which invariably occurs when concrete is
simultaneously exposed to drying condition, is caused by additional micro cracking in the transition
zone owing to drying shrinkage.
Application of a constant stress on a concrete specimen under conditions of 100 percent relative
humidity leads to an increase of strain over time, which is called basic creep. This condition often
arises in massive concrete structures where drying shrinkage can be neglected.
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MICROSTRUCTURE OF CONCRETE
Physical Characteristics of Hydrated Cement: Many theories have been put forward to explain
the physical characteristics of hydrated cement. Very commonly the product of hydration is
described as C-S-H gel. It may not be exactly correct to call the product as gel. Le Chatelier
identified the products as crystalline in nature. He explained that the precipitate resemble crystals
inter locked with each other. Later on Michaelis put forward his colloidal theory where- in he
considered the precipitates as colloidal mass, gelatinous nature. Recent studies suggest that an
element of truth exists in both these theories. It is accepted now that the product of hydration is
more like gels, consisting of poorly formed, thin, infinitely small fibrous crystals. The whole is seen
as a bundle of fibres, a fluffy mass growing with age.
As the fibrous crystals are formed some water is held physically or is absorbed on the surface area
of the hydrates and is located in between the crystals. This water is called the gel water and the
inter-crystal spaces are called gel pores. These are extremely small (about 2 nm or 80 x 10 - 9 in.) in
diameter. It has been established that the volume of gel water is 28 % of the volume of cement gel.
In addition to gel water, there exists water which is used up in the chemical reactions. This is called
bound water. Besides gel pores, there are some voids or capillary pores which can be empty or
full of water. Capillary pores are much larger than the gel pores. If water is added in excess of what
is required for full hydration, the percentage volume of such large capillary pores increases.
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Micro-Structure of Concrete
Concrete is a composite material that consists essentially of a binding medium within which are
embedded particles or fragments of aggregates; in hydraulic-cement concrete, the binder is formed
from a mixture of hydraulic cement and water1. The aggregates are classified as coarse and fine
aggregates according to their sizes. The above definition of concrete does not include a fourth
component, admixture, which is almost invariably used in concrete construction nowadays.
Mechanism that causes impediments of durability of concrete is rather complex and can best be
explained with the help of its microstructure. Concrete is a three phase composite material and
highly heterogeneous in nature. The first two phases are aggregate and bulk hydrated cement paste
(‘hcp’). Third one is the transition zone, which is the interface between aggregate and bulk ‘hcp’.
The transition zone is also hydrated cement paste and exists as a thin shell around the aggregates. It
is generally weaker than the other two phases. The bulk ‘hcp’ and the transition zone are subjected
to change with time, environmental humidity and temperature 4.
Hydrated cementitious system generally consists of “hcp” produced due to primary hydration of
OPC with water. When water is added to dry mix, it fills up the voids establishing continuity of
capillary pores in the fresh concrete. As the hydration progresses, the space originally occupied by
cement and water is being replaced more and more by “hcp”; Hydration products fill the capillary
pores and make them discontinuous. When a space confined by newly formed “hcp” or flocculated
cement particles has lower humidity (less than 80% of relative humidity), anhydrous or incomplete
hydrated cement particles are left behind. Such situation could give rise to capillary voids with
some unused cement particle.
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Since the adhesion between the hydration products and the aggregate particles is due to Van der
Walls force of attraction, the strength of the transition zone at any point of time depends on the
volume and size of voids present. In freshly compacted concrete, water films form around the large
aggregate particles resulting in higher water cement ratio and voids in the transition zone 5. Later
on, as in the bulk ‘hcp’, crystalline products like ettringite, calcium hydroxide are formed. These
crystals are relatively larger and form a more porous framework than in the bulk ‘hcp’. Calcium
hydroxide crystals possess less adhesion capacity because of the lower surface area and
correspondingly weak Van der Waals forces of attraction.
Voids exist, even in well-hydrated paste, either due to not filling up of the space by solid phase of
“hcp”, known as capillary voids having irregular shape, or due to presence of air (entrained and
entrapped) during the time of mixing, known as air voids that are generally spherical. Capillary
voids larger than 50nm, referred to as macropores, are assumed to be detrimental to strength and
permeability and hence to durability, while voids smaller than 50nm, referred to as micropores, are
assumed to be related to drying shrinkage and creep. These voids are different from gel pore, which
is the C-S-H interlayer space. The size of gel pore is so small that they do not affect the strength
and impermeability characteristics of the concrete.
Like solid and void phases, water is also present in “hcp” and they are classified depending on the
degree of difficulties or ease with which it can be removed from “hcp”. Capillary water is free from
the influence of the attractive forces exerted by the solid surface. Water in large capillary pores (>
0.05 µm) may be considered as free water as its removal does not cause any volume change, but
enhances potential ingress of detrimental fluid inside the concrete masses. Water, held in small
capillaries (< 0. 05 µm), are held by capillary tension and their removal may cause shrinkage of the
concrete, excessive shrinkage is detrimental for durability. Adsorbed water is close to the solid
surface. These water molecules are physically adsorbed onto the surface of solids in the ‘hcp’ under
the influence of attractive forces. A major portion of the adsorbed water can be lost by drying the
‘hcp’ to 30% relative humidity leading to its shrinkage. Interlayer water is held by hydrogen
bonding between the layers of ‘C-S-H’. The C-S-H structure shrinks considerably when the
interlayer water is lost at relative humidity of less than 11%.
The transition zone is considered as the strength-limiting phase in concrete. The characteristics of
the transition zone also greatly influence the durability of concrete. Major factors responsible for
the weakness of the transition zone in concrete are the presence of the following,
• Voids/ pores
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• Presence of water
• Microcracks
The amount of microcracks depends on aggregate size and grading, cement content, water-binder
(cement plus reactive mineral admixtures) ratio w/b, degree of consolidation of fresh concrete,
curing regime, ambient humidity and thermal history of concrete, differential movements arising
either on drying or on cooling of concrete. In other words, concrete has microcracks in the
transition zone even before a structure is loaded. The existence of micro cracks in the transition
zone is the primary reason that concrete is more permeable than the bulk “hcp”.
The ingress of gases, water or ions in aqueous solutions into concrete takes place through pore
spaces in the ‘hcp’ matrix or micro-cracks. Water happens to be the key factor to most durability
related problems in concrete. Being small, water molecules are capable of penetrating extremely
fine pores or cavities. As a solvent, water has the ability to dissolve more substances than any other
known liquid. Water is present in concrete from the beginning, taking part in hydration, and also
acting as a lubricating agent. Later on, depending on the ambient conditions and thickness of the
member, most of the evaporable water in concrete (all the capillary water and a part of the absorbed
water) will be lost, leaving the pores empty. Water is capable of freezing and movement. Concrete
will not be susceptible to water related destructive phenomenon, provided that there is a little or no
evaporable water left after drying and that the subsequent exposure of the concrete to the
environment does not lead to re-saturation of the pores. The latter, to a large extent, depends on the
permeability.
Mechanics of Deterioration
Several causes have been identified as being responsible for deterioration of concrete. The cause
can be physical, chemical and mechanical. We will discuss some of the important physical and
chemical causes. The ultimate effect of these causes is the development of cracks which may
develop either inside the concrete or on the surface. The mechanics of formation of cracks due to
various reasons are discussed below:
Interface Bond Cracks
It has been shown that very fine bond cracks exist at the interface between coarse aggregate and
hydrated cement even prior to the application of load. Such micro-cracking occurs as a result of
differential volume changes between the cement paste and the aggregates. These micro-cracks give
rise to very high stress concentration at their tips under load.
Let us consider a bar with an elliptical hole and subjected to a tensile load as shown in Fig. 4
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Using theory of Elasticity, it has been shown that the stress at the tip of the crack is very high and
the ratio of maximum stress at the tip and average stress is given by
1
m
= StressConcentration Factor (SCF )
c 2
= 2
o r
Where 2C = length of hole

