H I G H - V O L T A G E MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

by

Armand Gregoire |Halim

B.E.E., Seattle University, Washington, 1978

A T H E S I S S U B M I T T E D I N P A R T I A L F U L F I L L M E N T OF

THE R E Q U I R E M E N T S FOR THE D E G R E E OF

M A S T E R OF A P P L I E D SCIENCE

in

THE F A C U L T Y OF GRADUATE S T U D I E S

(Department of Electrical Engineering)

We a c c e p t this thesis as conforming

to the required standard

T H E U N I V E R S I T Y OF B R I T I S H C O L U M B I A

June, 1980

(c) Armand G r e g o i r e Halim, 1980

 In presenting this thesis in p a r t i a l fulfilment of the requirements for

an advanced degree at the U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia, I agree that

the Library shall make i t freely available for reference and study.

I f u r t h e r agree t h a t permission f o r e x t e n s i v e copying o f this thesis

for scholarly purposes may be granted by the Head of my Department or

by h i s representatives. It i s understood that copying or publication

of this thesis for f i n a n c i a l gain shall not be allowed without my

written permission.

Depa rtment

The U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia
2075 Wesbrook P l a c e
V a n c o u v e r , Canada
V6T 1W5

r.
 -11

ABSTRACT

The Department of E l e c t r i c a l Engineering at the University of B r i t i s h

Columbia acquired a high-voltage test set i n 1979 f o r teaching and r e -

search purposes. To make t h i s test set useful f o r experiments which un-

dergraduate students can do themselves, various additions and modifications

had to be made.

This thesis describes these additions and modifications. First, a

Faraday cage had to be constructed with interlocking safety c i r c u i t s . Ex-

periments were then developed to show basic high-voltage phenomena with

AC voltage, with DC voltage, and with impulse voltages. Considerable

modifications were required to eliminate noise i n the impulse measuring

system.
 iii

T A B L E OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT. 1 1

T A B L E OF CONTENTS » 1 1 1

LIST OF T A B L E S ^ l

LIST OF I L L U S T R A T I O N S v i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v i i l

1. INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Significance 1

1.2 Test equipment 2

1.3 Scope of this Thesis 2

2. GENERATION OF H I G H VOLTAGES 3

2.1 Introduction 3

2.2 Alternating Voltage 3

2.3 Direct Voltage 6

2.4 Impulse Voltage 10

3. MEASUREMENTS 1 3

3.1 Introduction. • I 3

3.2 AC v o l t a g e measurements 14

3.2.1 Objective • 14

3.2.2 Measuring Devices • 14

3.3 DC v o l t a g e measurements . . 23

3.3.1 Objective 23

3.3.2 Measuring Devices 23

3.4 Impulse voltage measurements 29

3.4.1 Objective 29

3.4.2 Setup of Measuring System 30

3.4.3 Noise in Measuring Systems 42

 iv

4. EXPERIMENT EXERCISES . 48

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . 48

4.2 AC t e s t 49

4.2.1 Breakdown v o l t a g e of sphere gaps . . . . . . . . . 49

4.2.2 Corona voltage of a single conductor and a bundle

conductor 50

A•3 DC t e s t • • > » * • > • • • • • > « « > o « » « * ' • > • « » « « • • 51

4.3.1 R i p p l e measurement . . . . . . . . . . 51

4.3.2 Polarity effect in a P o i n t - P l a n e gap . . . . . . . 53

4.4 Impulse test 54

4.4.1 Preliminary Preparations 54

4.4.2 Noise Reductions 57

5. CONCLUSIONS 60

LIST OF R E F E R E N C E S 61

APPENDIX I 62

APPENDIX II 66
 V

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1. F l a s h o v e r v o l t a g e s f o r AC v o l t a g e s , f o r DC v o l t a g e s o f
e i t h e r p o l a r i t y , and f o r f u l l n e g a t i v e s t a n d a r d
impulses and i m p u l s e s w i t h l o n g e r t a i l s . . . 16

2. Breakdown v o l t a g e s o f a sphere gap o f 10 cm diameter

f o r d i f f e r e n t gap s p a c i n g s . . . 49

3. Corona onset v o l t a g e s o f a s i n g l e conductor and a

bundle conductor. 51

4. P e r c e n t r i p p l e s f o r d i f f e r e n t v a l u e s o f DC v o l t a g e s . ? . . • • 52 .
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure Page

1. Effect of time on w i t h s t a n d voltage 2

2. Single-stage test transformer circuits 4

3. Three-stage test transformer cascade 5

4. Series resonant circuit for single transformer/

reactor unit 6

5. Half-period rectification with ideal circuit

elements 7

6. Villard circuit 8

7. Greinacher doubler-circuit 8

8. Zimmermann-Wittka circuit 9

9. Greinacher cascade circuit 9

10. Example of cascade rectifier circuits 10

11. Basic impulse-voltage circuits 11

12. Multiplier circuit after Marx for 3 stages in

circuit lib connection •> 12

13. Sphere gaps for voltage measurement 17

14. B r e a k d o w n v o l t a g e U^Q of sphere gaps as a f u n c t i o n

o f gap s p a c i n g s , f o r v a r i o u s s p h e r e d i a m e t e r s D. • • 17
15. P e a k v o l t a g e measurement a c c o r d i n g to Chubb and
Fortescue 18
16. Peak voltage measurement with capacitive divider- • • 20

17. Basic circuits of voltage transformers 22

18. M e a s u r e m e n t o f DC v o l t a g e by means o f a high-

voltage resistor 24

19. M e a s u r e m e n t o f a DC v o l t a g e by means o f a
resistive divider 25

20. Electrostatic voltmeters for high voltages 26

21. Voltmeter with the sphere-plate electrode

configuration 27
 vii

22. C i r c u i t f o r measuring r i p p l e v o l t a g e s . . 28

23. Jumping p o t e n t i a l i n i m p u l s e g e n e r a t o r system . . . . 31

24. B l o c k diagram of i m p u l s e t e s t f a c i l i t y 34

25. D i s p l a y of a wedge-shaped i m p u l s e v o l t a g e 36

26. Impulse waveshapes o b t a i n e d w i t h the c a p a c i t i v e

d i v i d e r of 4.14 yF l o w e r c a p a c i t a n c e v a l u e .37

27. Impulse v o l t a g e measuring system w i t h resistive

divider 39

28. C o n n e c t i o n of the c a p a c i t i v e v o l t a g e d i v i d e r t o a
cathode-ray o s c i l l o s c o p e 40

29. Compensation o f s i g n a l c a b l e c a p a c i t a n c e by a
complex c a b l e t e r m i n a t i o n 41

30. Impedance matching f o r damped c a p a c i t i v e v o l t a g e

dividers 41

31. Impulse v o l t a g e g e n e r a t i n g and measuring systems. . . 42

32. C u r r e n t s i n d u c e d i n the c a b l e s h i e l d s by q u a s i -
s t a t i o n a r y magnetic f i e l d s 45

33. C o r r e c t measurement c i r c u i t l a y o u t , a v o i d i n g cable

b r a i d and c a b i n e t c u r r e n t i n t e r f e r e n c e 46

34. O v e r a l l c i r c u i t o f the r i p p l e measurement

experiment. . 52

35. P o l a r i t y e f f e c t i n a p o i n t - p l a n e gap 53

36. Output of a compensated a t t e n u a t o r f o r d i f f e r e n t

degrees of compensation 55

37. Impulse v o l t a g e waveform o b t a i n e d by u s i n g EMTP . . . 56

38. a. Impulse o s c i l l o g r a m of the c i r c u i t w i t h ground

l o o p s and an o r d i n a r y c o a x i a l c a b l e 58

b. Impulse o s c i l l o g r a m of the c i r c u i t w i t h reduced

ground l o o p s and a s h i e l d e d c a b l e 58

39. Impulse o s c i l l o g r a m of the c i r c u i t w i t h reduced

ground l o o p s and a s h i e l d e d c a b l e . O s c i l l o s c o p e
i s i n s i d e a m e t a l box 59
 vi'ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to e x p r e s s my thanks to my supervisor, Dr. H.W. Dommel,

for his help throughout this work and for the timely suggestions and correc-

tions he made. Also, I wish to c o n v e y my g r a t i t u d e to Dr. D. Van Dommelen,

a visiting professor f r o m The K a t h o l i e k e Universiteit Te L e u v e n (Belgium),

for his considerable help.

I am a l s o very grateful to Natural Sciences and Engineering Research

Council of Canada for their financial support.

 1

1. INTRODUCTION

A withstand voltage test subjects an insulation for a restricted

period of time to a voltage stress greater than that encountered under

normal service conditions. The v o l t a g e specified for a withstand test may

be o f A C , DC (having a specified polarity with respect to ground), or a pulse

having a specified polarity and w a v e - s h a p e . F o r AC o r DC t e s t voltages, the

duration of application is specified, typically 1 minute after the desired

test value has b e e n ^ r e a c h e d . ^ For an impulse the waveshape i s determined

by the virtual rise time and the virtual time to half value. A standard

lightning pulse has 1.2 ysec virtual rise time and 50 y s e c virtual time to

half value.

1-. 1 Significance

The w i t h s t a n d voltage test is a demonstration that an insulation can

withstand a specified over-voltage for a specified length of time. Success-

ful completion of the test gives some a s s u r a n c e t h a t no gross defect is

present in the insulation structure. However, this does not mean t h a t the

insulation is absolutely free of defects. For this reason the test is often

supplemented w i t h measurements of insulation characteristics (Practical

Dielectric Strength).

Practical Dielectric Strength tests are done w i t h continued application of

a voltage below the value required to cause immediate breakdown. This will

cause the temperature to rise in local weak r e g i o n s . The temperature rise

further reduces the dielectric strength of these regions, and consequently

the overall dielectric strength of the material, a n d may result in eventual

failure without further increase in the applied voltage. Figure 1 illustrates

the general behaviour of an insulator in terms of withstand voltage versus

 2

time of voltage application.

-Withstand
voltage,
peak value

0
8

Time, seconds

Figure 1: Effect of time on w i t h s t a n d voltage.

1.2 Test Equipment

Test equipment typically consists of a voltage source and a measuring

system. The v o l t a g e source which is either of AC, DC, or Impulse type can

be constructed with different methods. A review of these various voltage

sources w i l l be done in this thesis. Various measuring apparatus w i l l also

be discussed in this thesis.

1.3 Scope of this Thesis

First, the generation of high voltages and t h e i r measurements are dis-

cussed in g e n e r a l and in particular as they relate to the UBC high-voltage

test set. An e x t e n s i v e investigation of the impulse measuring system of the

UBC h i g h - v o l t a g e test set is then described. Various techniques of shielding

had to be u s e d t o obtain reasonably accurate oscillograms.

Finally, a series of exercises for undergraduate students is presented

w h i c h was d e v e l o p e d w i t h the help of Dr. Van Dommelen.

 3

2. G E N E R A T I O N OF H I G H VOLTAGES

2.1. Introduction

High-voltage power equipment is tested with three types of voltages to

verify its performance. These are:

(a) AC voltage

(b) DC voltage

(c) Impulse voltage

Generation of high voltages in laboratories is usually done u s i n g trans-

formers, therefore, the first type of high voltage produced is of AC type.

With additional circuits, the AC v o l t a g e can then be transformed into DC a n d

impulse voltages. DC v o l t a g e can also be produced d i r e c t l y by electrostatic

generators.

The UBC-High V o l t a g e Test Set can produce all three forms, namely 60 Hz

AC v o l t a g e up to 75 K V r m s , DC v o l t a g e up to 200 KV, and impulse voltage up

to 200 K V .

2.2 Alternating Voltage

Transformers for generating high alternating voltages in laboratories

generally have considerably lower power rating and frequently much larger

turn ratios than power transformers. The p r i m a r y current is usually supplied

by a regulating transformer fed from mains supply. One end o f the high-voltage

winding is usually grounded, except for transformers to be connected in

cascade where the windings must be c o m p l e t e l y isolated.

