CONFIDENTIAL DOCUMENT RISE WITH EDUCATION READING MATERIAL OF WORKSHOP ON .- PACKAGING ONS MUN cD or GODREJ BOYCE LIMITED FEBRUARY 2010WORKSHOP ON PACKAGING INDEX SR. NO. Topics 1 INTRODUCTION TO PACKAGING 2. PAPERS AND PAPER BASED PACKAGING 3. CORRUGATED FIBER BOARD 4 WOOD AND WOODEN CONTAINERS 5. CUSHIONING 6. REINFORCEMENT 7, ‘TESTING 21‘WORKSHOP ON PACKAGING INTRODUCTION TO PACKAGING PART 1 — PACKAGING BASICS INTRODUCTION Prehistoric man — wrapping of uneaten meat in leaves, Goat skin for carriage and storage of water. The packaging needs changed over the period of time as the needs of mankind enhanced. From simple wrapping it changed to the wrapping or containing and storing over a period of time. As time progressed and as trading developed concepts of preservation became important. ‘Some of the earliest packaging materials, which were used, were wood, cloth and paper. The glass bottles were used as replacement for leather and earthenware pots in the Middle East. At one time wood was the most widely used packaging material. Metal as a packaging media came later in the form tinplate during the 2 world war. Today apart from these traditional materials many new plastics has arrived and look for better packaging media at most economical cost is an ongoing process. DEFINITION OF PACKAGING 41. It sells what it protects and protects what it sells. 2. Means of ensuring the safe delivery of product to the ultimate consumer in sound condition at the minimum overall cost. 3. An integral part of the product for cost effective transportation, distribution storage retailing and end use. 4. Means of protecting the product during storage carriage use and display until such times as it is no longer required. 5. Package is a means of delivering the goods in “factory fresh” form to the end- user in the most economical manner. 6 A techno-economic function aimed at minimizing costs of delivery while izing sales (and hence profits) FUNCTIONS OF PACKAGING © Protection © Preservation © Presentation 5 * Identification © Convenience‘WORKSHOP ON PACKAGING © Packaging cost and Company attitude © Packaging laws and Environment issues Teacxace INTEGRAL PART OF "FUNCTIONS, PACKAGE Nir PRODUCTION. PRODUCT CHARACTERISTICS 4 One of the most important factors that one has to consider during the development of the package is the product characteristic. The characteristics of the product include their physical characteristics and their physio-chemical characteristics. While we decide about the package all we need to know is the answer to the question: “How the product can be contained and how can the product get damaged or deteriorate.” The things to be noted are: PHYSICAL STATE OF THE PRODUCT We should understand the general properties of the product such as whether it is solid, liquid or a gas. If the product liquid whether itis viscous or thin. If solid whether it is in the form of powder or it isa solid block. If gas the properties of the gas etc. Its size and shape To determine the dimension and the contour of the package one should know the dimensions of the product and the allowances to be given for inserting the product in the pack. For example ifit is liquid which has a tendency to expand one has to give allowance for the normal expansions during storage and transportation and provide for head space. Its weight and density The weight and density of the product determine the type dimensions and cross- sectional dimensions of the packaging material to be used.‘WORKSHOP ON PACKAGING PACKAGING MATERIAL CHARACTERISTICS In order to protect the product from the various hazards, the packaging materials should have the requisite properties. Also the packaging materials which run on fast automatic and semi-automatic machines should have sufficient strength and other properties to with stand the pressure from these machines. The packaging materials vary from the basi paper and paper products to metals and plastics and combinations of these. Also there are varieties of forms and sizes. Each of these materials have different characteristics and properties. Therefore it is very important to understand the properties and the material characteristics of the various packaging media. PAPER 1. Paper is a hygroscopic material ~ it absorbs moisture in high humid ¢ondition and it looses moisture in dry condition. 2. The mechanical properties of paper Paper Mechanical strength and elongation are generally low. Paper provides stiffness and shape to the pack. Paper offers an excellent printing surface. Many varieties of paper for special application ~ grease proof paper, glassine paper ete. 7. Susceptible to tear and puncture. 8. Eco friendly PLASTICS 1. Variety of materials — each varying in properties. High mechanical strength and high elongation. Plastics in general (with a few exceptions) are not moisture sensitive. influenced by the moisture content of the aay It can be used both in the flexible forms and the rigid forms. Heat sensitive. Can be moulded into shapes through various processing techniques. Itis impermeable to water ingress but not to moisture, The moisture or gas ingress depends on the type of plastics, the thickness of the materials, the atmospheric conditions etc. ex aae 7WORKSHOP ON PACKAGING PAPER & PAPER BASED MATERIALS HISTORY * The paper was first made in China (BC 105) + The Muslims around 950 brought the papermaking to Spain. * 1" publication of books 1450 ‘+ Newspaper publication — Europe 1609 + 1* Paper Mill in Philadelphia 1690 (single sheet production) * The Foundrinier brothers in England patented the continuous paper making development by Mr. Nicholas ~ Louis Robert. * The cylinder type machine was invented by John Dickenson and installed near Philadelphia (1817) PAPER — ITS STRUCTURE The paper and board constitutes almost 60% plus in the total tonnage of packaging materials. The wood and other natural cellulosic fiber containing materials are the basic sources of Paper. Depending upon the source, namely wood or agricultural waste (bagasse, straw, jute) or bamboo, the quality of the constituents mainly cellulose fiber content and characteristics vary. The final quality of paper depends upon the process, the additives and the coating and the purpose of the finished sheet. Wood is made of about 50% cellulose, 30% Lignin and 20% carbohydrates (xylem & mannan) along with resins, gums and tannins. The cross section of wood fibre when enlarged will show an empty space called “LUMEN” followed by layers of fibrils known as Lamella. The lignin is in the middle lamella. The fibrils are made of micro fibrils. These in turn are composed of chains of cellulose molecules (about 3mn in each micro fibril) along with short chain semi cellulose molecules and other polymeric residues. Softwood is the term used for the coniferous or needle bearing trees and has fibre length running up to 6.25mm. Hardwood is the deciduous trees whose fibre length is lesser than the softwood i.e. 2.5mm{max). In view of this, use of hardwood make finer, smoother sheet < with less strength paper compared to softwood. 