TABLE OF CONTENTS

CONTENT PAGE
Abstract and Summary
Introduction
Aim and Objectives
Theory
Apparatus
Procedure
Result
Calculation
Discussion
Conclusion
Recommendations
Appendices
1.0 ABSTRACT

SOLTEQ® Flowmeter Measurement Apparatus (Model: FM101) is designed to measure a flow of

an incompressible fluid. From this experiment, we were intended to find the flow rate measurement with
comparison of pressure drop by utilizing three basic types of flow measuring techniques which is from the
rotameter, venturi meter and orifice meter. Meanwhile, the loss coefficient when fluid flows through a
90◦ elbow can be determined by measuring flow rate on manometers. Actual flow rates for the water is
determined by using volumetric calculation from the time taken for the water to reach until 3L for each
experiment. We could compare the flow rates of the flowmeter by plotting graphs from the results
obtained. It shows that venturi meter is more accurate compare to orifice meter which the flow rates of
venturi meter is closer to the actual value of the flow rates. Overall, our experiment was successfully done
because we has achieved the objective of the experiment.
2.0 INTRODUCTION

SOLTEQ® Flowmeter Measurement Apparatus (Model: FM101) apparatus is designed to operate

together with a basic hydraulic bench or a water supply. This enables students to familiarize themselves
with typical methods of flow measurement of an incompressible fluid.

This apparatus will allow students to compare between different types of flow measurement devices,
namely by using a venturi device, orifice device and rotameter. The data obtained can be further used to
compare against measurement obtained from the hydraulics bench.

Other feature of the flow apparatus includes a 90 degree elbow with pressure tappings at both sides of
the elbow curve. This feature allows students to calculate the total head loss and loss coefficient when
fluid flows through the 90 degrees elbow.

In short, the apparatus allows the following experiment to be carried out:

a) Comparing the flow measurement using venture meter, orifice meter, rotameter and bench.
b) Determination of total head loss and loss coefficient of fluid flow through a 90 degree elbow.
c) Comparison of pressure drop against each device.
3.0 OBJECTIVE

1) To obtain the flow rate measurement with comparison of pressure drop by utilizing three basic
types of flow measuring technique which are venturi meter, orifice meter and rotameter.
2) To investigate the loss coefficient of fluid flow through 90 degree elbow.
3) To determine the total head loss of fluid flow.
4) To verify experimentally the validity of Bernoulli’s equation for fluid flow.
4.0 THEORY

SOLTEQ® Flowmeter Measurement Apparatus (Model: FM101) apparatus is designed to operate

together with a basic hydraulic bench or any water supply. It is equipped with a few measurement devices
namely venturi meter, orifice meter and rotameter.

Venturi Meter

Figure 1: Venturi Meter

The venturi meter consists of a venturi tube and a suitable differential pressure gauge connected
to a manometer. The venturi tube has a converging portion, a throat and a diverging portion as shown in
the figure below. The function of the converging portion is to increase the velocity of the fluid and lower
its static pressure. A pressure difference between inlet and throat is thus developed, where pressure
difference is correlated with the rate of discharge. The diverging cone serves to change the area of the
stream back to the entrance area and convert velocity head into pressure head.

Assume incompressible flow and no frictional losses, from Bernoulli’s Equation

𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (1)
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔

Use of the continuity Equation Q = A1V1 = A2V2, equation (1) becomes

𝑃1 −𝑃2 𝑉2 𝐴 2
𝛾
+ 𝑍1 − 𝑍2 =
2𝑔
[1 − (𝐴2 ) ] … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (2)
1
 Ideal

1 1
𝐴2 2 −2 𝑃1 −𝑃2 2
𝑄 = 𝐴2 𝑉2 = 𝐴2 [1 − ( ) ] [2𝑔 ( + 𝑍1 + 𝑍2 )] … … … … … … … … . . . . (3)
𝐴 1 𝛾

However, in the case of real fluid flow, the flow rate will be expected to be less than that given by
equation (2) because of frictional effects and consequent head loss between inlet and throat. In metering
practice, this non-ideality is accounted by insertion of an experimentally determined coefficient, Cd,
termed as the coefficient of discharge. With Z1 = Z2, equation (3) becomes