Figure 2 shows two basic circuits of test transformers. The l e n g t h of

voltage arrows indicates the magnitude of the stress on t h e insulation

between the high voltage winding H and the excitation winding E or iron core
 4

F. The f u i l y isolated winding may b e g r o u n d e d if n e c e s s a r y at either of

the two terminals or at the center tap, as shown.

(a) (b)

Figure 2: Single stage test transformer circuits

E - Excitation winding (a) Single pole isolation

H - High-voltage winding (b) Fully isolated
F - Iron core

To g e n e r a t e voltages above a few hundred KV, single-stage transformers

according to Figure 2 are now r a r e l y used; for e c o n o m i c a l and technical

reasons one employs instead a series connection of the high voltage windings

of several transformers (introduced in 1 9 1 5 b y W. P e t e r s e n F. Dessauer and

E.. W e l t e r ) . The c i r c u i t configuration is shown in Figure 3. The excitation

windings E of the upperstages are supplied from the coupling windings K of

the stages immediately below. The individual stages, except for the uppermost,

consist of three-binding transformers.

 5

K E

• 3 P
3 U -

3 P

H
I
Figure 3: Three-stage test transformer cascade

E - Excitation winding
H - High-voltage winding
K - Coupling winding

For test objects with large capacitance, for example cables, a series

resonant c i r c u i t i s usually used to generate the high voltage. The basic

c i r c u i t i s shown i n Figure 4 . I t comprises the load, which i s almost purely

capacitive, i n series with a continuously variable inductance. The inductance

i s varied to produce series resonance with the capacitive load at the supply

frequency. High voltages are then obtained by i n j e c t i n g current into the"

series c i r c u i t . Control of the high voltage i s obtained by regulation of the

supply current.

Some of the advantages of series resonant c i r c u i t s are as follows:

1. Harmonics, which are caused by saturation i n the transformers,

are attenuated.

2. I f f a i l u r e of the test object occurs, a power arc does not develop.

Instead, the voltage collapses immediately after the load capacitance

i s short-circuited. This i s of great importance to the cable industry

where a power arc can sometimes lead to dangerous explosions.

 6

Cable under
Reactor test

AC Supply

L
l
r
l
L
r
r
r
1
J
(b)

Figure 4: Series resonant circuit for single

transformer/reactor unit.

(a) actual circuit (b) equivalent circuit

The s e r i e s resonant circuit h a s now b e c o m e a c c e p t e d for cable testing. Many

other laboratories have also used the circuit for general applications.

T h e UBC h i g h - v o l t a g e test set uses a single transformer with one end

grounded.

2.3 Direct Voltage

The simplest circuit for the generation of a...high DC v o l t a g e is the half-

period rectifier, shown i n Figure 5. The c i r c u i t without the smoothing capaci-

tor C will give a pulsating direct voltage, and w i t h smoothing capacitor C a

smoothed direct voltage with residual ripple is obtained.

 7

F i g u r e 5: Half-period rectification with ideal circuit-elements.

a) Circuit
b) Output v o l t a g e curve w i t h o u t smoothing c a p a c i t o r C
c) Output v o l t a g e curve w i t h smoothing c a p a c i t o r C

To o b t a i n h i g h e r d i r e c t v o l t a g e s , v o l t a g e m u l t i p l i e r c i r c u i t s a r e used.

Some of t h e s e v o l t a g e m u l t i p l i e r c i r c u i t s are:

1. Villard circuit.

2. Greinacher D o u b l e r - c i r c u i t .

3. Zimmermann-Wittka c i r c u i t .

4. Greinacher cascade c i r c u i t .

5. S e p a r a t e - r e c t i f i e r cascade c i r c u i t .

Villard circuit: T h i s c i r c u i t , shown i n F i g u r e 6, i s the s i m p l e s t

doubling c i r c u i t . The b l o c k i n g c a p a c i t o r C i s charged to t h e peak v a l u e

and thus i n c r e a s e s t h e p o t e n t i a l of the h i g h - v o l t a g e o u t p u t t e r m i n a l w i t h

r e s p e c t t o t h e t r a n s f o r m e r v o l t a g e by t h i s amount. However, smoothing of the

output v o l t a g e u ( t ) i s i m p o s s i b l e .
 8

Figure 6: Villard circuit

a) C i r c u i t diagram
b) Voltage curve

Greinacher Doubler-circuit: Extension of the V i l l a r d c i r c u i t by a

r e c t i f i e r V2 and a smoothing capacitor C2 enables the no-load output voltage

of the V i l l a r d c i r c u i t to be smoothed. The complete c i r c u i t i s shown i n

Figure 7 $

(a) " (b)

Figure 7: Greinacher doubler-circuit

a) C i r c u i t diagram
b) Voltage curve

Zimmermann-Wittka c i r c u i t : I f two V i l l a r d c i r c u i t s are connected i n

opposition as i n Figure 8 , an unsmoothed direct voltage i s produced between

 9

the o u t p u t t e r m i n a l s , w i t h a, peak v a l u e t h r e e times t h a t of t h e transformer

l t a g e a n d , under no l o a d c o n d i t i o n s , a mean o u t p u t v o l t a g e U = 2. Uj,,

vo

• t

(a). (b)
Figure 8: Zimmermann-Wittka c i r c u i t (no-load condition)

a) C i r c u i t diagram
b) Voltage curve

G r e i n a c h e r cascade c i r c u i t : T h i s i s an e x t e n s i o n of G r e i n a c h e r D o u b l e r -

circuit.^ A three-stage c i r c u i t i s shown i n F i g u r e 9 as an example; many p r a c -

t i c a l c i r c u i t s c o m p r i s e o n l y the p a r t s shown i n b o l d l i n e s .

U = 6U>

F i g u r e 9: G r e i n a c h e r cascade c i r c u i t (no-load condition).

S e p a r a t e - r e c t i f i e r cascade c i r c u i t : This c i r c u i t , shown i n F i g u r e 10,

g i v e s low r i p p l e and v o l t a g e drops even when o u t p u t c u r r e n t s a r e h i g h .

 10

Figure 10: Example of cascade rectifier

circuits (no-load condition)

DC v o l t a g e can also be generated electrostatically, namely, by using

electrostatic generators. Because of its low power rating, this method is not

used very often.

The g e n e r a t i o n of high DC v o l t a g e s in the UBC l a b o r a t o r y is done with

the half-period rectifier circuit for the 100 kV l e v e l and the Greinacher

doubler-circuit for the 200 kV level.

2.4 Impulse Voltage

Figure 11 shows the two most important basic circuits used for the genera-

tion of impulse voltages. The impulse capacitor C s is charged via a high-ohmic

charging resistance to a DC v o l t a g e UQ and then discharged by ignition of

the switch gap F. The d e s i r e d impulse voltage u(t) appears across the load

capacitor Ctc

The v a l u e s of the circuit elements determine the wave shape of the

impulse voltage. A short rise time requires rapid charging of C^ t o the peak

value U, and long decay times require slow discharging. This is achieved by
 •11

I
u(t) u(t)
uo
R*

(t=0)

circuit a
I (t=0)

circuit h
(a)

Lightning impulse voltage Switching impulse voltage

T = 1.2 ys
s
T r = C250 ys
T = 50 y s
r
Th = 2500 ys
(b)

•Figure 11: Basic impulse-voltage circuits.

a) Circuits b) Voltage curves

R e >> R^. To obtain a peak v a l u e U as high as possible one has to choose

C s >> C^. The exponential rise on the wave front has a time constant R^C^

whereas the decay on the tail has a time constant CgCR^ + R ) e for circuit a,

C R S £ for circuit b. The o u t p u t voltage curves of the lightning impulse and

the switching impulse are shown in Figure lib.

To generate impulse voltages with a peak v a l u e higher than the DC

charging voltage, one commonly uses the multiplier circuit proposed by

E. Marx in 1923.2>3 Several identical impulse capacitors are charged in

parallel and then discharged in series, giving a multiplied total charging

voltage which corresponds to the number of stages.

As an example, a three-stage multiplier circuit is shown in Figure 12.

All impulse capacitors C s ' are charged to the stage charging-voltage UQ',
 12

Figure 12: M u l t i p l i e r c i r c u i t a f t e r Marx for 3

stages in c i r c u i t l i b connection.

via the high charging resistors R^'. When a l l the switch gaps F break down,

the capacitors C ' g will be connected in series so that is charged via the

series connection of a l l damping resistors R(j'; finally, all C '

s and C^ will

discharge again via the resistors R '

£ and R ^ ' . The n - s t a g e circuit can be

reduced to a single stage equivalent circuit where the following relation-

ships hold:

U 0 = n U 0 ' R d = n R d '

C = - C ' R = n R '
s n s e e

T h e UBC h i g h - v o l t a g e test set uses theccircuit' shown in- Figure lib and

can produce both the standard lightning impulse voltagec and the switching

impulse voltage.
 13

3. MEASUREMENTS

3.1 Introduction

It is generally not practical to measure h i g h voltages or currents

directly. The u s u a l : p r o c e d u r e is to convert the quantity to be measured

to a low v o l t a g e or current which can be measured w i t h conventional instru-

ments or oscilloscopes. A high-voltage or high-current measuring system

generally comprises:

(a) A converting device; for example, a voltage divider, a voltage

transformer, a high-voltage measuring impedance, etc.

(b) The l e a d s required for connecting this device into the test circuit.

(c) A measuring cable, together with any attenuating, terminating, and

adapting impedances or networks.

(d) The indicating or recording instrument.

In the UBC l a b o r a t o r y both r e s i s t i v e and capacitive dividers are used.

The r e s i s t i v e divider is used for DC m e a s u r e m e n t s , and the capacitive divider

for AC and impulse measurements. For impulse measurements the capacitive

divider is a part of the impulse generator circuit.

The m e a s u r i n g cable, which connects the low voltage side of the divider

with the recording instrument, is of coaxial type. Coaxial cables have

the advantage of small self-inductance and a shielding effect which minimizes

the distortion of the signal.

AC/DC voltmeters and impulse peak-voltmeters are very common indicating

instruments. They are usually provided with the HV-test set. To observe

the waveform an o s c i l l o s c o p e i s generally used. However, newer equipment

often uses digital transient recorders, with which impulse waveforms

can be a n a l y z e d more easily.

 14

In r e g a r d to d i r e c t measurements of h i g h v o l t a g e s , v o l t a g e gaps such

as sphere gaps a r e commonly u s e d ; peak v o l t a g e s a r e then o b t a i n e d . Direct

measurement o f DC v o l t a g e s can a l s o be done by an e l e c t r o s t a t i c voltmeter.

3.2 AC V o l t a g e Measurements

3.2.1 Obj e c t i v e

The main o b j e c t i v e of AC measurements i s to measure the peak or rms

v a l u e of the v o l t a g e , t y p i c a l l y w i t h an e r r o r of not more t h a n 3%.^

T h i s e r r o r requirement w i l l be met i f the v o l t a g e r a t i o of the voltage

d i v i d e r or voltage transformer i s s t a b l e and known w i t h an e r r o r of less

than 1%.4 i n the case of high-impedance s y s t e m s , such as a v o l t a g e divi-

ders, it may not be p o s s i b l e t o comply w i t h t h i s e r r o r r e q u i r e m e n t . In

such cases an o v e r a l l e r r o r of s l i g h t l y more t h a n 3% may have t o be a c c e p t e d .

The secondary o b j e c t i v e i s t o measure the a m p l i t u d e of h a r m o n i c s ,

t y p i c a l l y w i t h an e r r o r of not more than 10% of the harmonic amplitude

or not more than 1% of the f u n d a m e n t a l , w h i c h e v e r i s l a r g e r . ^ Harmonic

measurements r e q u i r e a wave a n a l y s e r i n a d d i t i o n t o the e x i s t i n g equipment.