r = radius at the tip.
m
The ratio is known as the stress concentration factor (SCF). The elliptical hole approaches a
o
crack when ‘C’ is very large compared to r and from the above relation it can be seen that SCF
becomes very high for a crack, even though the average stress may be low.
The above stress concentration phenomenon occurs at the tips of bond cracks in a concrete when
there are stresses perpendicular to the length of the cracks. When the stress exceeds ultimate tensile
stress in the material, the cracks increase. With the further increase in the load, cracks propagate
and ultimately lead to total fracture of the material.
This fracture mechanism explains why concrete is weak in tension. Under compression the failure
mechanism is totally different. The bond cracks do not influence the failure. Various theories have
been postulated to explain failure under compressive load. According to Professor Banker, the
concrete medium behaves as a highly redundant latticed structure as shown in Fig. 5 (a). The mortar
links in between the aggregates behave as struts.
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If we consider an isolated unit as shown in Fig 5(b), it will be seen that as the compressive load is
applied in the vertical direction, the mortar struts will be under compression. But a component of
the load will also develop tension in the middle zone in the perpendicular direction. This tension
causes cracks in the middle zone before the mortar struts fail. With the increase in the load, the
tension cracks propagate and ultimately lead to fracture. This mechanism is considered responsible
for high resistance of concrete against compressive load.
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HOT WEATHER CONCRETING

There are some special problems involved in concreting in hot weather, arising both from a higher
temperature of concrete and in many cases, from an improved rate of evaporation from the fresh
mix .These problems concern the mixing, placing and curing the concrete.
A higher temperature of fresh concrete than normal result in a more rapid hydration of cement and
leads therefore to accelerated setting and lower long term strength since a less uniform framework
of gel in established. If high temperature is accompanied by a low relative humidity, rapid
evaporation of some of the mix water takes place, causing a higher loss of workability and higher
plastic shrinkage.
A higher temperature of fresh concrete is also detrimental when placing large concrete volume
because greater temperature differentials can develop between parts of the mass due to more rapid
evolution of heat of hydration of cement , subsequent cooling induces tensile stresses which may
cause thermal cracking.
REMEDIAL MEASURES
The cement content should be kept as low as possible so that the heat of hydration does not unduly
aggravate the effects of high ambient temperature.
The temperature of concrete delivered at site in hot weather should be as low as possible. An upper
limit of 290c is often specified. The temperature of the fresh concrete can be lowered by pre cooling
one or more of the ingredients of the mix. For instance, ice can be used instead of some of the
mixing water. But it is essential that the ice melts completely before the mixing has been completed.
The cooling of the aggregate is more difficult and because of the low specific heat of stone, less
effective.
HOT WEATHER CONCRETING

Increase in slump loss.
Increase in plastic shrinkage cracking
Decrease of setting time in fresh concrete
Increase in the mixing water requirement for a given consistency.
Concretes placed and used at higher temperatures normally develop greater early strength, but at 28
days and later ages the strengths are lower.
Hot weather is defined as any combination of high air temperature, low relative humidity and wind
velocity tending to impair the quality of fresh or hardened concrete or otherwise resulting in
abnormal properties.
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COLD WEATHER CONCRETING.
What is cold climate?

As per ACI 306 R, cold weather is defined as a period when for more than 3 consecutive days, the
following conditions exists.
a. The average daily air temperature is less than 50C.
b. The air-temperature is not greater than 100C for more than one half of any 24 hour period
The average daily air temperature is the average of the highest and the lowest temperatures
occurring during the period from midnight to midnight.
The problems of cold weather concreting

The problems of cold weather concreting arise from the action of frost on fresh concrete. If the
concrete which has not yet set is allowed to freeze, the mixing water converts to ice and there is an
increase in the overall volume of the concrete. Since there is now no water available for chemical
reactions, the setting and hardening of the concrete are delayed. When at a later stage thawing takes
place, the concrete will set and harden in its expanded state so that it will contain a large volume of
pores and consequently have a low strength.
If freezing occurs after the concrete has set, but before it has developed an appreciable strength, the
expansion associated with the formation of ice causes disruption and an irreparable loss of strength.
If however, the concrete has acquired a sufficient strength before freezing, it may with stand the
internal pressure generated by the formation of ice from the remaining mixing water. Concrete that
has been protected from freezing until it has attained a compressive strength of at least 3.5 MPa will
not be damaged by exposure to a single freezing cycle.
In cold weather, insufficient curing of concrete may seriously impede the rate of strength
development. Premature removal of formwork (i.e. before concrete acquires sufficient maturity or
strength) has in the past led to disastrous consequences in terms of both economic and human costs.
The problem usually arises from construction decisions based on laboratory cured cubes/ cylinders
when the actual curing history of the in place field concrete has been far different.
The strength of concrete increases with the progress of hydration of cement and the rate of
hydration of cement increases with increase in temperature. In cold climates where temperatures is
quiet low and where it goes down to freezing point, we have problems in concreting.
At temperatures lower than 60C, process of hydration of cement is very slow. Hydration of cement
does not take place at temperatures of 00C or below.
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Different measures that can be taken while concreting in cold weather:

During cold weather concreting effort and objective should be to remember
i) To prevent damage to concrete due to freezing at early stages.
ii) To assure that the concrete develops the required strength for safe removal of shores and
for safe loading of the structure.
iii) Maintenance curing conditions that foster normal strength development without
excessive heat.
iv) To limit rapid temperature changes, particularly before the concrete has developed
sufficient strength to withstand induced thermal stresses. Rapid cooling of concrete
surfaces or large temperature differences between exterior and interior members of the
structure can cause cracking which can be detrimental to strength and durability
We must ensure that the placing temperature is high enough to prevent freezing of the mix water
and that the concrete is thermally protected for a sufficient time. Minimum tolerable concrete
temperature, as placed and maintained, is lower for larger sections because they loose less heat.
When the air temperature is below 50C, the concrete has to be mixed at a higher temperature in
order to allow for heat losses during transportation and placing.
Fresh concrete should not be deposited against a frozen surface. After placing, an adequate
temperature of the concrete is obtained by insulating it from the atmosphere. At the end of the
required period, insulation or other means of protection should be removed gradually during the
subsequent 24 hours period.
To achieve a high rate of heat development, rapid hardening Portland cement or an accelerating
admixture should be used, preferably with a rich mix having a low water cement ratio. If necessary,
we can heat the appropriate ingredients. It is easier and more effective to heat the water but it is
inadvisable to exceed a temperature of 60 to 800C as flash set of cement may result. Of all the
concrete making components, mixing water is the easiest to heat. Also, it makes more practical
sense to do so because water can store five times as much heat as can the same mass of cement or
aggregate. Compared to a specific heat of 1.0 for water, the average specific heat for cement and
aggregate is 0.22.
At temperatures above freezing, it is rarely necessary to heat aggregates. At temperatures below

freezing, often only the fine aggregates need to be heated to produce concrete at the required
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temperature, which is generally accomplished by circulating hot air or steam through pipes
embedded in the aggregate stock pile.
Concrete temperature can be measured directly by a mercury thermometer. It can also be estimated
using the expression
0.22(TaWa + TcWc) + TwWw + TwaWwa
T=
0.22(Wa + Wc) + Ww + Wwa
Where T = temperature of fresh concrete in 0c
Ta, Tc, Tw & Twa are temperatures of aggregates, cement, mixing water and free moisture in
aggregate respectively.
Wa, Wc, Ww & Wwa are weights in kg of aggregates, cement, mixing water and free moisture in
aggregation respectively.
Freezing point of the mix water can be lowered well below 00C. This can be achieved by use of anti
freeze admixtures such as potassium carbonate (Potash), calcium nitrite and sodium nitrite. These
salts are non corrosive.
Proper protection to the newly placed concrete should be made by covering, insulating or heating as
the case may be depending upon ambient temperature and cold weather conditions.
Formwork could also be pre heated.
Air entrainment has proved to be an effective means of reducing the risk of damage to concrete by
frost action.
Since most of the heat of hydration of the cement is generated during the first three days, heating
from external sources may not be required to prevent freezing of the concrete if the generated heat
is retained. Heat of hydration may be retained by using insulating blankets which could consist of
polystyrene foam sheets, urethane foam, foamed venyl blankets, mineral wool, cellulose fibres and
straw.
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Plasticizers and super plasticizers

