Iain McCulloch

The Application of Filters in Black and White Photography

Filters have a wide range of applications in photography. Essentially, a light filter is a

transparent material which modifies the characteristics of the light passing through it. Some
filters absorb or ‘filter-out’ particular wavelengths of light. These ‘colour correction’ filters
will affect the image recorded on the film. Another group of filters create special effects like
‘star’ or ‘diffuser’ filters. These create particular artistic effects on the photographic image. A
third category of ‘colourless’ filters are used to compensate for environmental conditions
which the photographer wishes to eliminate from the final image. These include ultra-violet
or ‘skylight’ filters, ‘neutral density’ filters, and ‘polarising’ filters. The three categories of
filters will be considered in turn.

The response of photographic film to light is not exactly the same as the human eye. The
difference for panchromatic film is illustrated in figure 1 below:

Figure 1: Colour reproduction of panchromatic film relative to the eye's response

(after Langford, 1986)

Light of shorter wavelengths (violets and blues), and of longer wavelengths (orange-red) thus
appear lighter than we would judge by eye. By contrast, green shades, nearer the middle of the
visible spectrum, appear darker. The vast majority of black and white films have a
panchromatic sensitivity to colour [Langford, 1986, p163]. Spectral sensitivity curves are
published by manufacturers with the data sheets for their films. The spectral sensitivity curves
for Ilford HP5+ and Ilford Delta 100 black and white film (taken from the relevant Ilford
data-sheets) are shown in figures 2 and 3 below for comparison.

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Figure 2: Ilford HP5+ Spectral Sensitivity Curve Figure 3: Ilford Delta 100 Spectral Sensitivity Curve

A frequently encountered effect of the spectral sensitivity of panchromatic film can be seen
when photographing white clouds in a blue sky. The sky records much paler than it seemed to
the eye at the time, with the result that clouds are barely visible in the final print. This may
change the dramatic effect that the photographer was trying to achieve. Colour filters may be
used to modify the characteristics of light reaching the film. For example, an orange-red filter
used in combination with panchromatic film will absorb much of the blue light making the
sky darker and causing white clouds to stand out.

Coloured filters normally affect the whole image (but see the comments on graduated filters
below). This must be considered when selecting the correct filter. Consider an image
consisting of a landscape with green foliage, blue skies, and white clouds. A described above,
an orange-red filter would darken the sky making clouds stand out. However, it would also
darken the green shades of the foliage. A green filter would darken the sky almost as much
but would make green tones lighter. The effect some of the most commonly used coloured
filters is illustrated in figure 4 below.

Figure 4a: Unfiltered Image Figure 4b: With Yellow Filter

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Figure 4c: With Orange Filter Figure 4d: With Green Filter

(After Cokin, n.d.)

Effects and applications for selected coloured filters are presented in table 1.

Filter filter-factor f-stop

(daylight)
Yellow x2 +1
• Lends contrast to clouds.
• Gently subdues ambient light.
• Lightens skin and blond hair and softens freckles in portraits.
• Provides light black and white contrast.
Orange x4 +2
• Darkens skies; accentuates clouds.
• Strongly subdues ambient light.
• Brings out texture in stonework. Darkens greens.
• Provides medium black and white contrast.
Red x8 +3
• Darkens blue skies, almost to black.
• Turns red stains white. Makes greens darker.
• Reveals grain in wood.
• Provides strong black and white contrast. Used with infra-red film.
Green x4 + 2½
• Darkens blue skies, accentuates clouds.
• Turns green stains white. Makes green vegetation lighter.
• Slightly darkens colour of skin & lips in portraits, but will exaggerate
red skin blemishes.
Yellow-Green x2 + 1½
• Tones down blue skies.
• Good for outdoor portraits, but may exaggerate freckles.
• Corrects response of panchromatic film to approximate to that of
human eye.
Blue x6 +3
• Lightens blue skies.
• Turns red stains black.
Table 1: Colour Filter Characteristics

It will be noted that each filter has an associated “filter-factor”. This factor is the increase in
exposure which will be required if a hand-held meter is used. If a through-the-lens (TTL)
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metering system is used, it is important that the filter to be used is attached when calculating
exposure. The filter factors given in the table are those recommended for Cokin filters
[Cokin, n.d., p99]. Manufacturers technical descriptions should be checked to determine the
filter-factor for the filter used.

Obviously, filters must be placed in front of the lens in order to affect the light reaching the
film. Filters are available in three main forms: thin sheets of dyed gelatin, glass screw-mount
filters, and “filter systems”. The choice of which form to use depends on how photographers
use their camera system. Gelatin filters are cheap but fragile. They are either held over the
lens or cut to size and mounted in a holder. Screw mount filters are more robust and also
more expensive. Since they screw directly onto the end of the lens, they are normally only
used with a single lens diameter (although adapters are available).

Filter systems are made by a number of manufacturers including Cokin, Hoya, Jessops and
Boots. Filter holders are attached to the lens with a screw-fit adapter. A wide range of filters
can then be fitted into the holder. Common filter sizes for filter systems are 67x67mm,
75x75mm, and 84x84mm. Each requires the appropriate holder. The size should be chosen to
avoid vignetting with the particular camera/lens combination being used. There are times
when the effect that the photographer wishes to achieve requires something more than simple
colour correction filters. Several manufacturers produce a range of effects filters: far too many
to be exhaustively covered here! Most effects filters can be used with either colour or black
and white photography. Some examples will suffice to illustrate what is available.