A measuring e r r o r of not more t h a n 5% f o r harmonics up to the s e v e n t h and

not more than 10% f o r those up to the twenty s e v e n t h , i s r e q u i r e d for

the wave a n a l y s e r . ^

3.2.2 Measuring Devices

The f o u r most common A C - v o l t a g e measuring d e v i c e s a r e :

1. Sphere gaps

2. M e a s u r i n g c a p a c i t o r s (Chubb & F o r t e s c u e )

3. Capacitive voltage dividers

4. Voltage transformers
 15

Sphere gaps:

Sphere gaps are commonly used for the measurement of the peak

value of high voltages, and as a r e s u l t of extensive investigations,

calibration tables giving breakdown v o l t a g e s as a function of the gap

length for different sizes of spheres have been o b t a i n e d . The calibration

data recommended in the "British Standard Rules for Measurement of

Voltage with Sphere gaps"-^ a r e included in Table 1.

Breakdown of a sphere gap occurs within a few ysec once the applied

voltage exceeds the "static breakdown discharge voltage". Over such

a short period the peak v a l u e of a power frequency voltage or of

voltages with frequencies up to 500 KHz c a n be considered to be constant.

Breakdown w i l l always occur on the peak of low frequency AC v o l t a g e s if

the voltage amplitude is raised slowly.

Figure 13 shows the basic arrangement for voltage measurement with

sphere gaps. The r a t i o S/D (Spacing/Diameter) must not be too large,

because with increasing ratio S/D the field becomes i n c r e a s i n g l y inhomo-

geneous and at the same t i m e the breakdown v o l t a g e s become random. This

is demonstrated in Figure 14 w h e r e the curves begin to level off as S/D

increases.

Humidity h a s no significant influence on the breakdown voltage

of sphere gaps, however, the breakdown voltage is proportional to

the relative air density d. The a c t u a l breakdown voltage at air

density d may b e found from the tabulated value U^Q (standard value)

by applying the following formula:^*^

 Kilovolts peak at 20°C ; 1013 v n i l l i b a r s
B
p. o h
6 0
.' Sphere diameter, cm
u -a 1
O. ft. 2 5 6.25 10 12.5 15 25 . 50 75 100 150 200
CO CO

0.05 2.8
0.10 4.7
0.15 6.4
0.2.0. .8.0 8 0
0.25 9.6 9 6
0.30 11.2 11 2
0.40 14.4 14 3 14.2
0.50 17.4 17 4 17.2 16.8 16.8 •. 16.8
0.60 20.4 20 4 20.2 19.9 19.9 19.9
0.70 23.2 23 4 23.2 23.0 23.0 23.0
0.80 25.8 26 3 26.2 26.0 26.0 26.0
0.90 28.3 29 2 29.1 28.9 28.9 28.9
1.0 30.7 32 0 31.9 31.7 31.7 31.7 31.7
1.2 (35.1) 37 6 37.5 37.4 37.4 37.4 37.4
1.4 (38.5) 42 9 42.9 42.9 42.9 42.9 42.9
1.5 (40.0) 45 5 45.5 45.5 45.5 45.5 45.5
1.6 48.1 48.1 48.1 48.1 48.1 48.1
] .8 53 0 53.5 53.5 53.5 53.5 53.5
2.0 57 5 58.5 59.0 59.0 59.0 59.0 59.0 59.0
2.2 61 5 63.0 64.5 64.5 64.5 64.5 64.5 64.5
2.4 65 5 67.5 69.5 70.0 70.0 70.0 70.0 70.0
2.6 (69 0) 72.0 74.5 75.0 75.5 75.5 75.5 75.5
2.8 (72 5) 76.0 79.5 79.5 80.0 81.0 81.0 81.0
3.0 (75.5) 79.5 84.0 85.0 3.5.5 86.0 86.0 86.0 86.0
3.5 (82 5) (87.5) 95.0 97.0 98.0 99.0 99.0 99.0 99.0
4.0 (88 5) (95.0) 105 108 110 112 112 112 112
4.5 (101) 115 119 122 125 125 125 125
5.0 (107) 123 129 133 137 138 138 138 138
5.5 (131) 138 143 . 149 151 151 151 151
6.0 (138) 146 152 161 164 164 164 164
6.5 (144) (154) 161 173 177 177 177 177
7.0 (150) (161) 169 184 189 190 190 190
7.5 (155) (168) 177 195 202 203 203 203
8.0 (174) (185) 206 214 215 215 215
9.0 (185) (198) ' 226 239 240 241 241.
10 (195) (209) 244 263 265 266 266 266
11 (219) 261 286 290 292 292 292
12 (229) 275 309 315 318 318 318
13 (289) 331 339 342 342 342
14 (302) 353 363 366 366 366
15 (314) 373 387 390 390 390
16 (326) 392 410 414 414 414
17 (337) 411 432 438 438 438
18 (347) 429 453 462 462 462
19 (357) 445 473 486 486 486
20 (356) 460 492 510 510 510
22 489 530 555 560 560
24 515 565 595 610 610
26 (540) 600 635 655 660
28 (565) 635- 675 700 705
j
T h i s t a b l e i s not v a l i d f o r the measurement o f impulse v o l t a g e s below 10 kV.
The f i g u r e s i n the b r a c k e t s , which are f o r spacings o f more than 0.5D are o f d o u b t f u l
accuracy.

-Table 1 : F l a s h o v e r v o l t a g e s f o r AC v o l t a g e s , f o r DC v o l t a g e s
of e i t h e r p o l a r i t y , and f o r f u l l n e g a t i v e s t a n d a r d
impulses and impulses w i t h l o n g e r t a i l s : One sphere
earthed.^
 17

'////////< 1000

kV

800 / D=10C) c m

600

0
50crn

\ 1,00

/
25 c m

200
i
/ 10 err 1
10 20 30 UO cm 50

s »•

F i g u r e 1 3 : Sphere gaps F i g u r e 1 4 : Breakdown v o l t a g e of

f o r v o l t a g e measurement sphere gaps as f u n c t i o n of gap s p a c i n g
s , f o r v a r i o u s sphere d i a m e t e r s D.

273 + 20
U
d * d U
do 1013 273 + t
u
do

b (1)
= 0.289 Udo
273 + t

where-: b: p r e s s u r e i n mbar

t: temperature i n °C

Udo :
breakdown v o l t a g e at p r e s s u r e 1013 mbar and temperature

20°C.

Even under a p p a r e n t l y i d e a l c o n d i t i o n s , h a v i n g made a l l o w a n c e s for

such f a c t o r s as a i r d e n s i t y , minimum c l e a r a n c e s , smooth e x a c t l y spherical

e l e c t r o d e s u r f a c e and p r o p e r adjustment of the s p a c i n g , a measuring

uncertainty of 3% r e m a i n s . Sphere gaps are now r a r e l y used f o r measuring

v o l t a g e s above 1MV, because they r e q u i r e e x c e s s i v e space and a r e e x p e n s i v e ,

Continuous v o l t a g e measurements a r e o b v i o u s l y i m p o s s i b l e w i t h sphere g a p s ,

s i n c e the v o l t a g e s o u r c e i s s h o r t - c i r c u i t e d at the i n s t a n t of measurement.

 18

Inspite of their disadvantages, sphere gaps can be useful and versatile

devices in high—voltage laboratories. Apart from voltage measurements,

they can a l s o be used as v o l t a g e limiters, as voltage-dependent switches,

as pulse sharpening gaps and as v a r i a b l e high-voltage capacitors, etc.

The UBC H i g h - v o l t a g e test set uses sphere gaps for transformer protection

against over-voltages. They have also been adapted for AC voltage

measurements as part of this thesis project.

Measuring Capacitors:

As opposed to sphere gaps, the circuit suggested by Chubb and

Fortescue in 1913 is capable of measuring the peak value of a high

AC v o l t a g e continuously and accurately. Figure 15 shows the circuit

with its current and v o l t a g e curves.

Figure 15: Peak v o l t a g e measurement according to

Chubb a n d F o r t e s c u e .

a) Circuit
b) Current and v o l t a g e curves
 19

A charging current i, given by the rate of change of the applied

voltage u(t), flows through the high-voltage capacitor C and is passed

through two antiparallel rectifiers a n d V2 to ground. The arithmetic

mean v a l u e of current i-^ in the left-hand branch is measured w i t h a

moving-coil instrument. As shown b e l o w , this current is proportional to

the peak v a l u e U of the high voltage provided that certain conditions

are fulfilled.

If the behaviour of the rectifiers is assumed i d e a l , then for the

conducting period of one has:

±1 = 1=0-4^
dt
f o r
t = 0 t o T/2

_ 1 T i UCT/2) r
I ± = - / i i dt = i- ^Cdu = £ [u(T/2) - u(0)] (2)

If the voltage is symmetrical with reference to the zero line:

u(T/2) - u(0) = 2 U (3)

and w i t h T = -jr, one obtains

6
= \ lie <>4

In the derivation of this expression, it was n o t assumed that u(t)

is a s i n u s o i d , but when semiconductor rectifiers are used, only one

maximum p e r half period can o c c u r . The u s e o f synchronous mechanical

rectifiers or controllable rectifiers (oscillating contacts, rotating

rectifiers) allows correct measurement of AC v o l t a g e s w i t h more than one

maximum p e r half-period. Oscillographic monitoring of high-voltage shape

is n e c e s s a r y and is usually done by observing the current i-]_, which is

allowed to have only one crossover in each half-period.

 20

As the frequency f, the measuring capacitor C, and the current 1^

can be determined precisely, measurement of symmetrical AC voltages

using the technique of Chubb & Fortescue with the appropriate layout

i s very accurate, and i s suitable for the c a l i b r a t i o n of other peak-

voltage measuring devices. The disadvantages of this technique are the

dependence of the reading upon the frequency and the need to monitor

the wave.

Capacitive Voltage Dividers:

Several r e c t i f i e r c i r c u i t s have been developed which permit the

measurement of peak values of high AC-voltages with the aid of capacitive

dividers. Compared with the c i r c u i t of Chubb and Fortescue, most of these

methods have the advantage that the reading i s p r a c t i c a l l y independent

of frequency, and multiple extrema per half-period of the voltage to be

measured can be permitted.^

Cl

u(t)

. u2

(a) Cb)

Figure 16: Peak voltage measurement with a capacitive divider

a) Circuit b) General form of the voltage

 •21

The h a l f - p e r i o d c i r c u i t i s shown i n f i g u r e 1 6 . In t h i s c i r c u i t the

measuring c a p a c i t o r CJJJ i s charged to the peak v a l u e U2 of the l o w e r arm

v o l t a g e U£(t) of the c a p a c i t i v e d i v i d e r . The r e s i s t o r R

M which d i s -

charges the c a p a c i t o r C M i s meant t o f o l l o w r e d u c t i o n s of the a p p l i e d

voltage. The c h o i c e of time c o n s t a n t f o r t h i s d i s c h a r g e p r o c e s s i s

determined by t h e d e s i r e d response o f the measuring system. In general

one c h o o s e s ,

Rm Cm < 1 s e c o n d ,' and (5)

R
m m »
C
J <6>

The r e s i s t o r R2 i s n e c e s s a r y t o m i n i m i z e c h a r g i n g of by the

current f l o w i n g through the r e c t i f i e r V . The v a l u e of R2 must be

chosen i n such a way t h a t t h e DC v o l t a g e drop a c r o s s R2 w h i c h causes

DC c h a r g i n g of C2 remains as s m a l l as p o s s i b l e . In t h i s case one must

have R2 << RJJJ. On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e c a p a c i t i v e d i v i d e r r a t i o should

not be a f f e c t e d much by R 2 , w h i c h r e q u i r e s R2 >> ^ .

W i t h a l l t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s , the r e l a t i o n between the peak v a l u e of

the h i g h v o l t a g e and the i n d i c a t e d v o l t a g e U M i s g i v e n by:

C, + C 2 ,
U
= U
m (7)

The w o r k i n g p r i n c i p l e of the " I m p u l s e Peak V o l t m e t e r " of the UBC

high-voltage test s e t i s based on t h i s t e c h n i q u e , even though a more

elaborate c i r c u i t i s employed. I n the c o n t r o l b o x , t h e r e i s a l s o an AC

v o l t m e t e r w h i c h o p e r a t e s on the same p r i n c i p l e but i n d i c a t e s peak v a l u e

d i v i d e d by J2 (r^^) i n s t e a d of peak v a l u e .