Specific gravity of the superplasticizer, Gsup = (Mliq / Vliq)
Mliq is measured in grammes, Vliq in cubic centimeters.
Solid content s of the superplasticizer is

s = (Msol / Mliq)* 100
Msol = (s * Mliq) /100 = ( s * Gsup* Vliq) / 100
EX. 6 litres of a melamine superplasticizer having a specific gravity of 1.1 and a solid content of
22% contain 0.22 x 1.1 x6 = 1.45 kg of solids.
Mass of water contained in a certain volume of superplasticizer

When adding sevaral liters of liquid superplasticizers it is necessary to take into account the amount
of water added within the concrete in order to be able to calculate the exact water binder ratio.
Mliq = Mw + Msol
Mw = Mliq - Msol
We know, Mliq = (Msol * 100)/s
Mw = (Msol * 100)/s – Msol
= Msol ( (100-s)/s )
= ( s * Gsup* Vliq) / 100 * (100-s)/s
Vw = Vliq * Gsup * (100-s)/100
EX. 8.25 liters of naphthalene superplasticizer with a specific gravity of 1.21 and a solid content of
40% have been used in a concrete in order to obtain the desired slump. What is the volume of water
that is added to the concrete when using the solution of commercial superplasticizer.
Vw = Vliq * Gsup * (100-s)/100
= 8.25 * 1.21 * (100 – 40)/100

= 6.00 lit / m3
If d percent is the dosage of the solids of a superplasticizer suggested by a manufacturer to obtain a

desirable slump in a concrete containing mass C of cementitious material, the volume of liquid
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superplasticizer, Vliq having a specific gravity Gsup and a solid content s can be calculated as
follows.
Msol = C x d / 100
We know that Msol = (s * Mliq) /100
Therefore, (s * Mliq) /100= C x d / 100

(S* Gsup* Vliq) = C x d
Vliq = (c*d)/(s* Gsup)
If C is the total mass of the cementitious materials used in a particular mix and if d percent is the
suggested doseage of solid particles, then the mass Msol of solids needed as
Msol = C x d / 100
The volume of liquid superplasticizer needed to have Msol of solid particles is calculated as follows.
Vliq = (Msol * 100)/(s* Gsup)
Volume of solid particles contained in Vliq
Vsol = V liq - Vw
= V liq - Vliq * Gsup * (100-s)/100
= V liq (1 - Gsup * (100-s)/100)
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Permeability
Permeability is the principal factor that affects the ingress of media for deterioration (gases or water
or ions in aqueous solutions), into concrete. Low permeability is the primary requirement to
produce durable concrete. When concrete is subjected to external chemical attack, there is only one
way to reduce the intensity of this external aggression; to lower the porosity and permeability of the
concrete in order to reduce or to slow down as much as possible the penetration of aggressive
agents. Permeability of a concrete composite greatly depends on its porosity and characteristic
related to micro-cracks, especially at the transition zone.
Transport mechanisms of media causing deterioration

A variety of different physical and / or chemical mechanisms may govern the transport of the media
causing deterioration of concrete, depending on the substance flowing and its local concentration,
the environmental conditions, the permeability and the temperature. The transport of media into
concrete in most cases is not due to one single mechanism, but several mechanisms may act
simultaneously.
There are three types of fluids principally relevant to durability , which can enter concrete: water,
pure or carrying aggressive ions, carbon-di-oxide and oxygen. They can move through the concrete
in different ways, but all transport depends primarily on the structure of the hardened cement paste.
As far as the movement of fluids through concrete is concerned, three mechanisms are
distinguished.
i) Permeation
ii) Diffusion
iii) Absorption
Permeation of salty water due to hydrostatic pressure, i.e. the water moves towards part of concrete
with less pressure. Leaching, soft water attack, sulphate and chloride attack depends on the
permeability of concrete.
Diffusion is the process in which a fluid moves under a differential in concentration, the relevant
property of concrete is diffusivity. Carbonation of concrete is a diffusion-controlled process. For
Continuously submerged concrete sections sulphate and chloride attack requires the ingress of
sulphate and chloride ions into the concrete through diffusion. Fick’s second law of diffusion
reasonably represents diffusion of ions, such as chlorides.
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∂C ∂2C
--- = Dc -----
∂t ∂x2
Where C is the ion concentration at a distance x, after a time t; Dc is the ion diffusion co-efficient.
Absorption is the result of capillary movement in the pores in concrete, which are open to the
ambient medium. It follows that capillary suction can take place only in partially dry concrete;
there is no absorption of water in completely dry concrete or in saturated concrete. Concrete
sections, subjected to frequent drying, will absorb chloride and sulphate solutions by capillary
suction. Capillary suction is also responsible for ingress of water necessary for alkali aggregate
reaction and frost damage.
DURABILITY
Durability of Portland cement concrete is defined as its ability to resist weathering action; chemical
attack, abrasion or any other process of deterioration; that is durable concrete will retain its original
form, quality and serviceability when exposed to its environment. Lack of durability results in
failure of concrete structures either by
- By disintegration of concrete, or
- By corrosion of reinforcement, or
- By both the phenomena mentioned above.
Factors affecting durability

All factors or processes, responsible for creating voids, cracks and permeability in concrete, affect
the durability of concrete. These undesirable characteristics of concrete mass are generated either
due to manufacturing process and formation process (reaction mechanism) or due to external
process. The external processes can broadly be categorized into two groups: physical and chemical.
Several chemical and physical processes of deterioration may act at the same time and
interconnected to each other. Chemical reactions can result into detrimental physical effects, such as
increase in porosity and permeability, decrease in strength, cracking and spalling. Various factors
affecting the durability of concrete structures are summarized in Fig. 2.
Physical processes
The different physical processes that affect durability are
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• Design and Construction Practice

• Surface wear
• Cracking
Poor construction practices including improper selection of ingredients, manufacturing process,

transportation, placement and compaction as well as inadequate curing of concrete may lead to
voids, honeycombs and cracking. Good many structures suffer deterioration due to poor detailing of
reinforcement. The concrete skin cover to reinforcement always plays a critical role in concrete
durability. Both inadequate spacing of reinforcement and congestion of reinforcement are
detrimental for durability of concrete. The first one introduces the risk of cracking, while the second
one could lead to creating voids and honeycombs
Lack of resistance to different forms of surface wear like abrasion, erosion and cavitation may
drastically reduce the life of a concrete structure.
Cracks can occur in concrete either by internal mechanism or due to the effect of external loading.
Once concrete cracks, it loses its tightness against ingress of gases, ions and water during service
condition thereby becomes vulnerable to one or more process of deterioration. Cracks wider than
about 0.2 to 0.4 mm are harmful. Cracking of concrete is initiated by one or more of the following
physical processes.
• Cracking during the early age is usually due to secondary effects like shrinkage strains
from cooling or drying, heat of hydration.
• Ingredients of concrete mix and effects of mix design can cause cracking. Possibilities of
cracks increase substantially due to use of a high early strength Portland cement, or by a
drastic reduction in water binder ratio (w/b).
• Cracks can also occur due to the action of applied load including accidental overloading.
• Due to environmental effects, such as extreme temperature, freezing and thawing cracks
occur in concrete.
Chemical processes
Durability of concrete is affected by the following chemical processes
• Hydrolysis and leaching
• Cation exchange reactions
• Reactions leading to expansive products
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• Carbonation
• Alkalinity
• Electrical resistivity
Chemical reactions leading to expansive products may be