3 Spiral winding called the cambium layer encloses the z lamellae or layers of fibrils. 9!Chemical Pulp Wood (cooked) pulp + unwanted lignin & carbohydrates separation + chemicals. a) SODA PROCESS (ALKALINE) Wood + Sodium Hydroxide + SODA ASH Generally used with hardwood pulps. b) SULPHATE PROCESS ~ KRAFT PROCESS (ALKALINE) “KRAFT — Higher strength in German” ‘Wood + Sodium Hydroxide + sodium sulfide PULP — BROWN IN COLOUR & DIFFICULT TO BLEACH ©) SULPHITE PROCESS ACID REACTION WOOD + CaHSO3 or MgSO3 + H2S03, Used for softwood processing Semi chemical Pulp Wood soaked in NaOH or Neutral sodium sulfide. (Soften the lignin & carbohydrate). Prot "cess around in disk refiner. This process lower in cost uses primarily hardwood has high lignin retained. Turns yellow when exposed to sunlight Strength & stiffness are good (Hence used as corrugating medium) Stage! PREPARATORY STAGE Stage I! PULPING (DIGESTERS) ae (Mechanical, Chemical & Semi-chemical processes) | Stage Ill (Beatina and / oF Refinina) ‘STOCK PREPARATION (Furnish) Sizing Use of filers Stage lV | SHEET MAKING [_(Fourdrinier machine or Cylinder machine Combination of both) | FinishingWORKSHOP ON PACKAGING 13| large size rolls are replacing a too many smaller size rollers. Surface treatments are applied at times while paper is still on machine (like dipping the paper in starch solution and squeezing between rolls to improve printing and stiffness The paper is passed over stack of chilled rollers to give compactness and smoothness. iHowever excessive calendaring reduces the stiffness. CYLINDER MACHINES: This is used for making heavy grades of paperboard from waste materials with layer of high grade material outside. It consists of a cylinder wire screen wound ‘over a drum. This when revolves inside a vat containing pulp slurry suspension picks up layers of pulp, forms the web on a felt blanket. Several such layers are built up on the felt to make the thickness and this move to the end. The high quality pulp on the top is “top liner” and opposite is back liner. The plies in between are called fillers. INVERFORM: Combination of endless wires of FOURDRINER with multiple head boxes of the cylinder machine.The corrugated medium is often 26 Ib/1000 sq.ft basis weight in the USA; in the UK a 90, gram per square meter fluting paper Is common. At the single-facer, it is heated, moistened, and formed into a fluted pattern on geared wheels. This is joined to a flat linerboard with a starch based adhesive to form single face board. At the double-backer, a second fiat linerboard is adhered to the other side of the fluted medium to form single wall corrugated board. Linerboards are test liners (recycled paper) or kraft paperboard (of various grades). The liner may be bleached white, mottled white, colored, or preprinted. / Common flute sizes are "A", "B", "C", "E" and “F" or micro flute. The letter designation relates to the order that the flutes were invented, not the relative sizes. Flute size refers tothe number of flutes per lineal foot, although the actual flute dimensions for different corrugator manufacturers may vary slightly. Measuring the number of flutes per lineal foot is a more reliable method of identifying flute size than measuring board thickness, which can vary due to manufacturing conditions. The most common flute size in corrugated boxes is "C" flute. Standard US Corrugated Flutes “ Flute Flutes per lineal Flute thickness Flutes per lineal Flute thickness Designation foot (in) meter (mm) Aflute 33+/-3 3/16 108 +/-10 48 Bflute AT +/-3 18 154 +/-10 32 Cflute 394/-3 5/32 128 +/-10 40 Eflute 90 +/-4 ine 295 +/-13 16 F flute 128 +/-4 1/32 420+/-13 08 Corrugated fiberboard can be specified by the construction (single face, singlewall, doublewall, etc), flute size, burst strength, edge crush strength, flat crush, basis weights of components (pounds per thousand square feet, grams per square meter, etc), surface treatments and coatings, etc. TAPP! and ASTM test methods for these are standardized, The choice of corrugated medium, flute size, combining adhesive, and linerboards can be varied to engineer a corrugated board with specific properties to match a wide variety of potential uses. Double and triple-wall corrugated board is also produced for high stacking strength and puncture resistance. 15|WORKSHOP ON PACKAGING ‘What is most seriously considered here is bond ability, needless to say, and the next very important factor is the adaptability to the high speed machine, in terms of viscosity and concentration. Therefore, recently, the basic reforming of starch is studied, to make starch with high concentration and low viscosity. The quantity of corn starch used in ‘our country as an adhesive for corrugated fiberboard is estimated to be about tons, judging from the production of corrugated fiberboard of last year. Considering that it is mostly imported and that it is a kind of foods, it involves various complicated problems. PRESENT SITUATION OF CORRUGATED FIBERBOARD . ‘The base paper used for corrugated fiberboard is purchased by weight, and the corrugated fiberboards produced are sold by area. Therefore the quantity of produced corrugated fiberboard is indicated by area. KINDS OF CORRUGATED FIBERBOARD Corrugated fiberboard with various physical properties can be made by combining the types of flutes. TYPE OF | NUMBER OF | FLUTE HEIGHT | FLUTING RATE FLUTES FLUTES/30CM (mm) Acflute 34 {approx.)4.6 _| (approx.) 1.6 Beflute 50 (approx) 2.5 | (approx.) 1.4 flute 40 (approx.)3.5 | (approx) 1.5, Eflute _|93, (approx) 1.0 | (approx.) 1.1 These flutes are used to make corrugated fiberboard, and the following four kinds of corrugated fiberboard can be made, depending on howto use and how to combine the flutes. - 17|WORISHOP ON PACKAGING 4. Triple-walll corrugated fiberboard A triple-wall corrugated fiberboard has a structure with a double-wall corrugated fiberboard combined with a single-faced corrugated fiberboard as shown in alongside figure and three types of flutes can be used in cémbination, but one type of flutes may be used doubly. Therefore, it is structurally very complicated and very intensified in physical properties, with little directional since lengthwise and crosswise strengths are almost the same. At present, in our country, this is very little used, but in USA, it is often used in combination with pallet and 3kid, for packaging heavy cargoes, as a substitute for wooden box. 5. Top and back side of corrugated fiberboard When a corrugated fiberboard is made in to a box, a beautiful side is brought to the top, The reason is that since a corrugated fiberboard box is normally printed on the surface, the surface must be, needless to say, as smooth and printable as possible to give a larger printing effect. How to distinguish the top of a corrugated fiberboard from the back side will explained below. The production process of corrugated fiberboard includes a single facer and a double facer. Both the production steps are greatly different in function, and therefore the top and backside of a corrugated fiberboard can be naturally classified. 