Voltage Transformers:

High AC v o l t a g e s can be measured v e r y a c c u r a t e l y w i t h v o l t a g e trans-

 22

formers. The b a s i c circuits of single pole isolated inductive and

capacitive voltage transformers are shown in Figure 17.

Inductive voltage transformers for very high voltages are very

expensive to build since they require very large number of turns of the

high—voltage winding. The t y p e of capacitive voltage transformer used

extensively in supply networks is often considered unsuitable for normal

testing work, mainly because i t imposes a high capacitive l o a d upon the

voltage source.

u(t) u(t)

u (t)
2
2
TuoCt).

(a) (b)

Figure 17: Basic circuits of voltage transformers

a) Inductive voltage transformers b) Capacitive voltage transformer

1 Primary winding C^, C Divider capacitors
2

2 Secondary winding L Resonance i n d u c t o r

3 Iron core W Matching transformer
(marking as under a)

Inductive and c a p a c i t i v e v o l t a g e transformers are used i n labora-

tory measurements o n l y when p a r t i c u l a r l y p r e c i s e measurements of moderate

voltages are required. The secondary voltage of a voltage transformer

w i l l reproduce the shape of the primary voltage, if the load resistance

is not low. D e p e n d i n g on the type of measuring device connected, it is

possible to measure the peak v a l u e , the rms v a l u e or to display the wave

shape.
 23

3.3 DC V o l t a g e Measurements

3.3.1 Objective

The general objective of DC v o l t a g e measurements are:^.

- to measure the arithmetic mean v a l u e of the voltage, typically

with an e r r o r of not more than 3%.

- to measure the ripple amplitude, typically with an e r r o r of not

more than 10% o f the actual ripple amplitude or not more than 1%

of the arithmetic mean v a l u e of the DC v o l t a g e , w h i c h e v e r is larger.

To f u l f i l l the above error requirements, the measuring system has

to satisfy certain specifications:^

(a) The v o l t a g e ratio of the voltage divider is stable and known

with an e r r o r of not more than 1%. In the case of high-

impedance systems where it may n o t be p o s s i b l e to comply with

this specification, an o v e r a l l error slightly e x c e e d i n g 3%

may h a v e to be accepted.

(b) The current drawn from the high-voltage source at full voltage

is not less than 0.05 mA.

(c) The frequency response of the system used for measuring ripple

voltage is adequate and known w i t h i n 10% f o r frequencies from

the fundamental of the ripple frequency up to five times this

frequency.

3.3.2 Measuring Devices

Measurement of the arithmetic mean v a l u e of a high DC v o l t a g e can

be done w i t h the following:

(a) High-voltage resistors and v o l t a g e dividers.

(b) Electrostatic voltmeters

 24

(c) F i e l d strength meter.

For the r i p p l e v o l t a g e measurement, a v o l t a g e d i v i d e r made up of a

c a p a c i t o r and a r e s i s t o r i s used.

There a r e o t h e r methods f o r DC v o l t a g e measurements. Sphere gaps

are s u i t a b l e for the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the peak v a l u e U of h i g h DC v o l t a g e s .

In p h y s i c s l a b o r a t o r i e s the n u c l e a r resonance method i s o f t e n a p p l i e d

to measure DC v o l t a g e s . P r o t o n s a r e a c c e l e r a t e d i n an e l e c t r i c field

which i s p r o p o r t i o n a l to the v o l t a g e to be measured. At c e r t a i n kinetic

e n e r g i e s t h e s e p r o t o n s c o l l i d e w i t h l i g h t atomic n u c l e i , p r o d u c i n g re-

sonant n u c l e a r t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s which permit very accurate determination

of the DC v o l t a g e .

H i g h - v o l t a g e R e s i s t o r s and V o l t a g e dividers:

The c u r r e n t flowing through a r e s i s t o r connected to a DC s o u r c e can

i n d i c a t e the v o l t a g e to be measured. However, f o r h i g h - v o l t a g e appli-

c a t i o n s the c u r r e n t must be v e r y s m a l l , of the o r d e r of 1 mA f o r example,

because o t h e r w i s e e x c e s s i v e l o a d i n g of the v o l t a g e s o u r c e and e x c e s s i v e

h e a t i n g of the measuring r e s i s t o r w i l l o c c u r . ^ On the o t h e r h a n d , a

small current i s e a s i l y f a l s i f i e d by e r r o r c u r r e n t s ; these occur i n the

form of l e a k a g e c u r r e n t s i n i n s u l a t i n g m a t e r i a l s and on insulating

s u r f a c e s , and a l s o a s a r e s u l t of corona d i s c h a r g e s . To a v o i d t h e s e

problems, a s p e c i a l design for h i g h - v o l t a g e r e s i s t o r s i s needed.

The s i m p l e D C - v o l t a g e measuring c i r c u i t i s shown i n F i g u r e 1 8 .

• rh
Rl

u(t)
F i g u r e 18: Measurement of DC
Ammeter v o l t a g e by means of a
high-voltage r e s i s t o r .
The ammeter is assumed at earth potential. A sensitive moving-coil

instrument is usually chosen, the indication of which is the arithmetic

mean v a l u e U o f the DC voltage.

Replacing the ammeter with a parallel connection of a voltmeter and

a resistor R ,
2 one o b t a i n s a voltage divider for measuring DC voltages

which is shown in Figure 19.

Ri

Figure 19: M e a s u r e m e n t o f a DC
v o l t a g e by means o f
a resistive divider

T h e UBC h i g h - v o l t a g e test system uses this divider method to measure

DC v o l t a g e s . The Impulse Peak Voltmeter (IPV) can be u s e d , instead of

the "Control Box V o l t m e t e r " , to measure the peak value of a DC voltage.

Electrostatic Voltmeters:

Electrostatic voltmeters have the advantage of very high internal

resistance and v e r y small capacitance, which makes them u s e f u l for mea-

2
surement of low energy high voltages.

The schematic of the device is shown in Figure 20. When a voltage

u(t) is applied, the electric field produces a force F(t) which tends

to reduce the spacing s of the electrodes. This attractive force can

be calculated from the change of energy of the electric field:

W(t) = \ C u (t)
2
(8)
 26

u(t)

•Fit)

b)

Figure 20: Electrostatic voltmeters for high voltages.

a) Using spherical electrodes (after Hueter)

b) Using a movable e l e c t r o d e segment (after Starke
and S c h r o d e r )

1. Movable electrode segment 4, Light source

2. Axis of rotation 5. Scale
3. Mirror

The capacitance C depends on the spacing s. Using the law of conservation

of energy dW + F d s = 0 a n d a s s u m i n g disconnection of the voltage source

one obtains:

F ( t ) ,_<L1<JLL= i 2
= ( t ) dj; (9)
ds 2 ds

Taking the arithmetic mean v a l u e F of the force,

= 1 dC 1 / 2 ^ s 1 dC 2 (10)
F =
2 d7 T ^ U ( t ) d t
" 2 d7 U r m s

This force is counter-balanced by a s p r i n g . At equilibrium there is some

defined value of spring extension which c a n be t r a n s l a t e d into a voltage

reading.
Field-Strength Meters:

2
Variable capacitance i s the basic p r i n c i p l e of this device.

The schematic of the device i s shown i n Figure 21. The two measuring

electrodes 1 and 1 are alternately passed under the semi-circular

opening 2 of the grounded plate 3; this produces a variable capacitance

between each electrode and the high—voltage electrode 4.

1,1' Revolving semicircular discs

2 Semicircular opening
3 Earthed covering plate
4 High-yoltage electrode
5 Commutator
6 Ammeter
 28

At constant r a t e of r e v o l u t i o n , a p e r i o d i c a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t

i ( t ) flows between the measuring e l e c t r o d e s , which i s r e c i t i f i e d by a

commutator 5. The a r i t h m e t i c mean v a l u e I a f t e r r e c t i f i c a t i o n i s read

by a m o v i n g - c o i l ammeter b . Since the c u r r e n t I i s p r o p o r t i o n a l to the

measured v o l t a g e , the r e a d i n g o f the ammeter can be converted into a

voltage reading.

R i p p l e - v o l t a g e measurement circuits:

Ripple voltages are AC components superimposed on the DC voltage.

For smoothed DC v o l t a g e s , the peak v a l u e s 9U of the r i p p l e v o l t a g e s are

always much s m a l l e r than the mean v a l u e U, which i s why an oscilloscopic

measurement, performed w i t h a r e s i s t i v e d i v i d e r , i s too insensitive.

To separate the r i p p l e from the DC v o l t a g e , a v o l t a g e d i v i d e r made

a

up of a r e s i s t o r and a c a p a c i t o r i s used. The circuit i s shown i n

F i g u r e 22. The d i v i d e r r a t i o ,of t h i s

F i g u r e 22: C i r c u i t f o r measur-
ing r i p p l e voltages .

circuit i s given by:

I f the f u l l magnitude of the r i p p l e i s to appear on the lower arm of

the d i v i d e r , the d i v i d e r r a t i o must be as c l o s e to one as p o s s i b l e f o r a l l

frequencies i n the r i p p l e spectrum, which r e q u i r e s

uRC » 1 (12)
 29

In the UBC h i g h - v o l t a g e laboratory, a resistive divider is installed,

instead of a single resistor, as a practical development of this thesis

project. The ripple voltage which appears on the lower arm of the

divider is, therefore, reduced and can be displayed on an oscilloscope.

A surge arrestor is also installed in parallel with the lower arm resistor

to protect the oscilloscope in case the voltage u(t) collapses to zero.

Sudden v o l t a g e drop of u(t) will cause the whole voltage, applied

previously, to appear on the resistive part of the divider. This can

destroy the oscilloscope.

3.4 Impulse Voltage Measurements

3.4.1 Obj e c t i v e

The general objectives of impulse-voltage measurements are:^

- To m e a s u r e the peak value of full impulses and impulses chopped

in the vicinity of the peak or on the tail, typically with an

error not exceeding 3%.

- To m e a s u r e the peak value of impulses chopped on the front,

typically with an e r r o r A which is dependent on the time to

chopping T £ as follows:

if T c > 2 us, A < 3%

if 0.5 ys < T c < 2 ys, A < 5%

- To m e a s u r e the time parameters which define the impulse shape,

typically with an error not exceeding 10%.

The above requirements will be met if the system meets the following

measurement qualifications :^
 30

(a) The v o l t a g e r a t i o of t h e d i v i d e r s h o u l d be s t a b l e and known

w i t h an e r r o r not exceeding 1%.

(b) The s c a l e f a c t o r of t h e o s c i l l o s c o p e o r peak v o l t m e t e r

( i n c l u d i n g a t t e n u a t o r or c o u p l i n g d e v i c e s ) s h o u l d be stable

and known w i t h an e r r o r not e x c e e d i n g 2%.

(c) The time s c a l e of the o s c i l l o s c o p e s h o u l d be s t a b l e and known

w i t h an e r r o r not e x c e e d i n g 2%.

(d) The response time r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r measuring systems depend

on the i m p u l s e shapes, such as the f o l l o w i n g :

- F u l l 1.2 ys l i g h t n i n g i m p u l s e and l i g h t n i n g i m p u l s e s chopped

on the peak o r t a i l |T| < 0.2 ys.