• Delayed hydration of free CaO & MgO
• Sulphate attack
• Alkali-aggregate reaction
• Corrosion of embedded steel
Corrosion of reinforcements in concrete, which is an electro chemical process, may be due to

• Carbonation and resulting lower pH value which leads to destruction of the protective
film on the steel surface. In the absence of chloride ions in the solution, the protective
film on steel is reported to be stable as long as the pH of the solution stays above 11.5.
• Chloride attack- the protective film may be destroyed even at pH value considerably
above 11.5. When Cl-/OH- molar ratios are higher than 0.6, steel seems to be no longer
protected against corrosion.
Significant corrosion is not observed as long as the electrical resistivity of concrete is above 50 to
70 x 103Ω.
Another degradation process of concrete, which has been found of late, is delayed ettringite
formation (DEF). Ettringite naturally forms during the early hydration process of cement, while the
concrete is still plastic. Its formation greatly influences many properties of concrete made from
Portland cement, such as setting of cement, strength, durability etc. The early type of ettringite is
harmless and does not produce any problem. The early ettringite decomposes, but in some cases, it
may reform at a later stage, after months or years, a process, which is called, delayed ettringite
formation, DEF. Sometimes it is also referred to as secondary ettringite formation. It is generally
believed that DEF formation can cause expansion and deterioration of concrete. DEF damage is
typically viewed as the result of an expansive process within the material.
MINERAL ADMIXTURE BASED CONCRETE COMPOSITE
In concrete, mineral admixtures can reduce the heat of hydration and improve concrete strength,
workability and durability. When the highly reactive, ultra fine mineral admixtures are adequately
20
dispersed with HRWRA, a low w/cm concrete can be produced with high strength and dramatically
reduced permeability. These feature result from a combination of several mechanisms; the particle
packing effect, high pozzolanic reactivity, nucleation site action (which prevents the growth of large
portlandite crystals) and the near disappearance of the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) between
aggregate and the cement paste.
Defined properties of concrete composites can be achieved by appropriate engineering of the
microstructure, particularly in the transition zone – reduction of its thickness, associated voids and
micro cracks as well as uniform particle distribution. Such modifications in microstructure are
achieved by using both chemical and mineral admixtures. Appropriate grading of solid materials
starting from coarse aggregate to the finest one, low w/cm also has the significant effect on the
modification of microstructure. The mechanism, which leads to the modification in the micro
structure of a concrete composite has basically three components
• Reaction mechanism among ingredients.
• Physical process.
• Curing.
Reaction mechanism is principally based upon chemical reaction among ingredients and related
physical phenomena. Physical process includes characterization of ingredients, mixing method
(sequence and time of mixing), transportation, placement and compaction of fresh concrete.
Physical process results in creating conducive condition for the reaction mechanism to take place
appropriately for imparting the desired attributes of the concrete mix both at fresh and hardened
state. Curing maintains the satisfactory condition so that the reaction mechanism can be completed
to the desirable state by preventing moisture loss and maintaining appropriate temperature during
process of hydration.
Mineral admixture used in concrete composite are fine materials and of two types, reactive and inert
fines.
Pozzolans (reactive) improves the properties of concrete by means of pozzolanic action (secondary
hydration) as well as and as filler materials.
Pozzolanic action: This is a chemical mechanism. Reactive silica (SiO 2) of pozzolans reacts with
the calcium hydroxide, which is liberated during process of hydration and produces calcium silicate
hydrate (C-S-H). Due to pozzolanic reaction the larger size crystal of Ca (OH)2 converts to crystal
of C-S-H, which is dense and leading to reduction of pore size.
Portland cement reaction : C3S + H => C-S-H + CH
Pozzolanic reaction : S + CH + H => C-S-H
21
As a filler material: This is a physical mechanism, owing to its almost spherical shape and small
size, pozzolans disperse easily in presence of superplasticizer and fills the voids between cement
particles resulting in well-packed concrete mix.
Reactive type mineral admixtures containing pozzolanic material take part both in poozolanic action
and filler action. The chemical reaction between the pozzolanic particles present in mineral
admixture in ‘hcp’ of concrete composite can lead to the processes of pore size and grain size
refinement. Pore size refinement refers to the process of transformation of a system containing large
capillary voids into a microporous product containing numerous fine pores whereas grain size
refinement refers to the process of transformation of a system containing large Ca(OH) 2 crystals
into a product containing smaller grains of hcp. Inert fines or non reactive types of mineral
admixture act as a filler material only and contribute towards pore refinement. Examples of such
admixtures are silica flower, lime stone dust etc.
High range water-reducing admixtures, superplasticiser create conducive condition for complete
hydration of cement by deflocculating the cement lump and making cement water mixtures as well
dispersed system. This reduces the risk of anhydrous cement grain to be present in the structure of
concrete and to improve the pore structure during hydration process by bringing almost all cement
particles fully in contact with water.
Concrete composite can be made using OPC alone as a cementitious material. A partial substitution
of Portland cement by one or combination of two or three mineral admixtures like fly ash (FA),
ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS), high reactivity metakaoline(HRM) and silica fume
(SF) can be advantageous, not only from economic point of view but also from rheological, strength
and well developed microstructure formation point of view. The vitreous reactive silica present in
these mineral admixtures reduces the presence of crystalline lime in transition zone and strengthens
transition zone resulting lower porosity and increase interface bond between aggregate and hcp.
Use of chemical and mineral admixtures has manifold beneficial effects on the properties of
concrete composite
• Improvement of transition zone by reduction in voids and grain packing
• Elimination of CH crystals
• Considerable reduction in permeability
• Less heat of hydration.
• Discontinuous capillary pore system.
These beneficial effects, resulting in considerable improvement of durability of concrete against
attack due to chemical as well as physical process, lead to the common belief that concrete
composite is always durable.
22
Penetration of oxygen, moisture and chloride ions into skin concrete is significantly low in case of
concrete composite with mineral admixture due to its low permeability. When the mineral
admixtures are properly proportioned in concrete composite, the penetrability of fluid within
concrete is significantly reduced and the resistivity is increased, thereby reducing the rate of
corrosion. For this purpose, diffusion co-efficient needs to be low along with permeability;
otherwise chloride-induced corrosion cannot be low in case of concrete composite. Proper
proportioning of mineral admixture is important from this consideration.
SILICA FUME:
Silica fume is a by-product of the fabrication of silicon metal, ferrosilicon alloys and other silicon
alloys in an electric arc furnace. Silica Fume is also referred to as micro silica or condensed silica
fume.
From a structural point of view, silica fume is composed mostly of vitreous silica. From a physical
point of view, silica fume particles appear to be perfectly spherical with an average diameter on the
order of 0.1µ and surface area in the range of 20000 to 25000 m2/kg. Compared to normal Portland
cement and typical fly-ashes, condensed silica fume samples show particle size distributions that are
two orders of magnitude finer. Compared with other supplementary cementitious materials, the
characteristics that make silica fume a very reactive pozzolanic material are its very high SiO 2
content, its amorphous state and its extreme fineness. This is why the material is sometimes termed
as highly pozzolanic. The beneficial effects of silica fume on the microstructure and mechanical
properties of concrete are due not only to a rapid pozzolanic reaction but also to the physical effect
of the silica fume particles, which is known as the ‘Filler effect’.
This material has very high pozzolanic activity and its use has revolutionized concrete technology.
With the incorporation of silica fume in concrete, it is possible to achieve both very high early
strengths as well as late age strengths. Silica fume concrete is very dense and highly durable
because of very low permeability.
Typical Chemical Composition of Silica Fume

Constituent % by weight
SiO2 85 – 98
Al2 O3 0.4 – 2.5
Fe2 O3 0.6 – 2.5
23
CaO 0.2 – 0.8
MgO 1.7 – 3.3
Na2O 0.2 – 2.0
Other important parameters