6. Single facer A sectional view of the mechanism for producing a corrugated fiberboard by a single facer Is shown in figure below. A medium passing through a pair of upper and lower corrugating rolls heated to about 180°c gets the water evaporated by the heat and pressure applied at that time and the resin content in the medium is hardened and formed like waves. Immediately after that, the flute tips of the medium are coated with a certain amount of adhesive and are brought into contact with the back side of a linerboard fed in from another source, and both are momentarily heated and presied 19}cee fiberboard. However, in general, since the gluing mechanism is fundamentally different from that of the single facer, the surface of the corrugated fiberboard on the double facer side is flat and is finished to be very printable. Therefore, this side is decided as the top of the corrugated fiberboard, 8. Basic quality of corrugated fiberboard The Core EE mere A essential features of corrugated fiberboard must be fully understood, to effect good corrugated fiberboard packaging. What on earth are the basic physical properties of corrugated fiberboard? The physical properties specified in JIS Z 1516 (Corrugated Fiberboard) are bursting strength and moisture content, and in addition as reference values, edge crush strength valuesare shown. These will be explained below. Moisture With regard to moisture, since paper has hydrophilic groups, it has a nature of being liable to be chemically familiar with water, and absorbs and discharges moisture ‘according to the change of the surrounding. Especially, corrugated fiberboards are surmised to be very sensitive in this regard. The moisture content of corrugated fiberboard cannot be said to be a physical property in a strict sense, but the behaviour of moisture in corrugated fiberboard must be well understood, since otherwise unexpected failures may occur. Since corrugated fiberboard are made of paper, the behaviour of moisture of corrugated fiberboard can be considered to be almost the same as that of paper. In general, if corrugated fiberboard are allowed to stand in the standard condition, viz. at 27°c and 65% RH. for more than 10 hours, they finally contain about 8% of moisture. However, when they are actually used as corrugated fiberboard box, the relative humidity changes always, and especially in the rainy season, it may rise near to 100%. In this case, corrugated fiberboard box absorb much moisture in air, and the moisture content may incrzase to about 18%. That is, it may reach about ‘twice that in the standard condition, ané in this case, the physical properties of the corrugated fiberboard box drop considerably. 21WORKSHOP ON PACKAGING It is, therefore, proposed to discuss various factors that would govern the construction of a functional wooden container. In this small note it would not be possible to cover wooden containers for all classes of commodities, but general guidelines are given which would be helpful in designing a functional container for a particular requirement. Use of shipping containers was comparatively very little prior to the building of railroad and motorable highways. The first type of shipping container to be manufactured was from wood. Timber in those days was so plentiful and cheap that there was a practice to use a few popular species like Teak, Rosewood, Deodar for any purpose where timber was required. Inferior or less known species were ignored. No consideration was given to the wastage of timber at various stages of conversion. Concept of scientific designing of container with a view to achieve maximum strength with minimum material was practically unknown. But now it is essential that more attention also be paid to using lesser timber for different parts of the container and using less known as well as the inferior species of timber. . ‘The basic function of a package is to protect and preserve its contents in factory ~ fresh condition from the manufacture to the consumer. The aspect of protection is of predominant importance in designing of bulk packages. Once the product is packed, the package takes over and it must provide complete and continuing protection against the hazards of rough handling, serve climatic conditions, contamination, tampering, pilferage, etc. The nature of the commodity is a fundamental consideration is designing a container. The type of protection needed to be given to the commodity may vary from very simple to elaborate. Each commodity, therefore, presents its own problem. Neither weight nor distance to be traveled nor method of shipment alone provide an accurate criterion for designing a container. The strength and efficiency of a container depend upon the following factors: Quality of timber Form and size of each component Thickness of sides, top and bottom, ends and battens Size,type and spacing of nails Number of pieces in a shook Types of edge joint 23)The cells of wood in living or freshly felled trees are filled with water. Moreover the cell walls are also soaked with water. The in the cell cavities is called ‘free water’ and that in. the cell wall is called ‘Combined water’. Free water has very little influence on wood other adding to its weights. When timber starts drying, the ‘free water’ is evaporated first. A point is reached during the drying process at which all the ‘ free water’ has evaporated from the cell cavities but the cell walls are yet saturated with water. This point is éalled ‘Fibre saturation point’ For most of the Indian timbers the F.S.P is reached when the moisture content of the timber is 25 to 30%. Wood is hygroscopic. That is, it absorbs moisture from a humid or damp atmosphere. It also allows water to evaporate when the atmosphere is dry. In other words, there is an_unhampered transfer of water between wood and surrounding air, depending upon which is wetter. Effect of Moisture on the Properties of Wood © Weight: The water present in the wood adds to the weight of the wood. This naturally increases the cost of handling and transportation ‘+ Strength: Dry wood is considerably stronger than green wood in all respects expect shock resisting ability and resistance to shear. ‘+ Swelling &Shrinking: Wood dried well below the F.S.P has very little tendancy to swell and shrink due to the humidity changes in the surrounding atmosphere. Most of the shrinkage takes place where the timber crosses the F.S.P. i.e. most of the shrinking takes place between 35% and 25% M.C. © Painting & Glui Wet timber will not take proper painting, glue joints made in wet timber may open due to shrinkage of timber in drying. ‘+ Workmanship & Finish: Dry wood can be plained smoother than green wood. + Impregnability: Dry Wood can be more easily impregnated with wood preservatives than wet wood.WORKSHOP ON PACKAGING Tea chests made from white Cedar are also not suitable as Cedary odour is imparted to tea. Fir and Spruce are suitable for this purpose due to lack of any odour. Flavour of Cigars is supposed to improve if packaged in boxes made from Spanish Cedar. © Weight Weight of timber depends upon its density,moisture content and organic and mineral infiltration deposits in the cell cavities. Weight factor has an important bearing on timber utilization. Normally denser or heavier timber is stronger than lighter timber. Mechanical Properties 1. Strength as a Beam: This property indicates the suitability of species for use as girders, rafters, axles, packages where they are liable to breakage under a bending stress or ‘oad. 2. Shock Resisting Ability and Toughness: This properly indicates the ability of species to absorb shocks and blows. Elasticity: |s a property which enables the timber to regain its original form and dimensions after deformation and in case of bending tests is expressed numerically as” Youngs Modulus”. 