- Switching impulses | T | < 0.03 T Q and | T | < 0.03 T c r

where T c i s chopping time

T c r i s time t o c r e s t

| T | i s r e s p o n s e time

3.4.2 Setup of M e a s u r i n g System

A measuring system f o r i m p u l s e v o l t a g e s g e n e r a l l y c o n s i s t o f :

(a) a Faraday Cage

(b) a W i r i n g System

(c) a Voltage Divider

(d) a M e a s u r i n g Instrument and i t s c o n n e c t i o n t o t h e d i v i d e r

Faraday Cage:

In p r a c t i c e , a h i g h - v o l t a g e c i r c u i t behaves as an antenna which

r e c e i v e s e x t e r n a l e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c waves. E l e c t r o m a g n e t i c waves a r e a l s o

produced d u r i n g breakdown d i s c h a r g e p r o c e s s e s i n t h e h i g h - v o l t a g e c i r c u i t s

t h e m s e l v e s , and t h e s e can i n t u r n d i s t u r b t h e s u r r o u n d i n g s . However, the

 31

•disturbing effect of the surroundings on the high-voltage circuit is

generally worse than that exerted by the high-voltage circuit on the

surroundings. To eliminate these interferences one u s e s a highly

conductive metal shield in the form of a Faraday cage. > a

Strong electromagnetic fields, associated with high rapidly changing

voltages and currents, also cause interference of a special type. Stray

ground capacitances are charged and d i s c h a r g e d by these strong fields

which produce transient potential rises. Figure 23 shows schematically

a high voltage circuit consisting of an impulse generator G and a test

object P; Z K represents the unavoidable ground impedance.

Figure 23: Jumping p o t e n t i a l i n impulse generator system. F i g u r e 23a

shows l i n e s of s t r a y f l u x in normal setup. F i g u r e 23b
shows l i n e s of s t r a y f l u x w i t h test setup in Faraday cage.

G impulse generator, P test, object,

C s t r stray ground capacitances, Zg g r o u n d impedance,
I c charging current for stray ground capacitances.
 32

Electric field lines exist between the high voltage electrodes and the

grounded surroundings. These can be r e p r e s e n t e d as stray ground capaci-

tances C which are rapidly charged and d i s c h a r g e d d u r i n g transients.

Because of the high rate of voltage change, the charging currents may

have values as high as some k i l o a m p e r e s , w h i c h when returning to the surge

generator's ground through Z , will result in considerable transient

ground potentials. If the entire high-voltage circuit is located inside

a Faraday cage, Figure 23b, a l l stray field lines w i l l terminate on the

cage w a l l . The c h a r g i n g currents w i l l then flow on the inner surface of

the cage w a l l and can not raise the potential of the ground system of the

high-voltage circuit.

As mentioned previously, Faraday.cages are usually made o f highly

conductive metal in order to get rid of background interferences. However,

this highly conductive metal enclosure acts as a huge cavity resonator

Q -I r j

when excited from inside by the fast discharge of an impulse generator. '

S e v e r a l modes of oscillations occur with a very high Q-factor which are

determined by the formula:^

C
f" m , n , p = ^ 2\ V/ (aj ' )
x
2
+ '(b £' ) + 2

~c' ,. „>.
(13)
/ n
V a b c ,
(See
/ c
a p p e n d i x 2)

where: m,n,p, integers identifying the r e s o n a n c e mode.

a,b,c, dimensions of the shield.

C Q = 300 m/us.'

Due t o large dimensions of some h i g h - v o l t a g e laboratories, the

lower resonant frequencies are in the order of o n e MHz a n d a r e w e l l within

the pass bandwith of the impulse-voltage measuring system. These lightly

damped o s c i l l a t i o n s last for tens of microseconds and therefore cause

 ) 33

distortions.

A p r a c t i c a l remedy for t h i s interference i s a reduction of the Q-

factor of the electromagnetic shield. By covering the inner wall of the

shield with a special r e s i s t i v e coating the cavity resonance can be

damped out a f t e r a few o s c i l l a t i o n s . The r e s i s t i v e coating does not

affect the laboratory shielding since the currents induced i n the s h i e l d

by external interference sources c i r c u l a t e in the outer layer of the metal

wall.

In order to keep the currents induced by the cavity resonance within

the r e s i s t i v e coating layer i t s thickness has to be not smaller than the

current penetration depth. An analysis of the t o t a l resistance required

for an e f f e c t i v e damping, as well as of the available r e s i s t i v e coating

indicate that a special material should be composed on a basis of mag-

n e t i c powders and r e s i s t i v e paints having both high r e s i s t i v i t y and high

Q
magnetic permeability.

In the UBC High—voltage laboratory the Faraday cage i s made of

aluminum sheets which are joined together by folding them. Since aluminum

i s always oxidized i n a i r , these folding connections have a high resistance

at high frequency and therefore the shielding behaviour i s lessened.

However, with r e l a t i v e l y low surrounding interference and low operating

voltage (200 KV), this shielding i s s u f f i c i e n t for our purposes.

Wiring System:

The presence of electromagnetic f i e l d s around the impulse generator

and the measuring system tends to induce noise i n the system, e s p e c i a l l y

when loops are present i n the system. Therefore, i t i s desirable to

minimize the area of the loops by arranging the wiring system i n such a

way that a l l cables extend from a cable tree to provide branch wiring
 34

rather than loops Figure 24 shows t h e wrong and the correct arrange-

ments of a wiring system. The schematic shown in Figure 24b is the

arrangement used in the UBC h i g h - v o l t a g e test system.

Peak voltmeter Control center

Spark
9<V>

Test j / '
object

Peak voltmeter Control center

L
o«,v
rectifier

1
Voltage Impulse
divider generator

Figure 24: B l o c k diagram of impulse test facility.5

a) wrong arrangement of c o n t r o l and s i g n a l c a b l e s

(existence of loops) ;
b) correct wiring of c o n t r o l and s i g n a l c a b l e s (branch wiring)
 35

Voltage Divider:

A divider for recording high transient voltages, may consist of

resistors or capacitors or combinations of both. Each type of divider

should reproduce the wave shape of the voltage to be measured w i t h a

known reduction ratio.

The main sources of error common t o all types of dividers are:^>4

1. Residual inductance in any resistive or capacitive element.

2. Stray capacitance: (a) from any section of the divider to the

high-voltage lead.

(b) from any section of the divider to ground.

(c) Between sections of the divider.

3. Impedance drop in the interconnecting leads.

4. Oscillations in the divider circuit caused by capacitance from

divider high-voltage terminal to ground and l e a d inductance.

In the case„of a resistive divider, the residual inductance of the

divider generates an M^r) voltage which is superimposed upon the IR drop.

This causes frequency-dependent behaviour of the divider. A resistive

divider is normally acceptable for measuring the standard impulse of a

1.2/50 usee wave. However, when the duration of the surge is less than

1 usee a resistive divider may give large errors due to stray capacitance,

3
which causes the response time to be large.

The response time can be e v a l u a t e d by comparing the "measured"

voltage-time curve, for linearly rising impulse voltages of constant rate

S, with the '-'true" voltage-time curve of the same w a v e . Figure 25 shows

the response of a system showing RC b e h a v i o u r and RLC b e h a v i o u r . If the

steepness S is accurately known, the response time T can be determined

from the voltage error ST. The r e s p o n s e o f the divider can be

 36

improved by choosing a low value of resistance or compensating the

earth c a p a c i t a n c e by placing a special electrode at the high-voltage end

of the divider to give a uniform stray-capacitance distribution along the

surface of the divider.3.4,5

Figure 25: Display of a wedge-shaped impulse voltage, .

a) System showing RC b e h a v i o u r
b) System showing RLC b e h a v i o u r

When t h e divider is constructed from pure capacitors, the response

is theoretically perfect on fast as w e l l as slow transients; however, with

the existence of internal impedance of the measuring instrument and

residual inductance of the divider and its leads, a certain limitation

is imposed. From the divider transfer function, which is given below,

it can be seen that the product R(C^ + C )

2 has to be quite large to mini-

mize the loading effect.

V (s)
2 Qi s

V-^s) C x + C 2 ' s + 1 ( 1 4
)
R(C L + C )
2

Otherwise, a large error will occur during slow transients. For fast

transients the natural frequency of the divider is a major concern. The

 37

c a p a c i t a n c e and r e s i d u a l i n d u c t a n c e of the d i v i d e r determine t h i s n a t u r a l

frequency which i s u s u a l l y around 200 MHz. However, i f one uses l a r g e

v a l u e s of c a p a c i t a n c e s , the n a t u r a l frequency w i l l be lowered and may

f a l l w i t h i n the bandwidth of the measuring instrument and as a r e s u l t ,

the r e c o r d e d waveform would be d i s t o r t e d . T h i s behaviour was observed

e x p e r i m e n t a l l y i n the UBC laboratory. With the c a p a c i t o r s s u p p l i e d by

the manufacturer, o s c i l l a t i o n s do not appear on the o s c i l l o s c o p e , whereas

w i t h a l a r g e c a p a c i t a n c e v a l u e on the lower arm of the d i v i d e r , oscil-

l a t i o n s do appear. The impulse waveshapes o b t a i n e d w i t h the c a p a c i t i v e

d i v i d e r of 4.14 yF lower c a p a c i t a n c e v a l u e have been produced both numer-

14

ically ( u s i n g the UBC Electromagnetic T r a n s i e n t s Program) and e x p e r i -

m e n t a l l y (shown i n F i g u r e 26).
O s c i l l a t i o n s can a l s o occur due to t r a v e l l i n g wave r e f l e c t i o n s .

The r e s i d u a l inductance and the s t r a y c a p a c i t a n c e to ground of the h i g h -

13
v o l t a g e arm and l e a d cause the d i v i d e r to behave as a t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e .

IMPULSE VOLTAGE

UJ

o
0~)
—I

x:

TIME (MICROSECONDS:

(a)
 38

Time s c a l e :
2 usec/div.
Voltage scale:
5 V/div.

(b)
F i g u r e 26: Impulse waveshapes o b t a i n e d w i t h t h e c a p a c i t i v e
d i v i d e r o f 4.14 yF lower c a p a c i t a n c e v a l u e .
(a) numerically (b) experimentally

R e f l e c t i o n s o c c u r because t h e r e i s no impedance m a t c h i n g a t b o t h ends

of t h e l i n e . One end i s s h o r t - c i r c u i t e d by t h e c a p a c i t o r o f t h e l o w e r

arm and t h e o t h e r end i s u s u a l l y b a d l y matched. These o s c i l l a t i o n s a r e

a t t e n u a t e d v e r y l i t t l e s i n c e t h e c a p a c i t o r s and t h e l e a d have low l o s s e s .

To o b t a i n h i g h a t t e n u a t i o n continuously-damped c a p a c i t i v e v o l t a g e d i v i d e r s

have been developed which a r e composed of s e r i e s c o n n e c t i o n s of r e s i s t o r s

and capacitors. '

M e a s u r i n g Instrument and i t s c o n n e c t i o n to t h e d i v i d e r :

Depending on t h e measurement q u a l i t y , t h e r e q u i r e d measuring instru-

ment c o u l d be an impulse peak v o l t m e t e r , an o s c i l l o s c o p e o r a d i g i t a l

transient recorder. Impulse peak v o l t m e t e r s can o n l y measure t h e peak

v a l u e o f the impulse wave and t h e r e f o r e do n o t s u p p l y enough i n f o r m a t i o n

about t h e shape o f t h e i m p u l s e . W i t h an o s c i l l o s c o p e o r d i g i t a l t r a n s i e n t

r e c o r d e r , f u l l i n f o r m a t i o n o f the impulse wave can be o b t a i n e d .

 39

The measuring instrument i s u s u a l l y connected to the voltage

d i v i d e r by a c o a x i a l c a b l e . Depending upon the amplitude l e v e l and the

type of o s c i l l o s c o p e , the s i g n a l may e i t h e r be f e d d i r e c t l y to the de-

f l e c t i o n p l a t e s or i t may be connected to the input t e r m i n a l s of the

v e r t i c a l a m p l i f i e r of the o s c i l l o s c o p e . A d d i t i o n a l attenuators are

o f t e n needed to reduce the amplitude of the s i g n a l . In the UBC high-

v o l t a g e l a b o r a t o r y an e l e c t r o n i c o s c i l l o s c o p e and a hundred—to-one

attenuator have been used.

Impedance matching i s always r e q u i r e d to a v o i d travelling^wave

oscillations. For a r e s i s t i v e v o l t a g e d i v i d e r , the s i g n a l c a b l e i s

terminated at the measuring instrument end w i t h i t s surge impedance.

