The Universe started 13.

7 billion years ago, from a very small and extremely dense, and hot state that expanded
rapidly.
The rapid expansion caused the universe to cool down and become less dense. Forming new subatomic particles –
protons, neutrons, and electrons.
The Universe started from a singularity.
Nucleosynthesis – is the process that creates new atomic nucleus from preexisting nucleons, primary protons and
neutrons.
Nuclear Fusion:
Nuclear Fusion – the process of which light nuclei fuses together to form heavier nucleus
-Hydrogen (H), Helium (He), and small amounts of Lithium (Li), and (Be)
The isotopes produced during the big bang nucleosynthesis were H-1, H-2, He-3, He-4, Li-7
Stellar Nucleosynthesis:
5 to 8 nucleons – very unstable. This is the main reason why Lithium and Beryllium only occur in trace amounts during
the big bang.
Big Bang nucleosynthesis only favors very light elements. Heavy elements were formed only billion of years later, after
the formation of stars.
The density inside a star is great enough to sustain fusion.
Stars are hot and dense enough to burn Hydrogen-1 to helium-4.
Stellar Nucleosynthesis – the formation of heavy elements by the fusion of lighter nuclei in the interior of stars.
Stellar Nucleosynthesis – is the process of which elements are created within stars by combining together the protons
and neutrons from the nuclei of lighter elements.
Fusion of light elements, burning of Lithium, Carbon, Neon and Silicon.
Nuclear Synthetic Pathways: 1. Carbon-Nitrogen-Oxygen Cycle, Proton-Proton Fusion, Triple Alpha Process.
These reactions form various nuclei such as 8Be, 12C, 13C, 13N, 14N, 15N, 15O, 16O, 17F
Very high temperatures in stars can nucleosynthesize heavy elements like silicon and iron.
Always remember elements heavier than iron cannot be formed through fusion as tremendous amount of energy is
required.
Nuclearr Capture Reaction:
Heavy elements succeeding Iron (Fe) are formed in supernova – massive explosion of a star.
Nuclear Capture Reaction – Heavy elements are created in addition of more neutrons to existing nuclei instead of fusion
of light nuclei. (Adding lang) N+N+N+N+N
Always remember that adding neutrons to a nucleus doesn’t change its element, but a more massive isotope changes.

Isotope – is a form of an element that has the same atomic number of the original element but with a different atomic
mass or mass number.
Isotopes are atoms of the same element that has the same atomic number (Z) but different mass number (A).
Isotope Notation – one way to identify the different isotopes of an element is through a symbol called Isotope Notation.
It has 4 parts: 1. Element Symbol (X)
2. Mass Number (A)
3. Atomic number (Z)
4. Charge of the Atom (E)
Hydrogen has the simplest nucleus among all the elements. It has only one proton. 1.008 -atomic mass.
2.014 – 2 protons (deuterium) 3.016 (tritium)
Atomic Weight – relative atomic mass of an element.
Relative Atomic Mass – the average mass of all isotopes of an element.
Isotopic Abundance – an expression of how frequent the isotope of a given element actually exist.
- Frequency of occurrence of an isotope in nature.