4. Compression Strength: Is the ability of timber to withstand compression and resist crushing across the grain or in the direction of the grain. 5. Shear: Failure of timber due to one part sii which causes this failure is called “Shearing Force”. Because of the fibrous nature, wood is not liable to fail by shear across the grain. 1g over the other is called shear and the force 21)oe at such organisms. This can be achieved by chemical treatment of wood. Such a treatment increases the life of a packaging case and protects the contents and thereby reduces the ultimate cost of the product. Methods of Preservation of Timber ‘Timber is generally preserved by any of the following methods: 1. Pressure impregnation Hot and cold treatment Dipping / Brushing, Spraying Pressure impregnation is the best method of preservation of timber as the preservative penetrates deep into the timber. In hot and cold treatment, timber is submerged in boiling. water for 15 minutes and instantly transferred to water soluble fixed’type of presevatives for like period e.g.in (a) or (b) below: The other methods of preservations are prophilactic and afford only temporary surfacial protection against wood destroying organisms. There are various types of wood preservation available and Indian Standards Institution has recommended the undermentioned preservatives for packaging cases. a) Copper chrome arsenic composition 8% water soluble b) Acid cupric chromate composition 12% fixed type ©) Pentrachlorophenol S%Diluted in white sp 4d) Copper naphthenate 10% or superior kerosene e) Zinc naphthenate 20% Oil Form and Size of Each Components The size and shape of each component has a pronounced influence on the strength of a box. It would, therefore, be necessary to choose appropriate sizes and forms of the components in order to fabricate the box having required strength. Thickness of Components 29)ship lap or rabbet, Linderman and cross tongue joints are considered sufficiently strong and used for boxes which have to withstand very rough handling. Such a joint not only affords strength but also eliminates gap between the planks used to make up a shook. Style of Container Since there are different types of loads and nett weights to be carried and since it is. necessary to make the boxes of different styles Indian Standards Institution has recommended various styles of boxes and crates for different types of loads and nett weights. The figures showing different styles of boxes and creates are illustrated at the end where the depth of a box necessitates to have a break of at 40mm. between the joints in the ends and sides. Reinforcements In order to enable the box to withstand the transit hazards, it is further reinforced with fitments like angle and corner plates, steel straps, steel wires. Workmanship Workmanship adopted in manufacturing the boxes plays an important part so far as their serviceability is concerned. The box made out of good quality timber using appropriate sizes of nails and screws, may still fail in use the workmanship of the box is different. Consideration for a Design of the Box The nature, weight ,size and shape of the loads determines the design of the box. Depending upon the characteristics of the contents, the loads have been classified into three groups. Certain loads contribute to the outer containers while others may apply ‘damaging forces on the box from inside. For packaging purposes the loads can be classified into three groups: a) Easy load b) Average load ©) Difficult load Easy Load a 31WORKSHOP ON PACKAGING Knowing the type of load weight of contents, it would be possible to decide upon the proper choice of the style of the container made from appropriate thickness of timber of suitable species. Table-1 Classes of Packaging Cases Thickness of Boards and Battens And Width of Battens / GassA —ClassB Class C Thickness of bottom, top and side boards 20 14 10 Thickness of end boards 20 20 15 Thickness of battens 20 15, 15 Width of battens, 60 60 50 Table S.No. Width of side,top or bottom in cm Max. No. of pieces 12 15, 25 30 36 45 - 60 NouUswne Noausuene Table Recommended size of Round steel, Wire Nails by Wood Thickness and wood Species Group and Thickness of Ends or Cleats to which sides, and bottom are nailed in mm. Species Thickness(in mm) of ends or cleats 33)‘WORKSHOP ON PACKAGING Easy & Average Difficult Group of loads load Timber (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Upto 25 kg, c 1 2a) mu ‘Over 25 Upto 50 8 2la) 2(0) W / ‘Over 50 Upto 100 8 2(b) 3a) 0 ‘Over 100 Upto 150 A 3(a) 3(b) 1 ‘Over 150 Upto 250 A 3a) 3(b) 1 Table -VI Size of Frame Members for Different Classes of Crates a Type of Member _Size in mm*mm for creates of Class A 8 c D E (a) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Edge members 50°16 75°16 75*16 75*20 115*2 Diagonal braces Surrounding members Struts 50°16 75*16 100*16 115*16 140°16 Table - Vil Weight of Contents and Class of Crate Weight of Contents Class of Create for type of load Difficult load Easy load and averageload- SSS (a) (2) (3) Upto 25kg A . 8 Over 25 to 50 8B c 35]WORKSHOP ON PACKAGING Over 50.upto 100 3,5&5 4 4 5 50°19 Over 100 Upto 150 4,586 5 5 6 63"19 Over 150 upto 250 6&7 6 8 9 75925 73 Table 1X Size and Spacing of Nails for Assembling Cases ‘Sizes oF Batten ‘Size of Nail ‘Spacing oF Nails Width *Thickness Length Diameter Centre to Centre mm*mm mm. mm cm 38°12 38 2.00 38°16 38 2.24 . 