The circuit diagram and i t s equivalent c i r c u i t are shown i n F i g u r e 27.

F i g u r e 27: Impulse v o l t a g e measuring system w i t h r e s i s t i v e d i v i d e r

a) C i r c u i t diagram b) Equivalent c i r c u i t with earth

capacitance.

In measuring systems w i t h c a p a c i t i v e d i v i d e r s , as i n F i g u r e 28,

termination i s u s u a l l y done w i t h a s e r i e s matching at the i n p u t end.

The UBC test s e t .uses t h i s type of matching. T h i s matching has the effect
 40

t h a t o n l y h a l f the v o l t a g e at the d i v i d e r tap e n t e r s the c a b l e , however,

t h i s i s doubled a g a i n a t the open end, so t h a t f u l l v o l t a g e w i l l be

measured at the measuring i n s t r u m e n t again. For f a s t t r a n s i e n t s the

Osc.

F i g u r e 28: C o n n e c t i o n of the c a p a c i t i v e v o l t a g e d i v i d e r
to a c a t h o d e - r a y o s c i l l o s c o p e .

ZQ = c h a r a c t e r i s t i c impedance of the s i g n a l
cable, C = signal cable capacitance.
Q

v o l t a g e r a t i o o f t h i s system i s

V]_(t) C-L + C 2

Vo(t) C1 (15)

but f o r slow t r a n s i e n t s the c a b l e c a p a c i t a n c e C c i n c r e a s e s the ratio

as i n d i c a t e d below:

Ci + Co + C_
a = _i i £_ ( 1 6 )

T h i s e r r o r may be reduced by a complex t e r m i n a t i o n proposed by Burch,^

F i g u r e 29. By a d j u s t i n g the a d d i t i o n a l c a p a c i t o r C3, so t h a t the equation

C^ + C 2 = C3 + C c i s s a t i s f i e d , the r a t i o w i l l be independent of f r e -
 41

quency as a f i r s t approximation,

1
z
0 ' c c

9TC

I
|«2(.t: Osc,

F i g u r e 29: Compensation o f s i g n a l c a b l e c a p a c i t a n c e by a
complex c a b l e t e r m i n a t i o n , =•0 characteristic
impedance o f t h e s i g n a l c a b l e , Cc = s i g n a l
c a b l e c a p a c i t a n c e , C3 = a u x i l i a r y c a p a c i t a n c e .

In the case o f a damped c a p a c i t i v e divider.;- s e r i e s matching i s

a l s o a p p l i e d ; however, t h e t e r m i n a t i o n r e s i s t o r a t t h e c a b l e i n p u t must

be reduced by r e s i s t a n c e IL, c o n t a i n e d i n t h e l o w - v o l t a g e arm,"* F i g u r e 30,

1
Ri

C lL =— T
I —= ^ 0" 2
Z 0
2_ iRX Z
Q > c
c

m
Ro 'u (t)
2

Osc,

F i g u r e 30: Impedance matching f o r damped

capacitive voltage dividers .
 42

3.4.3 N o i s e i n M e a s u r i n g Systems

Different s o u r c e s of n o i s e may be d e s c r i b e d w i t h r e f e r e n c e to the

t y p i c a l i m p u l s e v o l t a g e measuring system shown i n F i g u r e 3 1 .

F i g u r e 31: Impulse v o l t a g e g e n e r a t i n g and measuring s y s t e m s .

G - impulse generator 0 - test object

C - front capacitor CA - measuring c a b l e
D - voltage divider T - i s o l a t i n g transformer
I - recording instrument

The n o i s e t a k e s the form of c u r r e n t (or v o l t a g e s ) injected into various

components of the system w h i c h g i v e r i s e t o measuring e r r o r s i n the

form of p o t e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e s superimposed upon the a c t u a l s i g n a l . The

following types of n o i s e can be i d e n t i f l e d : »^»^ »^

a) C u r r e n t s induced i n the s h i e l d of the measuring c a b l e due to

ground p o t e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e s between the d i v i d e r ' s ground and

the measuring i n s t r u m e n t ' s ground d u r i n g t r a n s i e n t s . To

e l i m i n a t e t h e s e c u r r e n t s , b o t h the d i v i d e r and the measuring

i n s t r u m e n t have to be grounded o n l y a t one p o i n t , w h i c h i s

 43

usually at the divider side. In the UBC laboratory, the

oscilloscope i s not grounded d i r e c t l y , but only i n d i r e c t l y

through the shield of the measuring cable.

b) Currents induced i n the shield of the measuring cable i f i t

forms part of a loop made up of the divider ground connection,

the cable shield, the instrument case, and the ground return;

such a loop i s represented by a dotted l i n e i n Figure 31. The

induced currents may be due to quasi-stationary (magnetic and

e l e c t r i c ) f i e l d s as well as to radiation f i e l d s . Radiation

f i e l d s are generally b u i l t up by very high frequency phenomena

such as triggering of sphere gaps of the impulse generator, or

discharges i n the test c i r c u i t . The quasi-stationary f i e l d s

may be generated by current flowing i n the high-voltage circuit.

Currents may also be induced due to capacitive coupling between

the cable shield and the high—voltage circuit.

c) Signals penetrating d i r e c t l y into the active parts of the

measuring instrument due to lack of screening. They are mainly

due to radiation f i e l d s .

d) Currents induced into the mains wire due to stationary f i e l d s

as well as to radiation f i e l d s . These currents may or may not

penetrate into the measuring instrument, depending on the e f f e c t i v e -

ness of the i s o l a t i n g transformer and the high frequency blocking

devices (low-pass f i l t e r s ) .

There are two techniques to suppress the high-frequency shield

currents. One way i s to increase the shield impedance, which can be

achieved by winding the measuring cable (of coaxial type) on a f e r r i t e

 44

core or by sliding a number of ferrite toroids over the length of

the cable. The disadvantage of this technique is that for long signal

cables or very rapid pulses, the voltage and current distribution

along the line is non-uniform (standing waves) and a lumped dissipative

inductance no longer provides wide-band attenuation, because at a

particular frequency the location of the core may coincide with a zero-

current location."'

The other alternative is applying additional cable shields. This

method permits the cable currents, originally flowing through the signal

cable's braid and the oscilloscope cabinet, to bypass both and hence to

eliminate the interfering voltage drops. The outermost shield is grounded

at both ends or at many places throughout its length. Figure 32 compares

the two cases of a simple coaxial cable and a cable with a double shield.

In Figure 3 2 , i-^ is the inducing current flowing in the high-voltage

circuit; i 2 (or 13) is the induced current flowing in the secondary

(or tertiary) loop. C 2 represents the capacitance between the instrument

case and the ground, (in practice, the capacitance of winding to screen

of the isolating transformer).

For the simple coaxial cable the induced current is given by the

expression:^

s2 L12 C2
Io(s) = IT (S) S = Laplace operator (17)
1 + s2 L 2 C 2

where L 1 2 is the mutual inductance, and Lj, and L 2 are the self inductances

of the primary and secondary loops respectively.

If the instrument case is grounded, C 2 = °°, the induced current

is maximum. This condition leads to maximum n o i s e , and should therefore

be avoided.
 45

~1 x
l k L
1 2 J 12

L2.

x
2

System diagram Equivalent circuit

(a)

1.
1 !1

J
23
C2

' L l ^

•L 3

77777m77777Z7777777^777777777777m7/7m
System diagram Equivalent circuit
(b)

Figure 32: Currents induced in the cable shields by quasi-

stationary magnetic fields.

a) Simple coaxial b) Double coaxial

For the double-shield coaxial cable, provided that the outer

shield i s grounded at both ends, the current i n the inner shield is

given by:

s (Li2
2
- Li3).C 2

I Cs) =
2 .Il(s) (18)
1 + s (L 2
2 - L 2 3 ) . C 2

and the current i n the outer shield i s given by t h e equation:'

^13
I3<s) Ii(s) (19)
 46

Since ~ ^13 a
0> (loop 2 and loop 3 almost have the same area),

the induced current in the inner shield is negligible, while the outer-

shield takes most of the current, thus giving a good p r o t e c t i v e effect.

To h a v e b e t t e r shielding effect, an iron conduit is often used as

the outermost shield. This will shield the measuring cable from electric

as w e l l as magnetic fields. In addition, the self inductance of the

measuring cable shield is increased.

Direct penetration of signals into the active parts of the measuring

instrument is avoided by putting the measuring instrument inside a

metal enclosure.

The o v e r a l l layout of the shielding of the measuring system is

shown in Figure 33. This layout also describes the shielding system in

the UBC h i g h - v o l t a g e laboratory with the exception that ferrite cores

are not used.

enclosure

Figure 33: C o r r e c t measurement c i r c u i t l a y o u t , avoiding

c a b l e b r a i d and c a b i n e t c u r r e n t interference.

Finally, to block the currents induced into the mains w i r e , an

isolating transformer and a low pass filter are installed before the

power input of the measuring instrument. It is often sufficient to

wind t h e power c o r d on a f e r r i t e c o r e , which was a l s o done i n t h e UBC

high voltage laboratory.

 4. EXPERIMENT EXERCISES

4.1 Introduction

All t e s t s are done on the "HAEFELY MULTI TEST SET" which i s a

v e r s a t i l e system capable o f p r o d u c i n g a l l major v o l t a g e types:

- AC v o l t a g e s 50/60 Hz, up to 75 KV rms.

- DC v o l t a g e s up to 200 KV.

- Impulse v o l t a g e s up t o 200 KV.

This f l e x i b i l i t y a l l o w s the system to be used i n many areas such

as the f o l l o w i n g :

Industrial applications: F a c t o r y t e s t s on i n s u l a t o r s , bushings,

capacitors, switchgear, instrument trans

formers, c a b l e s and d i s t r i b u t i o n trans-

formers .

U t i l i t y applications.: Field t e s t i n g o f l a i d - i n c a b l e s and comrr

p l e t e l y assembled switchgear.

Teaching and r e s e a r c h applications:

Demonstrates w i t h AC, DC and impulse

voltages.

Generation and measurement of h i g h t e s t

voltages .

Laboratory t r a i n i n g i n high-voltage tech

nology .

Experiments w i t h i n s u l a t o r and e l e c t r o d e

configurations.

Teaching and r e s e a r c h a p p l i c a t i o n w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s chapter

 49

4.2 AC test

4.2.1 Breakdown v o l t a g e of sphere gaps

A minor modification to the system has to b e made for this experiment.

A resistor, which has enough r a t e d value, has to be inserted in the primary

circuit of the transformer to limit the primary current during breakdown.

A five-ohm resistor was installed so that the maximum p r i m a r y current

during breakdown is less than the operating current of the protection

unit (37A).

Before starting the experiment, the surfaces of the spheres should

be p o l i s h e d and s e v e r a l breakdown tests made t o remove any dust particles.

Then five readings s h o u l d be taken for each spacing, from which the a-

rithmetic mean v a l u e can be determined.^>3

The b r e a k d o w n v o l t a g e s of a s p h e r e gap of 10 cm d i a m e t e r , taken at

22.8°C and 990 m b a r , for different gap spacings are shown in Table 2.

Using the correction factor formula of equation (1), the corresponding

standard breakdown v o l t a g e s are calculated and compared w i t h the accepted

standard breakdown v o l t a g e s in Table 2.

Table 2: Breakdown v o l t a g e s o f a s p h e r e gap o f 10 cm

d i a m e t e r f o r d i f f e r e n t gap s p a c i n g s .

Gap .Corresponding U Accepted U^Q % error

U
d DO

(mm) (KV) (KV) (KV)

10 31.25 32.3 31.6 2 .2

20 57.23 59.0 59.1 0.2

30 82.00 84.7 84.1 0.7

It can be seen that the error is s t i l l below the measuring uncertainty

of 3%; therefore, the result is acceptable.

4.2.2 Corona voltage of a single conductor and a bundle conductor

Either an AC o r DC s o u r c e can be used for this experiment. Corona

shields must be p l a c e d on both ends of the conductor to avoid sharp

point effects. A simple corona shield can be b u i l t from aluminum f o i l .