Specific Gravity = 2.20
Retained on 45 micron = < 10 %
Specific surface = > 10000 m2 / kg
SiO2 >85%
Loss on ignition < 6%,
Silica in the form of glass is highly reactive and the smallness of the particles speeds up reaction
with calcium hydroxide produced by the hydration of Portland cement. The very small particles of
silica fume can enter the space between the particles of cement, and thus improve packing.
Silica Fumes has a very low bulk density 200 – 300 kg / m3. Handling of this light powder is
difficult for this reason; silica fume is available in the densified form of micro pellets, i.e
agglomerates of the individual particles with a bulk density of 500 to 700 kg/ m 3. Silica fume is
used as a small replacement of cement in the range of 5.0 to 7.5%.
Silica fume, because of its high fineness reduces bleeding. The very large surface area of the
particles of silica fume, which have to be wetted, increases the water demand so that in concretes
with a low water /cement ratio , it is necessary to use a superplastiezer.
Silica fume dissolves in a saturated solution of calcium hydroxide within a few minutes. Therefore,
as soon as enough Portland cement has hydrated to result in saturation of the pore water with
calcium hydroxide, calcium silicate hydrate is formed on the surface of silica fume particles. The
reaction proceeds initially at a high rate. The contribution of silica fume to the early strength
development (up to about 7days) is probably through improvement in packing and improvement of
the interface zone with the aggregate.
SF reduces the permeability of the transition zone as well as of the bulk cement pastes. Reduced
permeability, of concrete containing S, results in a better resistance to ingress of aggressive ions,
such as chlorides, sulphates etc. A consequence of reduced permeability is a greater resistance to
the ingress of chloride ions. The sulphate resistance of concrete containing silica fume is good,
partly because of a lower permeability and partly in consequence of a lower content of calcium
hydroxide and of alumina, which have become incorporated in C-S-H. In relative terms, the rate of
24
reduction of permeability with age is much faster as compared to FA, GGBS etc. Concrete
composites containing SF is found to be resistant to alkali-silica reaction because it has a very low
permeability, which limits the mobility of ions, as well as a very low water content. For properly
air-entrained concretes, silica fume have no detrimental effects on resistance to freezing and
thawing and related scaling. (Malhotra 1986).
The use of this cementations material continues to increase despite its relatively high cost. In India,
silica fume is imported, its use increases the cost of concrete
FLY ASH
The word, ‘fly ash’ is commonly used as generic terminology for the waste product due to burning
of coal in the boiler of a thermal power plant. The generic terminology for such waste product, as
per IS 3812 (2003 a, b) is pulverised fuel ash. It is defined as ash generated by burning of ground
or pulverised or crushed coal or lignite in boilers. Pulverised fuel ash can be fly ash, bottom ash,
pond ash or mound ash. “Fly Ash” is the pulverised fuel ash extracted from the flue gases by any
suitable process such as by cyclone separator or electrostatic precipitator. Pulverised fuel ash
collected from the bottom of boilers by any suitable process is termed as “Bottom Ash”. The
terminology “Pond Ash” is used when fly ash or bottom ash or both mixed in any proportion and
conveyed in the form of water slurry and deposited in pond or lagoon. When fly ash or bottom ash
or mixture of these in any proportion is conveyed or carried in dry form and deposited dry, it is
known as “Mound Ash”.
One of the main challenges now confronting the concrete industry in India is to meet the challenges
posed by enormous infrastructure needs due to rapid industrialization and urbanization. With the
shrinkage of natural resources to produce ordinary Portland cement (OPC), more and more use of
suitable industrial waste materials having pozzolanic characteristics that can replace cement clinker
is one of the ways to meet the challenge. Such attempt has many-fold advantages, utilization of
industrial waste in eco-friendly way, preserving resources, and finally improvement in properties of
concrete culminating to sustainable development of the society.
Fly ash is one of such cement replacing pozzolanic material. The positive effect of using fly ash in
concrete are related to the following,
• Saving in energy requirements in the production of OPC.
• Preservation of limestone and coal reserve.
• Minimizing greenhouse gas emissions associated with the manufacturing of OPC.
• Environment friendly and economical disposal of millions of tones of fly ash.
25
• Conducting concrete of better quality.

Projected availability of fly ash in India is expected to reach 200 million tones in the year 2010.
Considering the fact that huge quantity of fly ash is produced in India, use of fly ash in concrete is
probable one of the effective utilization of this industrial waste. In fact, fly ash incorporated
concrete is the best gateway of sustainable development of our country.
The chemical composition of fly ash or bottom ash depends on the characteristics and composition
of coal. Major constituents are SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3 and CaO. Loss on ignition gives an indication
about the amount of un-burnt carbon present in fly ash. Fly ash is generally finer than bottom ash.
Again, the fly ash, collected at later fields of electrostatic precipitator, is finer than the fly ash
collected at initial stages of electrostatic precipitator.
Fly ash is a fine grained pozzolanic material, in general spherical in shape. SEM images reveal that
fly ash consists of either solid and /or hollow spheres. Fly ash can contain both reactive and
inactive calcium oxide. The fraction of calcium oxide, which under normal hardening condition can
form calcium silicate hydrates or calcium aluminates hydrates, is reactive calcium oxide. The fly
ash is categorised in two categories based on the quantity of reactive calcium oxide presents in fly
ash.
Siliceous Fly Ash (SFA): Fly ash with reactive calcium oxide less than 10% by mass falls under this
category. Such fly ashes are normally produced from burning anthracite or bituminous coal and
have pozzolanic properties.
Calcareous Fly Ash (CFA): This category of fly ash contains reactive calcium oxide not less than
10% by mass; the content could be as high as 25%. Such fly ash is normally produced from lignite
or sub-bituminous coal and has both pozzolanic and hydraulic properties. Excess calcium oxide of
CFA will combine with silica and alumina portion of the ash; as a result, there will be less of these
compounds to react with the lime liberated by the primary hydration of ordinary Portland cement.
ASTM C 618 (2003) defines the fly ash, in similar way of IS 3812 (2003a, b) as finely divided
residue that results from the combustion of ground and powdered coal and that is transported by
flue gas. ASTM C 618 categorises fly ash into two classes; class F and class C, which are
equivalent to SFA and CFA respectively of IS 3812.
The pozzolanic activity of a fly ash is greatly influenced by,
• The amount and composition of the glassy phase present.
• Mineralogical characteristics
• Particle size of the fly ash
Typically the pozzolanic activity of a fly ash is proportional to the quantity of particles under 10 mµ
size whereas particles larger than 45 mµ size show a little or no pozzolanic activity. The Japan
Industrial Standard (JIS), JISA 6201, was revised in 1999 in order to widen the utilizable amount of
26
fly ash as a mineral admixture. In this standard, more thrust has been put on fineness and particle
size than on chemical composition as is prevalent in IS and ASTM codes referred above.
Through its pozzolanic properties, fly-ash chemically combines with calcium hydroxide and water
to produce C-S-H, thus reducing the risk of leaching of calcium hydroxide. Durability at hardened
state of HPC with Fly Ash are greatly improved due to,
• Physico-chemical effects associated with pozzolanic reactions that result in pore size
reduction and grain size reduction.
• Physical effects associated with the presence of very fine particles.
Fly ash can be introduced into concrete in one of the following two ways,
• Through blended cement manufactured by intergrinding fly ash with OPC clinkers.
• As an additional cementitious material at the concrete mixing stage.
The use of blended cement is easier, since it is free from the complications of batching additional
materials at the construction site and may ensure more uniform control. The addition of fly ash at
the concrete mixing stage is flexible and allows for more complete exploitation of the qualities of
fly ash as an ingredient of concrete. When fly ash is used as a supplementary cementitious material,
it is generally incorporated as a cement replacement. In low volume fly ash concrete (LVFAC), the
cement replacement level (CRL) is in the range of 10% to 30 % by mass. In 1985, the Advance
Concrete Technology Group at CANMET (Malhotra and Ramezanianpour 1994) developed high
volume fly ash concrete (HVFAC). This class of concrete has very low water content (w/cm <0.4),
possible due to use of superplasticizer, and at least 50% of the ordinary Portland cement by weight
is replaced with siliceous fly ash (SFA) of IS 3812 (2003 a, b), or Class F fly ash of ASTM-618.
High volume fly ash concrete is a composite system that allows the use of large volume of fly ash in
concrete mix for conventional applications. Incorporation of fly ash in concrete mix improves its
properties both in fresh and hardened state. The phenomena, which influence the properties, are
principally filler effect and pozzolanic action. The filler effect is immediate, while pozzolanic
action occurs later. These two effects result in both pore and grain refinement of the hydrated
cementitious system of the mix.
Low volume fly ash concrete (LVFAC) has been in use in USA, Canada and European countries
since long. HVFAC have also numerous examples of its application in those countries. In India,
Portland pozzolana cement, which is generally a blend of OPC with low volume fly ash, is in use
nowadays. Experiences are available of using LVFAC by producing in batch mode in India. In
contrast, little information could be found on application of HVFAC in India. Information on
limited application of HVFAC in road pavement is available in literature. Recently HVFAC is
being used in the construction of tremie seal and pylon pile cap of Bandra-Worli sea link, in
Mumbai. However, India is yet to start using HVFAC in reasonable quantity to reap its benefit.
27
Fly ash is a fine grained material consisting mostly of spherical glassy particles. The carbon content
is assessed to be equal to the loss of ignition.
PRIMARY REACTION: C3 S + H C- S - H + CH Primary gel + Calcium hydroxide

