Theory: Distillation Column

Distillation is a method of separating the components of a solution which depends on

their boiling points to obtain a pure component. Instead of introducing a new substance into
the mixture in order to provide the second phase, as is done in gas or desorption, the new
phase is created from the original solution by vaporization or condensation[1].

Advantages
 In distillation the new phases differ
from the original by their heat content,
but heat is readily added or removed.
Disadvantages
 Distillation is a very energy-intensive
technique, especially when the relative
volatility of the components being
separated is low.

 Introduction of foreign substance is not

required.

Figure 1. Represents some of the industrial applications of the distillation method:

 Oil refinery
 Petroleum refinery

Figure 1. Schematic of the refining process.

 How the equipment operates?
A. Single-stage operation
 Flash Vaporization
 Differential Vaporization
B. Multi-stages operation
 Continuous rectification

Single-stage operation: Flash Vaporization

Flash vaporization is a single-stage operation wherein a liquid mixture is partially
vaporized, the vapor is allowed to come to equilibrium with the residual liquid, and the
resulting vapor and liquid phases are separated and removed from the apparatus. It may be
batch or continuous.

Figure 2. represents the schematic for continuous operation. The liquid feed is heated
in a conventional tubular heat exchanger. The pressure is then reduced, vapors form at
expense of the liquid adiabatically and the mixture is introduced into a vapor-liquid
separating vessel. The liquid portion of the mixtures leaves at the bottom of the separating
vessel, while the vapor rises and leaves at the top.

Figure 2. Schematic of the continuous flash vaporization process.

The material and energy balances for the process are:

𝐹 =𝐷+𝑊 (Eq. 1)

𝐹𝑧𝐹 = 𝐷𝑦𝐷 + 𝑊𝑥𝑊 (Eq. 2)

𝐹𝐻𝐹 + 𝑄 = 𝐷𝐻𝐷 + 𝑊𝐻𝑤 (Eq. 3)

In equation 2, zF is used to represent the feed composition because the feed could be a liquid
or a vapor, or a mixture of liquid and vapor. Solving simultaneously, equation 1 to equation
3 we can obtain the, operation line for flash vaporization:

𝑊 𝑦 −𝑧
− 𝐷 = 𝑥 𝐷 −𝑧𝐹 (Eq. 4)
𝑊 𝐹

The left hand member of the equation represent the usual single-stage operating line on
distribution coordinates, of negative slope as for all single-stage cocurrent operations.

Single-stage operation: Differential Distillation

In batch operation, the feed is introduced batch-wise to the column. That is, the
column is charged with a 'batch' and then the distillation process is carried out. When the
desired task is achieved, a next batch of feed is introduced. Consider a binary mixture of
components A (more volatile) and B (less volatile). The system consists of a batch of liquid
(fixed quantity) inside a kettle (or still) fitted with heating element and a condenser to
condense the vapor produced as shown in Figure 3. The condensed vapor is known as the
distillate. The distillate is collected in a condensate receiver. The liquid remaining in the still
is known as the residual. The process is unsteady state.
 Thus, the mathematical approach used must be differential. Assume that L mol of
liquid in the still of composition x mol fraction A and that an amount dD mol of distillate is

vaporized, of mol fraction y∗ in equilibrium with the liquid.

Figure 3. Schematic of the continuous differential vaporization

The rate of depletion of liquid is equal to the rate of distillate output. The
instantaneous rate of depletion of a component in the liquid is therefore,

In - Out = Accumulation (Eq. 5)

0−dD = dL (Eq. 6)

0 − y∗dD = d(Lx) (Eq. 7)

0 − y∗dD = xdL + Ldx (Eq. 8)

y∗dL = xdL + Ldx (Eq. 9)

Therefore rearrangement gives, which is the equation for the operation line for differential
vaporization:

𝐹 𝑋 𝑑𝑥
𝑙𝑛 = ∫𝑋 𝐹 ∗ (Eq. 10)
𝑊 𝑦 −𝑥
𝑊

Multi-stages operation: Continuous Rectification

The principle of continuous distillation is the same as for normal distillation: when a
mixture is heated so that it boils, the composition of the vapor above the liquid differs from
the liquid composition.
Theory: McCabe - Thiele Method

McCabe-Thiele, is a graphical method created in 1925, to determine the theoretical

number of stages required to effect the separation of a binary mixture. This method uses the

equilibrium curve diagram to determine the number of theoretical trays required to achieve

a desired degree of separation. It assumes constant molar overflow and this implies that:

Table 1. Assumption for the graphical method of McCabe – Thiele

Assumptions for McCabe-Thiele Method

1. Operating lines for each section can be considered straight.

2. Molar flow rates of liquid and vapor are constant through the section.

3. Heat losses are negligible.

4. Uniform pressure throughout the column.

In its essence, the method involves the plotting on the equilibrium diagram three
straight lines: the rectifying section operating line (ROL), the feed line (also known as the q-
line) and the stripping section operating line (SOL). The steps to be followed to determine
the number of theoretical stages by McCabe-Thiele Method:

 Determination of the Rectifying section operating line (ROL).

 Determination the feed condition (q).
 Determination of the feed section operating line (q-line).
 Determination of required reflux ratio (R).
  Determination of the stripping section operating line (SOL).

 Determination of number of theoretical stage.

Distillation Column: Rectifying Section

The trays between the feed tray and the top of the column is the enriching or
rectifying section. In the rectifying section the aim is to concentrate the lighter
component in the vapor phase. Figure 5, shows the rectifying or enriching section
which is the distillation tower section above the feed. The vapor from the top
tray with a composition y 1 is condensed in the total condenser so that the
resulting liquid is at the boiling point. Part of the liqui d is taken out as the
overhead product D and the remaining liquid is returned to the first tray with
flow rate L 0 .

Figure 5. Schematic of the rectifying section with a total condenser

Making a mass balance you get the operation line that is as follows:

𝐿 𝐷
𝑦𝑛+1 = 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑥𝐷 ()
𝑉 𝑉

The Reflux is calculated which is the value that returns to the tower after condensing it and
it is at its bubble point. This is a constant in the rectification section. It is calculated as follows:
 𝐿
𝑅= ()
𝐷

By joining these two equations we can calculate the operation line in terms of R, which is
written as follows:
𝑅 1
𝑦= 𝑥+ 𝑥 ()
𝑅+1 𝑅+1 𝐷

Graphically the section of the rectification looks like this:

Figure 6. Graphic example of the rectification section.

Distillation Column: Stripping section

In the stripping section the aim is to concentrate the heavier component in the liquid
phase. The trays between the bottom of the column and the feed tray. In the stripping section
the aim is to concentrate the heavier component in the liquid phase.
 Figure7. Schematic of the stripping section with a reboiler.
The line of operation with a mass balance is achieved. What remains as follows:
𝐿 𝑊
𝑦𝑚+1 = 𝑉𝑠𝑡 𝑥𝑚 − 𝑉 𝑥𝑤 ()
𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑡

After calculating this, the boil-up ratio is sought. This comes from the reboiler which is an
additional stage. It is considered that way, since in this equipment the two phases of the
mixture coexist. The boil-up is expressed as follows:
𝑉𝑠𝑡
𝑉𝐵 = ()
𝑊

and the line of operation in terms of VB, is expressed as follows:

𝑉𝐵 +1 1
𝑦=( ) 𝑥 − 𝑉 𝑥𝑤 ()
𝑉𝐵 𝐵

and all this graphically would look like this:

Figure 8. Graphic example of the stripping section.

Material Balance Feed Stage

In order to have a good understanding, a balance of mass and energy will be made
around the food plate. All the liquid and vapor inside the tower are completely saturated,
therefore, all its enthalpies are the same. Not necessarily these fluids enter the tower in a
saturated manner.

Figure 9. Scheme of a distillation tower and its feeding.

Feed Stage Q-Line
That is why the value of "q" is calculated. This value is the amount of energy that is
required to convert one mole of the saturated steam feed, divided by the latent molar heat
of evaporation. Depends on the conditions of the food is the value of q. Table 2 shows the
relation between the feed conditions and the q-value.

Feed Conditions q-value

Subcooled Liquid >1

Bubble Point Liquid 1

Partially vaporized 𝐿𝐹 𝑉𝐹
=1−
𝐹 𝐹
 Dew-point Vapor 0

Superheated Vapor <0

With these values you can calculate and the q-line. With this line graphically, it can be
determined in what stage the feed will be located in the distillation tower. The inclination of
the q-line will depend on the fractions that each of the conditions have.

Figure 10. Graphic example of the q-line alternatives depending on the

conditions of the feeding stage.