Having connected the conductor with the voltage source, one can

start the experiment. With no light in the laboratory, voltage is i n -

creased until corona begins to appear on the conductor. The voltage

at this state is the corona onset voltage. This voltage can be compared

11 12
with the calculated value which is obtained from the formula: '

18 C e V c o r 2r(n-l) IT , KV
nr s n cm

where:

,„ . . 0.426, KV
Eo = 3 0 m6 (1 H ; ) — (21)

C : e self capacitance (^ /km)

F

V :
C Q Corona onset voltage (KV)

n: number of subconductors

r: subconductor radius (cm)

s: spacing between adjacent subconductors (cm)

m: Surface or roughness factor ( 0 < m < 1 )

6: Relative air density

 51

For a single conductor and a bundle conductor (2 conductors per

bundle) of 39.5 cm h e i g h t from the ground platform and 0.35 cm radius,

the calculated and the experimental corona onset voltages are shown in

Table 3.

Table 3: Corona onset v o l t a g e s of a s i n g l e

conductor and a bundle c o n d u c t o r .
-
Calculated Experimental % difference
h = 39.5 cm
Value (KV) Value (KV)
r = .35 cm

Single Conductor 85.88 84.85 1.20

Bundled Conductor
(2 C o n d u c t o r s ) 126.59 123.04 2.81
s = 2 cm

Since the differences between the two values are fairly small, one can

conclude that the experiment is consistent with the theoretical formula.

4.3 DC test

4.3.1 Ripple measurement

The h i g h DC v o l t a g e s , whose r i p p l e is to be m e a s u r e d , are produced

from high AC v o l t a g e s . The r e c t i f i c a t i o n can be either half wave or

Greinacher doubler as explained in chapter 2. Figure 34 shows the

complete circuit of a DC v o l t a g e generator and its measuring devices.

T h e DC v o l t a g e is measured w i t h a resistive divider and a DC voltmeter,

and the ripple by a capacitive resistive divider and either a peak volt-

meter or an o s c i l l o s c o p e . The capacitor is meant to block the DC com-

ponent such that only the ripple appears on the lower resistive divider.

An a r r e s t o r has to be put in parallel with the measuring device as a

 52

- Grounding switch
- Resistive divider
- C o n t r o l box DC
voltmeter
- Capacitor's resistor
- Capacitor
- Arrestor
- P e a k voltmeter
- Oscilloscope

Figure 34: Overall circuit of the ripple measurement experiment.

protection against overvoltages, because a considerable amount of the

blocked DC v o l t a g e w i l l appear on the terminal of the measuring device

if the voltage suddenly drops to zero. This fault c a n c a u s e damage to

the measuring device if no arrestor is used.

The p e r c e n t ripples for different values of DC v o l t a g e s are shown

in table 4:

U D C (KV) % ripple

12.25 0.12

24.90 0.11

37.50 0.12

50.00 0.13

62.50 0.14

74.80 0.14

87.50 0.15

Table 4: Percent ripples for different values of DC voltages.

 53

4.3.2 Polarity effect In a P o i n t - P l a n e gap

Positive and n e g a t i v e DC v o l t a g e s are applied to observe the polarity

effect of this gap. A protective resistor (6000 fi) is used to protect the

smoothing capacitor C s against sudden short circuits during breakdown. In

addition, the voltage may n o t be i n c r e a s e d beyond 70 KV t o avoid over-

loading of the rectifiers and capacitors.

The arrangement of the point-plane gap, w h i c h was used for the exper-

iment, and the corresponding relationship between breakdown voltage and

spacing are shown in Figure 35. ' One c a n s e e t h a t for larger spacings, a

positive point electrode has lower breakdown v o l t a g e s than a negative

point electrode. For, a positive point electrode the electrons move

KV

Breakdown
80 4
voltage
(magnitude)

10 20 30 40 50 60 G ap

(a)

Figure 35: Polarity effect in a point-plane gap.

(a) Electrodes configuration

(b) Breakdown v o l t a g e v e r s u s s p a c i n g curve

towards it, producing excess positive charges in the direction of the

plates, and therefore the growth of discharge channel is stimulated.

 54

4.4 Impulse Test

4.4.1 Preliminary Preparations

A. O s c i l l o s c o p e and i t s a t t e n u a t o r

To determine t h e r e q u i r e d bandwidth of the o s c i l l o s c o p e the h i g h e s t

frequency, f m a x , has t o be c o n s i d e r e d , which i s a f u n c t i o n o f the s i z e

of the g e n e r a t i n g system and can be determined by the f o r m u l a : ^

MHz (22)
-max 4( H g + H c )

where: C = v e l o c i t y of l i g h t , 300 / y s
m

Hg = the h e i g h t of g e n e r a t o r in m

H c = the h e i g h t o f f r o n t c a p a c i t o r i n m

The approximate bandwidth o f the o s c i l l o s c o p e i s then g i v e n by the

formula:^

f l i m (-3dB) = — (23)
2^ T(osc)

1
where: T( c)
O S = : :
4 TT fmax

For t h e "HAEFELY" t e s t system, the generator and t h e f r o n t c a p a c i t o r

are both of 1 m h e i g h t and consequently the upper l i m i t o f o s c i l l o s c o p e

bandwidth i s :

3 0 0
= 37.5 MHz , (24)
™ a x
4(1+1)

flim <-3dB) = — = 75 MHz (25)

4.TT f
max

The TEKTRONIX 475 o s c i l l o s c o p e has a bandwidth o f 200 MHz which clearly

s a t i s f i e s the r e q u i r e m e n t .

The a t t e n u a t o r has t o be a d j u s t e d c o r r e c t l y so t h a t n e i t h e r o v e r -

compensation n o r undercompensation o c c u r . The b e h a v i o u r o f a compen-

s a t e d a t t e n u a t o r e x c i t e d by a square wave i s shown i n F i g u r e 36.

F i g u r e 36: Output of a compensated a t t e n u a t o r f o r d i f f e r e n t

degrees of compensation.

(a) C o r r e c t compensation
(b) Overcompensated
(c) Undercompensated
 56

B. Circuit Analysis

The impulse waveform can be p r e d i c t e d with the UBC E l e c t r o m a g n e t i c

Transients Program (EMTP)^ The input of the program is the model of

the circuit. Theoretically, the impulse circuit consists of capacitors

and resistors only, but since the circuit interconnection is quite long

unavoidable inherent inductance exists in the circuit. This inductance

was m e a s u r e d w i t h a simple resonant circuit and an a p p r o x i m a t e value of

1 uH w a s obtained. Including this inherent inductance in the model of

the circuit, one finds that there is a curvature at the beginning of the

waveform (shown in Figure 37).

IMPULSE VOLTAGE

Ti Mc IMICR03EC0NGS)

Figure 37: Impulse voltage waveform obtained by using EMTP.

Thus, to determine the origin of the waveform, the customary straight

line through 30% a n d 90% p o i n t s has to be drawn.

The inherent inductance can be r e d u c e d by putting all the components

of the impulse circuit on the ground platform, thus, eliminating the

 57

s u p p l i e d metal base. T h i s procedure was used i n the l a b o r a t o r y n o t o n l y

to reduce the inductance but a l s o t o e l i m i n a t e o r minimize t h e ground

loops .

4.4.2 N o i s e Reductions

A. Ground loop e l i m i n a t i o n

Due to t h e e x i s t e n c e of r a d i a t i o n f i e l d s and q u a s i - s t a t i o n a r y fields,

ground l o o p s have t o be e l i m i n a t e d o r minimized t o reduce common mode

interference. T h i s can be achieved by p u t t i n g the whole impulse circuit

on the ground p l a t f o r m and l a y i n g the measuring c a b l e as c l o s e as p o s s i b l e

to t h e ground platform.

B. Further noise reduction

In a d d i t i o n t o ground loop e l i m i n a t i o n , common mode i n t e r f e r e n c e

can f u r t h e r be reduced by u s i n g a m u l t i s h i e l d c a b l e i n s t e a d o f a simple

coaxial cable. T h i s w i l l a l l o w t h e ground c u r r e n t , which f o r m e r l y flowed

i n t h e i n n e r c a b l e s h i e l d , t o flow i n t h e o u t e r shields. In t h e l a b o r a t o r y ,

a t r i a x i a l cable l a i d i n a grounded copper tube i s used.

As a comparison, t h e impulse o s c i l l o g r a m of t h e c i r c u i t w i t h ground

loops and a simple c o a x i a l c a b l e and t h a t o f t h e c i r c u i t w i t h reduced

ground l o o p s and a s h i e l d e d c a b l e a r e shown i n F i g u r e 38. I t can be seen

that t h e n o i s e has been reduced considerably.

Some minor i n t e r f e r e n c e s can s t i l l be seen i n F i g u r e 38b. These

i n t e r f e r e n c e s a r e due :to r a d i a t i o n f i e l d s and q u a s i - s t a t i o n a r y fields

which p e n e t r a t e i n t o t h e o s c i l l o s c o p e d i r e c t l y and/or through t h e power

line.
 58

(a)
5S555SSSBB

Time s c a l e : 2 y s e c / d i v .

F i g u r e 38a: Impulse o s c i l l o g r a m of the c i r c u i t w i t h ground

loops and a simple c o a x i a l c a b l e .

(b)

Time s c a l e : 0.5 ysec/div.

"Figure 38b: Impulse o s c i l l o g r a m o f the c i r c u i t w i t h
reduced ground loops and s h i e l d e d c a b l e .
 To e l i m i n a t e them, t h e o s c i l l o s c o p e i s s h i e l d e d w i t h a m e t a l

box and a low-pass f i l t e r i s i n s e r t e d i n t h e incoming power l i n e . As

a r e s u l t , a c o n t i n u o u s and c l e a n o s c i l l o g r a m was o b t a i n e d (shown i n

F i g u r e 39).

Time s c a l e : 0.5 usec/div.

F i g u r e 39: Impulse o s c i l l o g r a m of t h e c i r c u i t w i t h reduced

ground loops and a s h i e l d e d c a b l e . Oscilloscope
i s i n s i d e a m e t a l box.
 5. CONCLUSIONS

The UBC high-voltage test set, which has been s l i g h t l y modified

and expanded, can now be used f o r various experiments f o r undergraduate

students. AC and DC tests have been performed repeatedly with repro-

ducible r e s u l t s .

For impulse tests various techniques of shielding have been applied

in the UBC high-voltage laboratory to obtain reasonably accurate impulse

oscillograms.
 61

LIST OF R E F E R E N C E S

1. Power System I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n and Measurement Committee of the

IEEE Power E n g i n e e r i n g S o c i e t y , " I E E E Guide f o r F i e l d T e s t i n g
Power A p p a r a t u s I n s u l a t i o n " , I E E E I n c . , New Y o r k , 1978.

2. D. Kind, "An Introduction To H i g h - V o l t a g e Experimental

Technique", (Book), Braunschweig, Vieweg, 1978.

3. E. K u f f e l a n d M. A b d u l l a h , " H i g h - V o l t a g e Engineering",
(Book), Pergamon P r e s s L t d . , O x f o r d , 1970.

4. IEC S t a n d a r d , " H i g h - V o l t a g e T e s t T e c h n i q u e s " , Bureau C e n t r a l

de l a C o m m i s s i o n E l e c t r o t e c h n i q u e I n t e r n a t i o n a l e , G e n e v e , 1 9 7 6 ,
Part 3: Measuring Devices.

5. A . J . Schwab, "High-Voltage Measurement Techniques", (Book),

The M . I . T . Press, Massachusetts, 1972.

6. A . J . Schwab, " E l e c t r o m a g n e t i c I n t e r f e r e n c e i n Impulse Measuring

S y s t e m s " , I E E E P E S Summer M e e t i n g , V a n c o u v e r , B . C . , Canada,
1973, P a p e r No: T73 0 6 2 - 7 .