50°19 50 2.80 10 63719 63 2.80 75°25 75 3.15 78 ‘Timber Species Suitable for the Manufacture of Packing Cases Group |: Timber Weighing 640 kg/m3 and over at 12% Moisture content Botanical Name ‘Trade Name Acrocarpus fraxinifolius Mundani Adina Cordifolia halda Albizzia lebbeck Kokko Albizzia procera safed -siris Bischofia javanica Uriam Calophyllum Sp. Poon Canarium Strictum White dhup : Celtis australis, Celtis 37rcnomoatace Garuga pinata Gmelina arborea Hardwickia pinata Holarrhena antidysenterica Holoptelea integrifolia Hymenodictyon exceisum Kanema attenusta Largerstromia Kypoleuca Largerstroemia speciosa Lannoea coromandelica Machilus maccantha Melia azedarach Michelia sp. Phoebe sp. *Picea smithana *Pinus insularis *pinus roxburghii Pinus Wallichiana Peterospermum acerifolium Pterygota alata Spium baccatum Shorea assamica Sideroxylon longopetiolatum Terminalia myriocarpa Terminalia procera Varteria garuga Gamari pinev kurchi kanju kuthan jathikai pyinama jarul/ ihingan machilus Persian lilac Bonsum Spruce Khasi pipe chir kali Hathipaila narikel seleng makai lambapatti hollock white bombwe cellapine Group III: Timbers weighing less than 480kg/m'3 at 12% Moisture Content Botanical Name Abies pindrow Ailanthus excelsa inthus sp. Albizia chinansia Alstonia cholaris Antiaris toxicaria 39) Trade Name fir maharukh Gokul siris chatian upasWORESHOP ON PACKAGING CUSHIONING IN PACKAGING |. INTRODUCTION It.comes as no surprise to most of us that products will experience higher levels of shock and vibration in the distribution environment than they are capable of withstanding without some help. This “help” is referred to as a protective package system, which normally uses some type of cushion material to do its job. Cushion materials are rated according to their ability to provide the necessary Protection in terms of inputs such as shock (impact) or vibration. For shock or impacts, this information normally takes the form of a cushion curve which describes the amount of deceleration transmitted through a given thickness of material for a given drop height. For vibration, the information normally consists of resonant frequency plots which describe the spring characteristics of cushion materials when loaded at various levels. The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate the concepts and techniques by which cushion materials are evaluated and the information presented to those who must use it in a package design situation. A wide variety of cushion types are available, including the plastic foam materials, corrugated and paper crushable materials, air cells of various sorts, flexible membranes, and a wide variety of other cushions. Techniques for developing cushion response data for both shock and vibration input will be covered. ‘The advantages and disadvantages of each method of presentation will also be highlighted. |, TERMINOLOGY Certain specific terms will be used throughout this paper and a working knowledge of exactly what is meant by each one is necessary for a complete understanding of the topic area. The terminology list is contained in Appendix |. Il. BASIC SPRING DYNAMICS Cushion materials can be described as mechanical springs or isolators used to mitigate the effects of shock and vibration on a product. Most people are familiar with the springs used on automobiles which essentially cushion or mitigate the vibration and shock inputs from the road to the passenger cavity resulting in a much smoother and more comfortable ride. In this same way, a cushion material is anything interposed 41)WORKSHOP ON PACKAGING : fi F F ki F i =a mst ree LINEAR HARDENING SOFTENING (vertical Tangent Elasticity) (Hyperaolie Tangent Elasticity) (CREEP f ‘Compressive creep is defined as the change in thickness of a cushion under a constant static load over a long period of time. All springs, regardless of their shape or material, will gradually compress under a long-term exposure to a constant load. Worn-out bedsprings and rear ends of cars that sag excessively are examples in everyday life of static and dynamic creep. This characteristic is important to package designers as cushion materials are normally designed close to the creep limit in order to be effective and efficient in the use of materials. NATURAL OR RESONANT FREQUENCY All spring/mass systems display a characteristic known as resonance, wherein the response of a mass mounted on a spring to a vibratory input is greater than the input itself. For a totally undamped system, this response level can reach infinite proportions. Real world systems, however, all have some level of damping built into them which limit the excursion. This damping is a measure of the transmissibility of the vibration response at resonance. These characteristics are graphically displayed in Figures 3 and 4. ass IV. CUSHION CURVES 43|information on the transmitted deceleration levels in a package design situation. In fact, that may not be the case. Most cushion test standards such as ASTM D1596 (the one most widely used for commercially available materials) were originally intended to Provide information to compare cushion materials to one another in a controlled situation rather than to provide ‘data for package design. This may seem like an insignificant difference, but when the data is used for a protective package design, the end result may be very different from the anticipated result. Consider, for example, how the various tests are conducted. ASTM D1596 procedure uses a test machine with a guided platen that has provisions for adding weights and an accelerometer to the platen to measure the level of deceleration experienced at impact. The machine is equipped with a velocity indicator so that the proper impact velocity can be determined and with rebound brakes to prevent multiple impacts on the cushion. Five impacts are conducted at each static stress loading, and a new specimen is used for each loading level. The important feature of the test procedure is the fact that a guided falling dlaten impacts a cushion specimen resting on the rigid base plate of the machine. The deceleration level at impact is monitored on the platen. Regarding the use of the data for design purposes, the standard cautions that "...data obtained are applicable to the cushioned and not necessarily the same as obtained in completed packs." (1) Earlier versions of this standard contained wording to the effect that data obtained were useful in comparing cushion materials to one another rather than for use in package design applications. The enclosed test block method conducted according to ASTM D4168 (2) is a procedure intended for testing of foam-in-place cushion materials and requires that the test block be surrounded by the cushion material and the entire assembly placed in a corrugated container. The container, with a test block, is then dropped from a known height onto a rigid surface. The deceleration transmitted through the cushion is monitored by an accelerometer mounted inside the test block. (See Figure 6 for more details.) Various modit tions of a this test setup are known to exist for testing of other than foam-in-place - | materials. Oftentimes, the block is modified to 45|\V. VIBRATION RESPONSE OF CUSHION MATERIALS The vibration performance characteristics of cushion materials are determined by subjecting them to vibrational inputs covering the frequency range typical of the distribution environment. In this case, the cushion and a test block form a spring/mass system which display resonant frequency characteristics important to the package design process. The test setup to produce the data is shown in Figures 7 through 10. The mass of the test block is changed in ordey to vary the static stress loading on the cushion material, and the test Is repeated. Various transmissibility plots are obtained