C2 S + H C- S - H + CH ------- do ---------
SECONDARY REACTION: Pozzdan+ CH C- S – H Secondary gel
When concrete containing fly-ash is properly used, fly-ash reaction products fill in the space
between cement particles, thus lowering the concrete permeability to water and aggressive
chemicals. The slower reaction rate of many fly-ash compared to port land cement limits the
amount of early heat generation. Fly -ash improves workability is due to the special shape of its
particles.
If fly-ash concrete is properly used it permeability is considerably reduced.
DOSES: 10 to 30% replacement of cement now day’s High volume fly-ash concrete are being
profaned with over upto 60% replacement of cement .
As per IS: 3812-1981
SiO2 + AL2 O3 + Fe2O3 - % by mass 70 minimum
SiO2 - 35% minimum
Loss on ignition - 12% minimum
Specific gravity - 2.3
Fineness : 34% Maximum retained in 45 micron
Blaine Fineness : 320 m2 /kg
Host of literatures is available on fly ash based concrete composites especially high
volume fly ash concrete (HVFAC). It is reported that fly ash delays the hydration process.
The test results on HVFAC show that the initial setting times of 7.5 h are comparable to
those of the control concrete (CC) mixes made with the same water content and water/binder
(w/b) ratio, whereas the final setting time were retarded by about 3 hours as compared with
that of the control concrete.
The density of HVFAC is of the order of 2400 kg/m3, comparable to the density of
Portland cement concrete without fly ash. Bleeding tests performed on HVFAC have shown
that this concrete does not bleed. This is because of the very low water content in this type
of concrete. Additional curing in hot weather is needed to prevent plastic shrinkage cracks.
28
Because of the low cement content, the temperature rise in the high-volume fly ash
concrete during the first few days after placement is minimal. The water demand for a given
value of workability and good rheology is controlled by particle size distribution, particle
packing effect and smoothness of surface texture. Fly ash particles are spherical in shape
and this has a very positive effect on the water requirement vis-à-vis rheology of concrete
mixtures. Depending on the quality of fly ash and the amount of cement replaced, up to
20% reduction in water requirements can be achieved.
Siliceous fly ashes (or ASTM Class-F fly ashes) retard the setting of cement. The
small size and the essentially spherical form of low calcium fly ash particles influence the
rheological properties of cement pastes, causing a reduction in the water required or an
increase in workability compared with that of an equivalent part without fly ash. fly ash
differs from other pozzolans, which usually increase the water requirement of concrete
mixtures. The major factor influencing the effects of ash on the workability of concrete is
the proportion of coarse material (>45 µm) in the ash. Concrete using fly ash generally
shows reduced segregation and bleeding and is more satisfactory than plain concrete when
placed by pumping. In line with the improved rheological properties and as a result of fine
particulate content, some fly ashes give a markedly improved finish. Consideration of
strength and durability in proportioning fly ash concrete mix has been discussed in
reference.
HVFAC mixes exhibit reasonable strength development characteristics at early age
and high strength at later age. The 1-day compressive strength of HVFAC can vary within a
range of 5-9 MPa, depending on the type of cement and quantity of binder. These strength
values are more than adequate for formwork removal at normal temperature and are
comparable to the strength of PCC with about 250 kg/m3 of cement. The later age
compressive strength in some instances has been shown to reach 60MPa at 1 year.
Resistance to chemical attack and thermal cracking are the two major benefits that
can be derived from the use of fly-ash (IS 12269 1987). Because of the very low cement
content, the temperature rise in the high-volume fly ash concrete during the first few days
after placement is minimal. The existence of large pores and large crystalline products in the
transition zone in OPC concrete are greatly reduced by the introduction of fine particles of
fly ash.
Davis (1954) examined the permeability of concrete pipes, incorporating fly ash
substituted for cement in amounts of 30-50 %, at the ages of 28 days and 6 months. After 28
days of curing, at which time little pozzalanic activity would have occurred, the fly-ash
concretes were more permeable than control concretes. At 6 months, this was reversed,
29
considerable imperviousness had developed, as a result of the pozzalanic reaction of fly ash.
Transformation of large pores to fine pores, as a consequence of the pozzalanic reaction
between Portland cement paste and fly ash, substantially reduces permeability in
cementitious systems ( Monmohan et al 1981).
Short et al (1982) reported a comparison of the diffusion coefficient of chloride ions
in solution into Portland and blended cement pastes. It was concluded from these data that
slag and fly-ash cements were more effective in limiting chloride diffusion in pastes than
were normal or sulphate resisting cement.
Davis et al (1937) reported that some fly ashes increased the resistance of concrete to
sulphate attack, others were ineffective and some were deleterious and caused increased
sulphate deterioration.
The reaction between the siliceous glass in fly-ash and the alkali hydroxides in the
portland-cement pastes consumes alkalis, which reduces their availability for expansive
reactions with reactive aggregates. However the amount of fly-ash necessary to prevent
damage due to alkali-aggregate reaction will be more than the optimum amount necessary
for improvement in strength and workability of concrete (ACI 1996). There are substantial
published data to show that low-calcium fly ashes are effective in reducing expansion
caused by alkali-silicon reactions when the fly ashes are used at a replacement level in the
range of 25-30%.
Long-term investigations of concrete in Japan (Abe 1969) indicated that concrete
made with blended cements was subject to more rapid carbonation than normal Portland
cement concrete. Other investigations (Meyer 1969) did not show any appreciable
differences in this regard, provided that the strengths of the concrete being compared were
equal. Ohga and Nagatahi (1989) investigated the effect of replacement ratio of fly ash,
initial curing period in water and air content on the carbonation phenomenon in concrete.
They reported that the carbonation of concrete with fly ash was affected by initial curing
conditions and increased with an increase in the replacement ratio of fly ash.
Several investigations at CANMET indicated that high volume fly ash concrete has
very high resistance to the penetration of chloride ions (Malhotra and Mehta 2002,
Sivasundaram 2004) measured by rapid chloride permeability tests. HVFAC concrete is
very much effective against alkali-aggregate reactivity. However, the performance of this
type of concrete subjected to de-icing salt scaling is relatively poor. Performance of HVFAC
having class F (equivalent to SFA of IS3812) fly ash is good while that with class C
(equivalent to CFA of IS 3812) fly ash is not satisfactory .
30
Design and
construction practice
Voids & Insufficient Inadequate

honeycomb cover & curing
spacing of
reinforcement
Physical Surface wear
process
Abrasion Erosion Cavitation
Cracking
Factors
Affecting Secondary effects
1. Shrinkage
Durability
2. Heat of hydration
Use of high early
strength OPC and/or
very low w/b
Cracks
Voids
Structural loading
Permeability
Environmental effects
1. Freeze & thaw
2. High temperature
Hydrolysis & Delayed hydration of free