7. Aa. Pedersen, J . Stavness, L. Thione, "Instruments for Impulse

Voltage Measurements O s c i l l o s c o p e s and Crest Voltmeters",
Electra.No: 59, 1978, pp. 41-90.

8. R. M a l e w s k i , D. t r a i n , A . D e c h a m p l a i n , " C a v i t y R e s o n a n c e E f f e c t
i n L a r g e HV L a b o r a t o r i e s E q u i p p e d w i t h E l e c t r o m a g n e t i c Shield",
IEEE P E S W i n t e r M e e t i n g , New Y o r k , 1 9 7 7 .

9. R. Malewski and G.R. Nourse, "Transient Measurement Techniques in

EHV Systems", IEEE Trans, on Power A p p a r . and Syst., Vol. PAS-97,
No: 3, 1978.

10. V. Palva, IRR-IMS Group (1), " F a c i n g UHV M e a s u r i n g Problems",

Electra No: 35, 1976, pp. 155-256.

11. A. Inoue, "High-Voltage Travelling Waves w i t h Corona Discharge on

Bundled Conductors", IEEE PES Winter Meeting, New Y o r k , 1978,
Paper No: A78 170-3.

12. " T r a n s m i s s i o n L i n e R e f e r e n c e Book - 345 KV and A b o v e " , Electric

Power R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e , P a l o A l t o , CA, 1975.

13. N. Ari, "Electromagnetic Phenomena in Impulse Voltage Measuring

Systems", IEEE Trans, on Power A p p a r . and Syst., Vol. PAS-96,
No: 4, 1977.

14. H.W. Dommel, "Transients Program User's Manual", Dept. of Electrical

Engineering, The U n i v e r s i t y of British Columbia, Vancouver, B.C.,
Canada. V6T 1W5.
 APPENDIX I

SAFETY REGULATIONS FOR HIGH-VOLTAGE EXPERIMENTS

Experiments w i t h h i g h v o l t a g e s c o u l d become p a r t i c u l a r l y hazar-

dous f o r the p a r t i c i p a n t s should the s a f e t y p r e c a u t i o n s be inadequate.

To g i v e an i d e a of the r e q u i r e d s a f e t y measures, as an example the

s a f e t y r e g u l a t i o n s of the High-Voltage I n s t i t u t e of The Technical

2

U n i v e r s i t y o f Braunschweig s h a l l be d e s c r i b e d below. These supplement

the a p p r o p r i a t e s a f e t y r e g u l a t i o n s and as f a r as p o s s i b l e prevent risk

to p e r s o n s . Strict observance i s t h e r e f o r e the duty of everyone

working i n the l a b o r a t o r y . Here any v o l t a g e g r e a t e r than 250 V a g a i n s t

e a r t h i s understood to be a:.high v o l t a g e .

Fundamental Rule: Before e n t e r i n g a high-voltage setup everyone must

convince h i m s e l f by p e r s o n a l o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t a l l

the conductors which can assume h i g h p o t e n t i a l and

lie i n c o n t a c t zone a r e e a r t h e d , and that a l l

the main l e a d s a r e i n t e r r u p t e d .

Fencing

A l l high-voltage setups must be p r o t e c t e d a g a i n s t u n i n t e n t i o n a l

e n t r y of the danger zone. T h i s i s a p p r o p r i a t e l y done w i t h the a i d of

m e t a l l i c fences. When s e t t i n g up the fences f o r v o l t a g e s up to 1 MV

the f o l l o w i n g minimum c l e a r a n c e s to the components at high-voltage

should not be reduced:

f o r a l t e r n a t i n g and direct voltages 50 cm f o r every 100 KV

f o r impulse v o l t a g e s 20 cm f o r every 100 KV

However, f o r v o l t a g e s l e s s than 100 KV a minimum c l e a r a n c e of

50 cm has to be m a i n t a i n e d , independent o f the type o f v o l t a g e .

 63

For voltages over 1 MV, i n p a r t i c u l a r f o r switching impulse voltages,

the values quoted could be inadequate; special protective measures must

then be introduced.

The fences should be r e l i a b l y connected with one another conduc-

t i v e l y , earthed and provided with warning boards inscribed: "High-volt-

age! Caution! Highly dangerous!" I t i s forbidden to introduce conduc-

tive objects through the fence whilst the setup i s i n use.

Safety-Locking

In high-voltage setups each door must be provided with safety

switches; these allow the door to be opened only when a l l the main leads

to test setup are interrupted.

Instead of direct interruption, the safety switches may also operate

the no-voltage relay of a power c i r c u i t breaker, which, on opening the

door, interrupts a l l the main leads to the setup. These power c i r c u i t

breakers may only be switched on again when the door i s closed. For

direct supply from a high-voltage network (e.g. 10 KV c i t y network), the

main leads must be interrupted v i s i b l y before entry to the setup by an

additional open i s o l a t i n g switch;

The switched condition of a setup must be indicated by a red lamp

"Setup switched on" and by a green lamp "Setup switched o f f " .

Earthing

A high-voltage setup may be entered only when a l l the parts which

can assume high-voltage i n the contact zone are earthed. Earthing may

only be effected by a conductor earthed inside the fence. Fixing the

 .64

e a r t h i n g l e a d s onto t h e p a r t s t o be e a r t h e d s h o u l d be done w i t h t h e a i d

of i n s u l a t i n g r o d s . Earthing switches w i t h a c l e a r l y v i s i b l e operating

position, are also permissible. I n high-power setups w i t h d i r e c t supply

from t h e h i g h - v o l t a g e network, e a r t h i n g i s a c h i e v e d by e a r t h i n g i s o l a t o r .

E a r t h i n g may o n l y f o l l o w a f t e r s w i t c h i n g t h e c u r r e n t s o u r c e o f f , and may

be removed o n l y when t h e r e i s no l o n g e r anyone p r e s e n t w i t h i n t h e fence

o r i f t h e setup i s v a c a t e d a f t e r removal o f e a r t h . A l l metallic parts

of t h e setup w h i c h do n o t c a r r y p o t e n t i a l d u r i n g normal s e r v i c e must be

o
e a r t h e d r e l i a b l y and w i t h an adequate c r o s s s e c t i o n o f a t l e a s t 1.5 mm .

C i r c u i t and Test Setup

Inasmuch as t h e setup i s not s u p p l i e d from ready w i r e d d e s k s , clearly

marked i s o l a t i n g s w i t c h e s must be p r o v i d e d i n a l l l e a d s t o t h e l o w - v o l t a g e

c i r c u i t s o f h i g h - v o l t a g e t r a n s f o r m e r s and a r r a n g e d a t an e a s i l y identi-

f i a b l e p o s i t i o n outsider.the fence. These must be opened b e f o r e e a r t h i n g

and b e f o r e e n t e r i n g t h e s e t u p .

A l l l e a d s must be l a i d so t h a t t h e r e a r e no l o o s e l y hanging ends.

Low v o l t a g e l e a d s which can assume h i g h p o t e n t i a l s d u r i n g breakdown o r

f l a s h o v e r s and l e a d o u t o f t h e fenced a r e a , e.g. measuring c a b l e , ^ c o n t r o l

c a b l e , s u p p l y c a b l e , must be l a i d i n s i d e t h e setup i n e a r t h e d s l e e v i n g .

A l l components o f the..setup must be e i t h e r r i g i d l y f i x e d o r suspended so

t h a t they cannot t o p p l e d u r i n g o p e r a t i o n o r be p u l l e d down by t h e l e a d s .

F o r a l l setups i n t e n d e d f o r r e s e a r c h p u r p o s e s , a circuit diagram

s h a l l be f i x e d o u t s i d e t h e f e n c e i n c l e a r l y v i s i b l y position.

A t e s t setup may be put i n t o o p e r a t i o n o n l y a f t e r t h e c i r c u i t

has been checked and p e r m i s s i o n t o b e g i n work g i v e n by an a u t h o r i z e d

 65

person.

Conducting the Experiments

Everyone carrying out experiments i n the laboratory i s personally

responsible for the setup placed at h i s disposal and for the experi-

ments performed with i t . For experiments during working hours one

should t r y , i n the interest of personal safety, to make sure that a

second person i s present i n the testing room. I f this i s not possible,

then at least the times of the beginning and end of an experiment should

be communicated to a second person.

When working with high-voltages outside working hours, a second

person familiar with the experimental setups must be present i n the

same room.

Explosion and Fire,..Risk, Radiation Protection

In experiments with o i l and other e a s i l y inflammable materials,

special care i s necessary owing to the danger of explosion and f i r e .

In each room where work i s carried out with these materials, suitable

f i r e extinguishers must be to hand, ready for use. Easily inflammable

waste products, e.g. paper or used cotton waste, should always be d i s -

posed of immediately i n metal cans. Special regulations must be

observed when radioactive sources are used.

 66

APPENDIX I I

FORMULA OF MODE OSCILLATIONS

The f o r m u l a o f mode o s c i l l a t i o n s i na rectangular resonator

can be d e r i v e d from MAXWELL's e q u a t i o n s :

, x H = E | I

V x E . - w f

A f t e r an e x t e n s i v e m a n i p u l a t i o n of these d i f f e r e n t i a l equations,

the e l e c t r i c and the magnetic f i e l d s o f TM modes and TE modes a r e

o b t a i n e d f o r t h e boundary c o n d i t i o n s x = 0, x = a and y = 0, y = b:

TM modes:

n r \ ™ r -i 3mir „ _ .mirx. „. ,mry. i (wt-gz) "

E (x,y) = Re { - f h — C C o s ( ) SinC-r -) e }a 2 J

ox-^
m J
h a mn]_ a b z
x

n t \ T, r - j 3mr _ „. ,mT7x _ /nTry. j (wt-gz) -, *

< h^b" Cmn-L S i n C ^ ) Cos(-^-) e
x
E
oyi ( x
' y )
= R e
}a J
y

E O Z i ( x , y ) = Re { C ^ Sin(^) Sin(^) e ^ " ^ } z a

C m n i S i n ( ^ ) C o s ( ^ ) «J } a x

H o y i ( x , y ) = Re ( ^ f f C m n i Cos(=?) S i n (52*) e ^ " ^ >a y

where: C m n c o r r e s p o n d s t o the p a r t i c u l a r mode d e f i n e d by a

g i v e n c h o i c e o f m and n. (m, n a r e i n t e g e r s )

B z
= yew - ( a— r - (-;b-)

h 2
= ( -a ) 2
+ ( b^ ) 2
The e l e c t r i c f i e l d s t r a v e l i n g i n the o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n a r e :

n r \ rt -f ~j Bmn „ /HITTX. „ . /niry. j (cot+Bz) \ -

E O X 2 (x,y) = R e i —j- C m n 2
n
C o s ( — ) Sin(-^-) e J
i ax

T? / \ T> -iBnir /imrx. „ /niry. j (cot+Bz)

Eoy (x,y) = R {
2 2 Cmn e
J
h b 2
S l n
(—) C o s e J
} ay

A p p l y i n g boundary c o n d i t i o n z = 0 and z = C , the f o l l o w i n g is

obtained:

z=0: E O X l (x,y) + E O X 2 (x,y) = 0

(Mi + M ) Cos ( 2 ^ ) SinC ^) 5

S i n cot = 0
a b
2

where: K
l = C
mni
h^a x

Therefore, M-^ = - M 2

z = C ; E
o x l ( 'y)
x
+ ox ( .y)
E
2
x
= 0

M.. C o s ( — ) S±n(~^-) { S i n (tot - BC) - S i n (cot + BC) } = 0

1 a b

- 2 Cos cot S i n BC

S i n BC = 0 BC = PTT

where: p i s an i n t e g e r

C
 T>
But
^ rP-
g = yeco
2

-
,mi7.2
(—) -
,1117.2
(—)
a b

Therefore,

, = U I (—) 2
+ (£1) + 2
(SE) 2

/u7 V a b c

or

f = — — \ / c ^ ) + <ir
2 ) 2
+ c^-) 2

2i7/ye" y

The same e x p r e s s i o n can d e r i v e d from E ( x , y ) and E ( x , y ) and from

TE modes.