1 1
−
𝐴2 2 2 𝑃1 −𝑃2 2
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 × 𝐴2 [1 − ( ) ] [2𝑔 ( )] … … … … … … … … … . (4)
𝐴 1 𝛾

Hence,

1 1
2 −2
𝐴𝑡 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 2
𝑞 = 𝐶𝑑 × 𝐴𝑡 [1 − ( ) ] [2𝑔 ( )]
𝐴 𝜌

Where,

Cd = Coefficient of discharge (0.98)

D2 = Throat diameter = 16 mm

D1 = Inlet diameter = 26 mm

At = Throat area = 2.011 x 10-4 m2

A = Inlet area = 5.309 x 10-4 m2

g = 9.81 m/s2

ρ = Density of water = 1000 kg/m3

P1 = Inlet pressure (Pa)

P2 = Throat pressure (Pa)

Venturi Meter

The orifice device used as a metering device in a pipeline consists of a concentric square-edged
circular hole in a thin plate, which is clamped between the flanges of the pipe as shown in the figure
below.

Figure 2: Orifice Meter

Pressure connections for attaching separate pressure gauges are made at holes in the pipe walls
on both side of the orifice plate. The downstream pressure tap is placed at the minimum pressure position,
which is assumed to be at the vena contracta. The centre of the inlet pressure tap is located between one-
half and two pipe diameters from the upstream side of the orifice plate, usually a distance of one pipe
diameter is employed. Equation (4) for the venturi meter can also be applied to the orifice meter where

1 1
−
𝐴2 2 2 𝑃1 −𝑃2 2
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 × 𝐴2 [1 − ( ) ] [2𝑔 ( )] … … … … … … … … . (4)
𝐴 1 𝛾
 The coefficient of discharge, Cd in the case of the orifice meter will be different from that for the

case of a venturi meter.

1
2 −2 1
𝐴𝑡
𝑞 = 𝐶𝑑 × 𝐴𝑡 [1 − ( ) ] [2𝑔(ℎ𝑔 − ℎℎ )]2
𝐴

Where,
Cd = Coefficient of discharge (0.63)

Dg = Orifice diameter = 16 mm

Dh = Orifice upstream diameter = 26 mm

At = Orifice area = 2.011 x 10-4 m2

A = Orifice upstream area = 5.309 x 10-4 m2

(hg – hh) = Pressure difference across orifice (m)

Rotameter
The rotameter is a flow meter in which a rotating free float is the indicating element. Basically, a
rotameter consists of a transparent tapered vertical tube through which fluid flow upward. Within the
tube is placed a freely suspended “float” of pump-bob shape. When there is no flow, the float rests on a
stop at the bottom end. As flow commences, the float rises until upward and buoyancy forces on it are
balanced by its weight. The float rises only a short distance if the rate of flow is small, and vice versa. The
points of equilibrium can be noted as a function of flow rate. With a well-calibrated marked glass tube,
the level of the float becomes a direct measure of flow rate.

Figure 3: Rotameter
90o ELBOW

Figure below shows fluid flowing in a pipeline where there is some pipe fitting such as bend or
valve, and change in pipe diameter. Included in the figure is the variation of piezometric head along the
pipe run, as would be shown by numerous pressure tappings at the pipe wall.

Figure 4: Piezometric head along a pipeline

If the upstream and downstream lines of linear friction gradient are extrapolated to the plane of
fitting, a loss of piezometric head, h, due to the fitting is found. By introducing the velocity heads in the
upstream and downstream runs of pipe, total head loss, H can be determined in which

𝑉12 𝑉22
∆𝐻 = ∆ℎ + − … … … … … … … … … . . … … … … . (6)
2𝑔 2𝑔

Energy losses are proportional to the velocity head of the fluid as it flows around an elbow,
through an enlargement or contraction of the flow section, or through a valve. Experimental values for
energy losses are usually expressed in terms of a dimensionless loss coefficient K, where