Leaching CaO & MgO
Cation exchange Sulphate attack

reactions
Delayed ettringite
Reactions leading to
formation
expansive products
Chemical
process Alkali aggregate reaction
Carbonation
Corrosion of embedded
steel
Alkalinity
In presence of
air & water Chloride attack
Electrical
resistivity
31
HPC with ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS)

Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) is a mineral admixture and could be used, as cement
replacing materials, in concrete composites. As per ASTM C 989(1999) blast-furnace slag is
defined as the non metallic product, consisting essentially of silicates and alumino-silicates of
calcium and other bases that are developed in a molten condition simultaneously with iron in a blast
furnace. Granulated blast furnace slag is the glassy granular material formed when molten blast
furnace slag is rapidly chilled by immersion in water. The GGBS is produced by grinding
granulated slag. Chemically, slag is a mixture of same oxides that make up Portland cement but in
varying proportions. The composition and physical structure of slag depends on the manufacturing
process and the method of cooling. Rapid cooling by water or quenching is necessary to impart
glassy structure. Rapid cooling by water also results in fragmentation of the material into a
granulated form. The critical feature to be checked carefully when using slag is its vitreous state
because its hydration properties are closely related to this feature. Slow air cooled slag is
hydraulically inert and such crystalline slag have mechanical properties similar to basalt and may be
used as aggregates; such slag is not suitable for using it as cement replacing material.
Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) is a mineral admixture and could be used, as cement
replacing materials, in concrete composites. Concrete composites incorporating ground granulated
blast furnace slag (GGBS) as cementitious mineral admixture in high volume, is being increasingly
used in the construction of structures for large projects in many countries. Use of ground granulated
blast furnace slag concrete (GGBSC) has positive effect in disposing GGBS in environmental
friendly way and preserving resources and above all in producing concrete of better quality. Though
use of GGBS in the construction of concrete structures by means of Portland Slag cement is not
uncommon in India, experience of using GGBS concrete in India is few and far between.
Use of GGBS as a mineral admixture in structural concrete is acceptable as per IS 456 (2000). Slag
can be introduced into concrete in one of the following ways.
• Portland slag cement manufactured by intergrinding Portland cement clinker and dry
granulated blast furnace slag.
• Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) may be fed directly into the mixer at the
concrete mixing stage
• Granulated blast furnace slag, ground to an appropriate fineness can be used on its own
but in the presence of an alkali activator as a cementitious material.
32
First approach is commonly used in India. The use of blended cement, known as Portland slag
cement (PSC) in India, is easier, since it is free from the complications of batching additional
materials at the construction site and may ensure more uniform control. The addition of GGBS at
the concrete mixing stage is flexible and allows for more complete exploitation of the qualities of
GGBS as an ingredient of concrete.
India has acquired reasonable experience in using Portland slag cement. But the use of GGBSC, in
India, is few and far between. Data published on the experience in using GGBSC in USA, Canada
and European countries would be useful for this purpose. However, certain studies are required to
assess the suitability of GGBS to be used in concrete in Indian environment using indigenous
materials. Climate in USA, Canada and European countries is such that concrete is often subjected
to freeze-thaw cycles and actions of de-icing chemicals. Use of air-entraining agents is quite
common in such situations. In contrast climates in India are typically hot and humid. Use of air-
entraining admixtures is rare in Indian condition. In addition, ingredients of concrete, available in
India, are not identical to those available in other countries.
The use of GGBS in concrete is bound to increase in India from performance, environmental as
well as economic points of view. Use of GGBS as a separate cementitious material and mixing it in
batching plant may have different implication than incorporating GGBS thorough PSC. The issues
are related to characterization of GGBS, its compatibility with ordinary Portland cement (OPC)
when mixing in concrete mixture, mix design, codal requirements, etc.
Unlike pozzolanic materials like silica fume, fly ash, high reactivity metakaolin, GGBS is a latent
hydraulic material. It produces C-S-H gel after reacting with water. The reaction is accelerated in
presence of CaOH that is produced from the primary hydration of OPC. Concrete composites
produced incorporating GGBS as a separate cementitious material at batching plant is generally
termed as ground granulated blast furnace slag concrete (GGBSC).
Hydration of GGBS in the presence of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) depends largely upon
breakdown and dissolution of the glassy slag structure by hydroxyl ions released during the
hydration of OPC. During hydration of GGBS concrete, the Portland cement component begins to
hydrate first. The GGBS then reacts with alkali hydroxide, this is followed by reaction with calcium
hydroxide released by Portland cement, C-S-H being formed. When GGBS is mixed with OPC, its
glass phase reacts with water, in presence of lime (CH) generated from primary hydration of OPC:
Primary hydration:
OPC (C3S/C2S) +H => C-S-H + CH
Secondary hydration:
GGBS (C2AS/C2MS) + H = C-S-H + S
S + CH + H => C-S-H
33
Beneficial attributes of GGBS based concrete composites are derived mainly from the utilization of
calcium hydroxide generated from the primary hydration. Principal source of weakness of concrete
composites is the presence of calcium hydroxide in the microstructure, especially in the transition
zone of the composites. The silica produced during the hydration of GGBS reacts with the calcium
hydroxides, products of the primary hydration, giving rise to C-S-H gel. This results in both pore
refinement and grain refinement in the concrete composites. These refinements are the reasons for
better performance of GGBS based concrete composite. Use of lesser amount of OPC, lower w/b
ratio, and chemical admixtures also contributes toward this.
The heat of hydration is a major factor affecting the long-term durability of concrete. The effects on
heat of hydration arising from the use of slag as cement replacement in concrete are several.
1) It significantly reduces the maximum temperature rise, the length of time elapsing before the
maximum temperature is reached.
2) There is a marked reduction in temperature rise at higher levels of replacement.
3) The presence of slag reduces not only thermal gradients, but also the strain differentials
associated with them.
4) Slag reduces stresses arising from temperature rise due to heat of hydration and delays the
occurrence of the maximum stress.
5) When present in adequate amount, slag can also eliminate internal micro-cracking.
GGBS concrete are often beneficial from the standpoint of resistance to chemical attack. A denser
microstructure of hydrated cement paste is achieved and this improves long-term strength and
durability. Pore refinement results in a reduction of the volume of large pores (above 300 µm
diameter) which leads to a reduction in chloride penetration and increased resistance to sulphate
ions, sea water and frost action. Expansion due to alkali-aggregate reaction is also decreased with
increased slag content. The very low penetrability of concrete that contains GGBS is effective also
in controlling the alkali-silica reaction. The risk of alkali-silica reaction can be eliminated regardless
of the alkali content of the Portland cement or the reaction of the aggregate. Daube and Bakker have
shown that when the GGBS content is at least 60% by mass of the cementitious material and the
water/cement ratio is 0.50, the diffusion co-efficient of the concrete exposed to chloride ions is at
least ten times smaller than when the cementitious material consists entirely of Portland cement.
Hooton and Emery reported that blended cement containing 50% by mass of GGBS (with 7% of
Al2O3) and Type I Portland cement (with a C3A content of 12%) exhibits the same sulfate resistance
as sulfate-resisting (Type V) current when tested with mortar. The combinations of ground slag and
Portland cement, in which the slag content is greater than 60 to 65%, have high sulphate resistance,
34
always better than Portland cement alone, irrespective of the alumina content of the slag. The low
alumina slag increases the sulphate resistance, independently of the C 3A content of the cement. A
proper air content and bubble spacing are necessary for adequate protection in freezing and thawing
environment. When concrete made with Portland blast furnace slag cement was tested in
comparison with ASTM Type-I and Type-II cements, their resistances to freezing and thawing were
essentially the same.
In structures exposed to the atmosphere, carbonation and concrete resistivity generally control the
corrosion rate. Many tests show that under similar conditions, the resistivity of slag concrete is
some 3 to 4 times higher than that of OPC concrete. The cement type, apart from other factors, is of
paramount importance to the electrical resistivity, and slag concrete has a much higher resistivity, at
early ages as well as at later ages. Because of the small amount of calcium hydroxide present in the
hydrated cement paste, carbon dioxide does not become fixed near the surface of concrete so that
there is no pore blocking formation of calcium carbonate. Consequently, at early ages, the depth of
carbonation is significantly greater than in concrete containing Portland cement only. On the other
hand, low permeability of well cured concrete containing GGBS prevents a continuing increase in
the depth of carbonation. For this reason, except when the GGBS content is very high, there is no
increased risk of corrosion of steel reinforcement through a reduction in the alkalinity of the
hydrated cement paste and depassivation of the steel. The data show that concretes with 65% slag
carbonate more than concretes with 50% slag when exposed to a drying environment. On the other
hand, the results also emphasize the need for a minimum period of 7 days of water curing which
slows down the rate of carbonation with time. As expected, concretes exposed continuously to a
humid environment show no traces of carbonation penetration.
The presence of GGBS in the mix improves workability and makes the mix more mobile and
cohesive. In concrete with constant water cement ratio the slump increased significantly with
increase in cement replacement level by GGBS.
Setting time increases when GGBS replaces a part of the OPC in concrete mix. The degree to which
the time of setting is affected is dependent on the initial temperature of concrete, the proportion of
the blend used, the water-cementitious materials ratio and the characteristics of the OPC .
The heat of hydration is one of the major factors affecting the long term durability of concrete. The
heat of hydration reduces with the use of slag as cement replacement in concrete. This makes
GGBSC more durable.
The initial hydration of GGBS is very slow because it depends upon the break down of the glass by
the hydroxyl ions released during the hydration of the Portland cement. The progressive release of
alkalis by the GGBS, together with the formation of calcium hydroxide by Portland cement, results
35
in a continuing reaction of GGBS over a long period. Thus, there is a long term gain in strength.
Greater fineness of GGBS leads to a better strength development, but only at later ages, because
activation of GGBS must first take place. A greater fineness of Portland cement speeds up the
activation.
The heat of hydration is a major factor affecting the long-term durability of concrete. The effects on
heat of hydration arising from the use of slag as cement replacement in concrete are several. It
significantly reduces the maximum temperature rise, the length of time elapsing before the
maximum temperature is reached.
6) There is a marked reduction in temperature rise at higher levels of replacement.
7) The presence of slag reduces not only thermal gradients, but also the strain differentials
associated with them.
8) Slag reduces stresses arising from temperature rise due to heat of hydration and delays
the occurrence of the maximum stress.
9) When present in adequate amount, slag can also eliminate internal micro-cracking.
GGBS concrete are often beneficial from the standpoint of resistance to chemical attack. A denser
microstructure of hydrated cement paste is achieved and this improves long-term strength and
durability. Pore refinement results in a reduction of the volume of large pores (above 300 µm
diameter) which leads to a reduction in chloride penetration and increased resistance to sulphate
ions, sea water and frost action. Expansion due to alkali-aggregate reaction is also decreased with
increased slag content. The very low penetrability of concrete that contains GGBS is effective also
in controlling the alkali-silica reaction. The risk of alkali-silica reaction can be eliminated regardless
of the alkali content of the Portland cement or the reaction of the aggregate. When the GGBS
content is at least 60% by mass of the cementitious material and the water/cement ratio is 0.50, the
diffusion co-efficient of the concrete exposed to chloride ions is at least ten times smaller than when
the cementitious material consists entirely of Portland cement. Blended cement containing 50% by
mass of GGBS (with 7% of Al2O3) and Type I Portland cement (with a C3A content of 12%)
exhibits the same sulfate resistance as sulfate-resisting (Type V) current when tested with mortar.
The combinations of ground slag (ASTM 1999) and Portland cement, in which the slag content is
greater than 60 to 65%, have high sulphate resistance, always better than Portland cement alone,
irrespective of the alumina content of the slag. The low alumina slag increases the sulphate
resistance, independently of the C3A content of the cement. A proper air content and bubble spacing
are necessary for adequate protection in freezing and thawing environment. When concrete made
with Portland blast furnace slag cement was tested in comparison with ASTM Type-I and Type-II
cements, their resistances to freezing and thawing were essentially the same.
36
In structures exposed to the atmosphere, carbonation and concrete resistivity generally control the
corrosion rate. Many tests show that under similar conditions, the resistivity of slag concrete is
some 3 to 4 times higher than that of OPC concrete. The cement type, apart from other factors, is of
paramount importance to the electrical resistivity, and slag concrete has a much higher resistivity, at
early ages as well as at later ages. Because of the small amount of calcium hydroxide present in the
hydrated cement paste, carbon dioxide does not become fixed near the surface of concrete so that
there is no pore blocking formation of calcium carbonate. Consequently, at early ages, the depth of
carbonation is significantly greater than in concrete containing Portland cement only. On the other
hand, low permeability of well cured concrete containing GGBS prevents a continuing increase in
the depth of carbonation. For this reason, except when the GGBS content is very high, there is no
increased risk of corrosion of steel reinforcement through a reduction in the alkalinity of the
hydrated cement paste and depassivation of the steel. The data show that concretes with 65% slag
carbonate more than concretes with 50% slag when exposed to a drying environment. On the other
hand, the results also emphasize the need for a minimum period of 7 days of water curing which
slows down the rate of carbonation with time. As expected, concretes exposed continuously to a
humid environment show no traces of carbonation penetration ..
37
38