in this fashion. A total of five vibrational sweeps are recommended in order to construct the amplification/attenuation (A/A) plot shown in Figure 10. The amplification/attenuation plot displays frequency on the vertical axis and static stress (loading) on the horizontal axis. The center portion is that combination of frequency and loading that results in amplification of vibrational input. This is reférred to as the amplification zone. At lower static stress loadings and frequencies, there is a zone where the response input ratio is approximately one. This is the unity zone where the cushion material neither amplifies nor attenuates vibration input. At higher frequencies and loadings, the cushion material will attenuate (reduce) vibration input. This are is referred to as the attenuation zone. The plot in Figure 10 may be interpreted as follows: For a given frequency, the lower static stress loadings result in the same acceleration transmitted to the product as the input. In other words, response/input ratio is approximately 1. As the static loading level increases, there is a range in which the cushion material amplifies vibration input. At higher loading levels, the cushion material attenuates vibration input. That is, the response/input ratio is less than 1. IN‘At the present time there is no recognized standard governing the procedure for running cushion vibration tests. Much of the data currently published such as that in MIL Handbook 3048. (4) were produced using the fixture method. This fixture is a device for restraining a test block in two axes while allowing it to move freely in the vertical axis. The cushion sample is placed above and below the block, and the entire fixture is mounted to the table of a suitable vibration test machine. A minimum of five vibration sweeps are conducted at different static loading levels in order to determine the response characteristics. ‘The enclosed test block method for determining vibration response characteristics is similar to that described in Section IV. In this case, however, the enclosed test block is placed in a container with a cushion sample above and below it. The container is fastened to the table of the vibration test machine and subjected to the same frequency sweep previously described. The result is a resonant frequency plot for that static ioading. P Static loading levels are changed by means of adding weight to the enclosed test block. New resonant frequency plots are conducted at various loadings resulting in a family of in Figure 10. Some use: of cushion material, particularly in floating deck crate designs, utilize the cushion as both a tension and compression spring. In this case, the data generated with a fixture or enclosed test block is not appropriate. Data for floater deck designs can be best obtained by modeling the floating deck with a plywood base and a top on a platen both adhered to different surfaces of the cushion material. The bottom platen is secured to the vibration test machine, and the top platen is used for applying ballast weights in order to change the static stress loading on the cushion curves such as that show! The vibration sweeps are conducted as previously described and the resulting transmissibility plots are converted to an amplification/attenuation (A/A) plot. (See Figure 7.) It's important to recognize again that the method of conducting the test has a significant influence on the data and its usefulness for design purposes. For example, designing floating deck cushions using compression data only from enclosed test block vibration procedures will be very misleading. In a similar way, designing endcsps for a vibration sensitive product using the tensile/compression method for floater deck designs will be very misleading. The package desigiter must be cognizant of the method used to generate the data in order to have effective design results. PAGE ASB. Be certain that the ballast weights are securely held to the test block and do not rattle during an impact. Loose weights or other loose components on the enclosed test block cause transience or high frequency impacts that may require filtering of the response waveform. The most accurate data comes from unfiltered waveforms, and therefore, the most rigid or solid mass results in the best possible data, . When using the ASTM 01596 procedure with a guided platen, make sure that the platen and the impact surface are exactly parallel. This can be accomplished by slowly lowering the platen to the impact surface without a cushion sample in place. The two surfaces must meet exactly parallel. In order to determine if the platen and the cushion sample meet the required specifications, it is sometimes instructive to put two accelerometers on the platen; one near each guide rod. Any deviation of the waveform from one accelerometer to the other would indicate a non-parallel condition of the platen at impact, and this must be corrected before data is generated. D. For cushion materials that function at high static stress loadings or those that are relatively thin, the enclosed test block method with a corrugated shipping container around the mass and the cushion may not be appropriate. The reason for this is that the corrugated material in the shipping container will itself function as a cushion under the right conditions. This will result in erroneous readings and ones that are not reproducible in a package design situation. In cases like this, the use of a plywood or ather rigid container may be appropriate for the exterior dropping mechanism. When using a rigid exterior container, great care must be exercised to make sure that the impact is exactly flat on the base of the drop test machine. E. The use of a shock test machine in place of a freefall drop tester may be desirable in situations where the cushion is relatively thin or the loading is relatively high. The shock machine should be set to produce a 2 msec half sine shock pulse with a velocity change equal to the impact velocity from the freefall drop height being considered. For example, 2 24-inch freefall drop can be simulated by a velocity change equal to 136 in/sec, which is equal to the impact velocity from a 24-inch drop height. It is important that the duration of the shock pulse be relatively short in relation to the duration of the cushioned response of the system being tested. A new ASTM standard about to be released gives further guidelines for use of the shock machine in place of a freefall drop tester. During a recent test of molded paper pulp corner cushions, Westpak found the use of the shock test machine invaluable in producing repeatable and accurate results. Total thickness of the cushion material was approximately .75 inches. (5) pase 51.For shock performance testing, fiat impacts are generally used with the deceleration transmitted through the cushion measured by one or more accelerometers mounted on the product. Westpak recommends 3 accelerometers, one for each axis. The test procedure should be that previously agreed to, but in most