∆𝐻 ∆𝐻
𝐾= or 𝐾= … … … … … … … … … … … … (7)
𝑉12 ⁄2𝑔 𝑉22 ⁄2𝑔
 For results of better accuracy, long sections of straight pipe are required to establish with
certainty the relative positions of the linear sections of the piezometric lines. However, in a compact
apparatus as described in this manual, only two piezometers are used, one placed upstream and the
other downstream of the fitting, at sufficient distances as to avoid severe disturbances. These
piezometers measure the piezometric head loss, h’ between the tapping. Thus

𝛥ℎ = 𝛥ℎ’ − 𝛥ℎ𝑓 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (8)

𝐿 𝑉2
Where ∆ℎ𝑓 = 4𝑓 ( ) ( )
𝐷 2𝑔

∆ℎ𝑓 = friction head loss which would be incurred in fully developed flow along the

run of pipe between the piezometer tappings.

f = friction factor

L = distance between the piezometer, measured along the pipe center line

D = pipe diameter

V = average velocity of fluid flow in pipe

The friction head loss is estimated by choosing a suitable value of friction factor, f for fully
developed flow along a smooth pipe. The method used in this manual to determine the friction factor is
the Prandtl equation

1
= 4 log 𝑅𝑒 √𝑓 − 0.4
√𝑓

Typical values derived from this equation are tabulated in the table below:

Re,( x 104) 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5

F, (x 10-3) 9.27 7.73 6.96 6.48 6.14 5.88 5.67
 In determination of the fraction factor, f, it is sufficient to establish the value of f at just one
typical flow rate, as about the middle of the range of measurement due to the fact that f varies only
slowly with Re, and the friction loss is generally fairly small in relation to the measured value of Δh’.

Characteristic of Flow Through Elbow and At Changes In Diameter 90゜ Elbow

Figure 5: 90o Elbow

The value of loss coefficient K is dependent on the ratio of the bend radius, R to the middle of
pipe inside diameter D. When this ratio increase, the value of K will decrease and vice versa.

𝐾𝑉 2
𝐻 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (9)
2𝑔

Where,

K = Coefficient of losses

V = Velocity of flow

g = 9.81 m/s
5.0 MATERIALS AND APPARATUS

MATERIALS

1) Water

APPARATUS

1) Flowmeter Measurement Apparatus (Model: FM 101)

2) Hydraulic bench
3) Stop watch
 Saddle Valve

Manometer
Tubes Rotameter

Discharge Valve

90o Elbow
Water Outlet

Orifice

Water Supply

Venturi

Switch
Control
Valve

Figure 6: Flowmeter Measurement Apparatus with Hydraulic Bench

6.0 PROCEDURE

6.1 General Set-up Procedures

The Flowmeter Measurement Apparatus (Model: FM 101) is supplied ready for use and only requires
connection to the Hydraulic Bench (Model: FM 110) as follows:
a) Place the apparatus on top of a suitable hydraulic bench.
b) Level the apparatus on the bench top.
c) Connect the hydraulic coupling to the outlet supply of the hydraulic bench.
d) Connect the discharge connect of the flow apparatus hose to the collection tank of the
hydraulic bench.

The above procedure was already done by lab assistants. We just have to proceed to the starting up
procedure.

Starting up Apparatus Procedure:

1. The flow control valve was fully close of hydraulic bench and the discharge valve was fully open.
2. Before starting up the system, the discharge hose was ensured that it is properly directed to
volumetric tank. Also, the volumetric tank drain valve was ensure that it is left OPEN to allow flow
discharge back into sump tank.
3. Once the above step is confirmed, the pump supply from hydraulic bench was started up. The
bench valve was slowly open. At this point, we observed that the water flowing from hydraulic
bench through to the flow apparatus and discharge through into the volumetric tank of hydraulic
bench and then drained back into sump tank of hydraulic bench.
4. To remove bubble trapped in the tube, we fully open the flow control valve and close it back
repeatedly a few times. When the flow in the pipe is steady and there is no trapped bubble, we
start to close the control valve to reduce the flow to the maximum measurable flow rate and we
ensure that the water flow is steady and the air bubble was totally removed. The flowrate was
observed through the rotameter.
5. At this point, the control valve was closed. The manometer reading was lowered to the average
measurable reading as datum level which is 250mm by pressing the saddle valve using pointy
object like a pen or screw driver.
 6. The control valve was then opened again. We observed that water level in the manometer board
begin to display different level of water heights.
7. Slowly reduce the flow by controlling the flow discharge valve of apparatus; you may close this
discharge valve totally.
8. We make sure that the water level in the manometer board will begin to level into a straight level
at 250mm as it was adjusted earlier.