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ADVANCED CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Non linearity of the stress-strain relationship

TYPES OF ELASTIC MODULI

Drying shrinkage and creep

Where 2C = length of hole

HOT WEATHER CONCRETING

HOT WEATHER CONCRETING

COLD WEATHER CONCRETING.

What is cold climate?

The problems of cold weather concreting

Different measures that can be taken while concreting in cold weather:

At temperatures above freezing, it is rarely necessary to heat aggregates. At temperatures below

Plasticizers and super plasticizers

Solid content s of the superplasticizer is

Msol = (s * Mliq) /100 = ( s * Gsup* Vliq) / 100

Mass of water contained in a certain volume of superplasticizer

Vw = Vliq * Gsup * (100-s)/100

= 8.25 * 1.21 * (100 – 40)/100

If d percent is the dosage of the solids of a superplasticizer suggested by a manufacturer to obtain a

Therefore, (s * Mliq) /100= C x d / 100

Transport mechanisms of media causing deterioration

Factors affecting durability

• Design and Construction Practice

Poor construction practices including improper selection of ingredients, manufacturing process,

Chemical reactions leading to expansive products may be

Corrosion of reinforcements in concrete, which is an electro chemical process, may be due to

MINERAL ADMIXTURE BASED CONCRETE COMPOSITE

Typical Chemical Composition of Silica Fume

Fe2 O3 0.6 – 2.5

CaO 0.2 – 0.8

MgO 1.7 – 3.3

Na2O 0.2 – 2.0

Other important parameters

• Conducting concrete of better quality.

PRIMARY REACTION: C3 S + H C- S - H + CH Primary gel + Calcium hydroxide

SECONDARY REACTION: Pozzdan+ CH C- S – H Secondary gel

Voids & Insufficient Inadequate

Abrasion Erosion Cavitation

Hydrolysis & Delayed hydration of free

Cation exchange Sulphate attack

HPC with ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS)

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