cases will follow closely ASTM D775 (7) or similar procedures. Take care to ensure flat impacts. This is important! The difference between a flat drop and an “almost flat" drop can be very drastic in terms of response deceleration. Using 3 accelerometers can help determine if the impact was flat. It is also important that the monitored location (where the accelerometer is mounted) be as rigid as possible and ideally as close to the product/cushion interface as possible. The reason is to determine the package input deceleration, not the product response characteristics. In many cases these are difficult to separate. If the product were a solid uniform mass it probably wouldn't make any difference where the accelerometer was located; the input from the cushion would be identical to the response of the mass. However, most products have suspended masses and other components which will be ‘excited or put into motion by a shock input. The response of these various suspended ‘components can cause such things as "chattering" or high frequency noise on the response waveform (see Figure 11) Often the response acceleration peak is well above the input of the cushion. For example, a primary cushion response waveform may have a peak of 40 G's with superimposed high frequency on top of it which may double that number. It is important to be able to separate these two by identifying the difference between package input and product response. HIGH FREQUENCY "NOISE" ON [RESPONSE WAVEFORM (LEFT), FILTERED (RIGHT) pace 53mistaken for a vibration test. Variable frequency sine testing or random vibration is the only way to test for package natural frequency and product vibration attenuation. If the package system meets all its requirements, then the job is finished. If not, further package system refinements are necessary. X. CONCLUSIONS All cushion systems work in the same way; they trade a high peak short duration shock ise for a longer duration lower peak shock pulse (See Figure 12). The longer duration ‘depends on the deflection of the cushion. This deflection can be the result of ‘compression, shear, flexure, or other motion of the material. In all cases, the results are the same, namely, the material must "give" in order to change the shape of the acceleration vs. time pulse delivered to the product. The nature of this deflection is predicted by a series of simple physical formulas. Also, the relationship of the variables involved in dynamic package response is straightforward and once it is understood by the designer, it can be of great help in optimizing cushion systems. It is likely that package design and testing will become more technical in the future, However, the increased sophistication will simply involve adaptations of a few basic techniques explored in this paper. The designer is encouraged to learn why and how cushion materials do their job and to use this information to design better package systems. pace SS,FIG1 STRENGTH The strength of the strapping materials is measured in two ways. Break strength and tensile strength. Steel strapping has much higher break and tensile strength than the strongest plastic strapping material. If a package or load is heavy enough to require a strapping with great strength and if it is strong enough to withstand the application of strapping at high tension, steel strapping is often the best selection. On the other if a package is not heavy and strong one of the plastic strapping material will probably render effective protection. However, given the relatively small difference among the plastic materials, other criteria must be examined before selecting the proper strapping material. WORKING RANGE Working range can be defined as the range of applied tension. The minimum will be virtual be zero on a fragile package and the maximum is the highest tension level in which strapping is applied in actual conditions. It is within the working range that the strapping does all its work securing its package or load. Although impact during shipping or transit may sometimes subject strapping to tensions above the working range, the package itself, not the strapping usually fails under such con ions. pace 5760- deg C indicates that NO effect is seen on the retained tension of steel strapping but it reduces the retained tension of Polyester and nylon strapping by nearly 50% . The PP strapping retain about 25% of its tension under similar conditions. In addition if a high humidity is present it has an adverse effect on the retained tension of nylon strapping but not on that of steel , Polyester and PP. If a rigid (non compressible) package or load requires maximum retained tension to provide sufficient protection then steel strapping is the best choice followed by PET and Nylon. However most light packages require only limited amounts of retained tension to preserve their integrity and PP strapping is often adequate. ELONGATION & RECOVERY Vibration, Handling and elapsed time, temperature and humidity cause many types of packages to shrink and settle. All three plastic strapping materials elongate, under tension and and seek to recover a part of the elongation as stress is relieved. Elongation recovery enables plastic strapping to contract as the package load shrinks. In contrast to ible amount but exhibits the three plastic materials, stee! strapping elongates negli 100% recovery. FIG 4 FIGS FIG6 FIG7 Pace 59Knowledge of the characteristics of the packages and load is essential for the appropriate selection of the strapping. Loads and packages acan be divided into 5 basic categories RIGID : Rigid (Non Compressible) loads undergo few dimensional changes during strapping handling shipping and storage. Unitized Steel plates or bricks are good examples. EXPANDING : Circumference of a expanding load decreases when strapping is applied under tension. Cotton Bales are examples / SHRINKING : Shrinking loads settle or shift after strapping. Green Lumber , because it dries after its strapping, is an example. COMPRESSIBLE :Bundles of Newspaper and telescoping cartons filled with apparel are strapped while under compression. Compressible loads rebound some what when compression is removed. COMBINATION: A combination of a load compresses on strapping and expands following compression. The load shrinks when other loads are stacked on top of it and rebounds after the weight is removed. Corrugated sheets are example. In addition other factors must be considered before choosing a strapping material. All packages and loads must be evaluated in terms of its shape, contour weight stability band methods of handling and storage. When all variables are determined a strapping selection can be made can be made on then basis of the afore mentioned characteristics. A choice of the right type of strapping material for a particular load requires specialized knowledge. APPLICATIONS Although careful professional examination of a application is always recommended some genel guidelines can help to define the most common uses of four types of strapping material. STEEL ; is commonly used to unitize very heavy loads or bracing loads inside a railway wagon, trailers and overseas containers. Steel strapping is seldom used for shrinking loads but it has the strength to hold highly compressed loads and is a frequent choice for unitizing rigid loads. In fact steel strapping is used where high strength and high pace 61Crimp-Type Seal Joint ‘A method of joining two ends of steel strapping by applying Joint pressure to a seal resulting in indentation in both the seal and the strapping. Notch-Type Joint ‘A method of joining two ends of steel strapping by applying pressure to a cut seal resulting in indentations which actually cut both the seal and the strapping. the cost of strapping materials. In equal sizes PP is the least costly. Followed by PET nylon and steel. Simple material cost does not take performance in to consideration. In the end the most economical strapping material is the one that produces the highest cost- benefit ratio that is the best performance at lowest cost. FOR SELECTING SPECIFICATION FOR STEEL STRAPS AND THEIR NUMBERS Gross Weight of Pack = Strength of Strap Number of straps TABLE 1 Pace 63and Lacquer coating is done to prevent corrosion. Obviously they would be more expensive. Uncoated is sometimes coated with a layer of wax for ease of operation. The waxing helps the two layers to slide over each other in the process of tensioning operation. Flat strapping is also available as “NAIL-ON” or “NAILLESSS” applications. As the name suggests NAIL-ON is nailed to wooden case and does not sealing / crimping, NAILLESS requires sealing / crimping. © ROUND often termed as WIRE By nature of the design ( round) its is economical. Round wire is furnished bare or galvanized.and because of the type of application there is no need for wax coating on the surface. In case of wire, it does not slide over the surface of another wire. o OVAL Itis a new introduction which has benefits of round and flat bundled into one. It brings in some part of the economics of round and some part of the strength characteristics of the flat strap. This is not in popular use 7 EFFECT OF STRAPPING The contribution of reinforcing materials in shipment has been developed over a period of time by continuous research. An example of the value of steel strapping in reducing the cost of wooden cases is given below. When the wooden case is provided with one or more metal straps, the sides , top, and bopttom may be reduced in thickness by 20% for one strap and by 35% for two or more straps except that no thickness below % "can be suggested. For Corrugated boxes similar no clear cut reduction is specified , but the next lower combination could be tried. In many cases the reinforcement is used as an ADDITIONAL STRENGTH and no reduction on the packaging is done. ‘A-comprehensive analysis of oil can packaging for export disclosed that © UNREINFORCED weatherproof CFB sustained an average of 30 falls in revolving drum test © SINGLE GIRTHWISE strapped box sustained 45 drops The above study cannot be applied for all products as the relationships vary. PAGE 6STESTING WHAT IS TESTING? Itis the technique of evaluation of the product/item quantitatively / qualitatively for the specified characteristics as per preset specifications. This process of evaluation is called Testing and the equipment used in this process of evaluation is called Testing Equipment. FUNCTIONS OF A PACKAGE / PACKAGING MATERIAL * Contain Products. ‘+ Protection Product ‘* Maintain shelf — appeal on sales counter. * Protection against leakage / pilferage. ‘Prevent damage in transit/distribution, * User — friendly dispensing. * Ease of Recycling (Environment Friendly) MAIN CATEGORIES OF PACKAGING MATERIALS ‘+ Paper ~ Board ~ Coorugated Board / Boxes © Metal ~ Containers * Glass Containers ‘+ Plastics ~ Laminates and Containers + Wood ~ Cases & Crates + Anda different combinations of above The scope of this workshop being Corrugated boxes we will restrict ourselves to the same. ‘SPECIFICATION (STANDARDS) The packaging materials are designed, manufactured and used based on Two Major Specifications: ‘© Material Specifications (Standard) © Performance Specifications (Standard) pace 67STANDARD TESTING PROCEDURES The details are given in Standard Manual for Laboratory Grammage: The paper density of a type of paper or cardboard is the mass of the product per unit of area. The term density here is used somewhat incorrectly, as density is mass by volume. More precisely, “paper defsity" is a measure of the area density. ‘Two ways of expressing paper density are commonly used: Expressed in grams per square meter (g/m*), paper density is also known as Grammage."! This is the measure used in most parts of the world. In the metric system, the density of all types of paper and paperboard is expressed in terms of grams per square meter (g/m?). This quantity is commonly called Grammage in both English and French (ISO 536), though printers in most English-speaking countries still refer to the "weight" of paper. Typical office paper has 80 g/m?, therefore a typical Ad sheet ('/;; m*) weighs 5 g. The unofficial unit symbol "gsm" instead of the standard "g/m?" is also widely encountered in English speaking countries. While paper is measured by weight, card is measured by thickness. Bursting Strength Bursting strength tells how much pressure paper can tolerate before rupture. It is important for bag paper. Bursting strength is measured as the maximum hydrostatic pressure required to rupture the sample by constantly increasing the pressure applied through a rubber diaphragm ‘on 1.20 - inch diameter (30.5 mm) sample. The standards procedure is described in TAPPIT 403. Bursting strength depends on basis weight of paper. To normalized the bursting strength for various paper, bursting strength is reported as Burst Index = Bursting Strength (kPa)/Grammage (g/m?) or Burst Factor = Bursting Strength (g/cm’)/ Grammage (g/m’) or Burst Ratio = Bursting Strength (Ib/inch*)/ Basis Weight (Ibs/ream) pace 69Edge Crust Test: Corrugated-board test to determine the force that will crush a standard size of board standing on an edge. ECT indicates the probable compression strength of the container made from the board. See also Mullen burst test Compression A compression test determines behavior of materials under crushing loads. The specimen is compressed and deformation at various loads is recorded. Compressive stress and strain are calculated and plotted as a stress-strain diagram which is used to determine elastic limit, proportional limit, yield point, yield strength and, for some materials, compressive strength. ‘The reduction in thickness under compressive forces or pressure. It influences the ability of paper to change its surface contour and to conform to and make contact with the printing plate or blanket during printing impression. This is highly relevant in gravure and letterpress printing. Compressibility is measured as a ratio of roughness under two different standard pressures in a Parker Print Surf tester. PAGEL