Note:

 Make sure that there is no trapped bubble after it was removed along the procude. If above
methods fail, then you will now have to “flush” the system by “bleeding” to air out and start the
procedure again.
 Depress staddle valve lightly to allow fluid and trapped air to escape out. (Take care or you will
wet yourself or the premise).
 Allow sufficient time for bleeding until all bubbles escape. Once all bubbles have been “bleed”,
start to reduce the water supply now by manipulating BOTH control valves, reducing first the flow
apparatus discharge valve and then the hydraulic bench valve in alternate motion, bringing down
the DATUM level of the water in the manometer board.

6.2 Demonstration of the operation and characteristic of three different basic types of flowmeter.
Procedure:

1) The apparatus was placed on bench, inlet pipe were connected to bench supply and outlet pipe
into volumetric tank.
2) As the control valve fully closed and as the discharge valve partially opened, the pump supply
was switch on from hydraulic bench.
3) The control valve, were slowly opened until it was fully opened.
4) After the flows in the pipe were steady and there are certainly no trapped bubble, the control
valve was slowly closed to reduce the flow rate to the maximum measurable flow rate.
5) The water level in the manometer board was adjusted, by using the air bleed screw. The
maximum readings on manometers with the maximum measurable flow rate were recorded.
6) The readings on manometers (A - J), rotameter and measured flow rate were recorded.
 7) Step 6 is repeated for different flow rates. The flow rates were adjusted by utilizing both control
valve and discharge valve.
8) To demonstrate similar flow rates at different system static pressures, control and discharge
control valve were adjusted together. Manometer levels were adjusted as required.

6.3 To demonstrate similar flow rates at different system static pressures, bench and flow control valve
were adjusted together. Manometer levels were adjusted as required.
Procedures:
1) The apparatus was placed on bench, inlet pipe were connected to bench supply and outlet pipe
into volumetric tank.
2) As the control valve fully closed and as the discharge valve partially opened, the pump supply
was switch on from hydraulic bench.
3) The control valve, were slowly opened until it was fully opened.
4) After the flows in the pipe were steady and there are certainly no trapped bubble, the control
valve was slowly closed to reduce the flow rate to the maximum measurable flow rate.
5) The water level in the manometer board was adjusted, by using the air bleed screw. The
maximum readings on manometers with the maximum measurable flow rate were recorded.
6) The readings on manometers (I and J) were recorded and the flow rate were calculated.
7) Step 6 is repeated for different flow rates. The flow rates were adjusted by utilizing both control
valve and discharge valve.
8) The tables of data were completed.
𝑉𝑠2
9) The graph of H against for 90 degree elbow were plotted to determine the coefficient of
2𝑔

losses.

6.4 General Shut-down Procedures

1) The water supply valve and venturi discharge valve was closed.
2) The water supply pump was turned off.
3) The water from the unit were drain off after the experiment was finished.
7.0 DATA AND RESULTS

Demonstration of the Operation and Characteristic of Three Different Basic Types of Flowmeter

Venturi Meter
Experiment Manometer Reading (mm) Volume Time Flowrates, Flowrates
A B C D E (L) (min) Qa using
(L/min) Bernoulli
Eq. Qt
(L/min)
1 3 0.48
2 3 0.24
3 3 0.18

Orifice Meter
Experiment Manometer Reading (mm) Volume Time Flowrates, Flowrates
A B C D (L) (min) Qa using
(L/min) Bernoulli
Eq. Qt
(L/min)
1 3 0.48
2 3 0.24
3 3 0.18

Rotameter
Experiment Volume Time (min) Flowrate, Rotameter
(L) Qa (L/min) Qt (L/min)
1 3 0.48 6.25 5
2 3 0.24 12.50 10
3 3 0.18 16.67 15