* Graduated filters are only coloured on only part (typically half) of the
filter. Thus the effect will only be seen on that part of the image framed
against the coloured half of the filter.

* Star filters have a pattern of lines etched on the surface which cause
light to flare along the lines. The pattern determines the number of rays
(commonly 2, 4, 8, or 16). With these filters a high-intensity light source
appears as a star. The size of the star depends on aperture.

* Diffusion filters produce some degree of soft-focus. “Portrait-soft”

diffusion filters can be used to soften facial lines and highlights in portrait
work. The effect of diffusion filters varies with focal length and aperture.

* Spot filters have a clear central area and a diffused surround. They are
often used in portrait photography.

The final category of filters, ‘colourless’ filters, are also suitable for use with either black and
white or colour photography. The three main types of ‘colourless’ filters used in black and
white photography are ultra-violet (UV) filters, neutral-density (ND) filters, and polarising
filters.

Unlike the human eye, film is sensitive to ultra-violet light. Scattered UV shows as a misty
haze on distance shots, especially in mountains or near the sea. A filter which absorbs UV
eliminates this haze and helps record the image as it appears to the eye. If the lens is also used
for colour photography the ‘skylight’ filter may be used in place of a standard UV filter. This
has a slightly pink colour to correct the blue colour cast which accompanies high ambient UV
conditions. Many photographers fit a screw-mounted UV or skylight filter to every lens. This

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not only eliminates UV but also offers relatively inexpensive protection against damage to the
lens itself.

Neutral density (ND) filters affect all wavelengths of light equally. Thus they simply reduce
the amount of light reaching the film. This can be important in a number of circumstances.
For example, if one needed to take pictures in bright sunlight on a high-speed film, or a wide
aperture was required in order to limit the depth of field. Alternatively, a ND filter may be
required to allow use of a slow shutter speed to create blur on moving objects. Neutral density
filters are grey in appearance and are available in a range of densities. Table 2 shows the light
transmission, aperture increase and time increase offered by a range of neutral-density filters.

FILTER TRANSMISSION APERTURE TIME

(stops)
ND0.1 79.4% ⅓ x 1.25
ND0.2 63.1% ⅔ 1.50
ND0.3 50.0% 1 2.00
ND0.4 39.8% 1⅓ 2.50
ND0.5 31.6% 1⅔ 3.00
ND0.6 25.0% 2 4.00
ND0.7 19.6% 2⅓ 5.00
ND0.8 15.9% 2⅔ 6.00
ND0.9 12.5% 3 8.00
ND1.0 9.8% 3⅓ 10.0
ND1.2 6.25% 4 12.0
ND2.0 1.0% 6⅔ 100
Table 2: Characteristics of Neutral Density Filters

Polarised light is light which can only vibrate in a single plane The human eye cannot
distinguish between polarised and non-polarised light, but both types occur all around us. For
example, light reflected from non-metallic surfaces is often polarised. A polarising filter only
allows light which is vibrating in a particular plane to pass through. Thus, by rotating the
filter one can choose which light to accept and which to eliminate from the picture. The
polarising filter can subdue unwanted reflections (figure 5), darken blue skies and enrich

colours.

Figure 5: Effect of Polarising Filter

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There are two types of polarising filter: linear polarisers and circular polarisers. The names
have nothing to do with the shape of the filters, but describe the polarising materials used in
their construction. Circular polarisers may need to be used with autofocus SLR cameras to
avoid problems with exposure-reading or focus-sensing mechanisms.

Filters are thus an important tool for the photographer. They extend the range of images
which can be produced by the photographer. Coloured filters can be used to change how
colours reproduce on black and white film. With a knowledge of the spectral sensitivity of the
film and the effect of various colour filters, experienced photographers can produce exactly
the image they require. Effects filters can be used to produce artistic images, although they
should be used with care. More images have been ruined than enhanced by use of effects
filters. Use of ultra-violet, neutral-density, and polarising filters can allow pictures to be taken
in conditions which would otherwise pose enormous problems.

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Bibliography
Busselle, M., (1988) The Complete 35mm Sourcebook, Mitchell Beazley, London.

Calder, J. & Garrett, J., (1986) The New 35mm Photographers Handbook (2nd Edition), Pan,
London.

Cokin, (n.d.) Cokin Creative Filter System, France.

Dorrell, P.G., (1994) Photography in Archaeology and Conservation (2nd edition),

Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Freeman, M., (1980) The 35mm Handbook, Windward, Leicester.

Hedgecoe, J., (1979) Introductory Photography Course, Mitchell Beazley, London.

Langford, M., (1986) Basic Photography (5th Edition), Focal Press, Oxford.

Langford, M., (1989) Advanced Photography (5th Edition), Focal Press, Oxford.

Shipman, C., (1979) How to Select and Use Canon SLR Cameras , HPBooks, Tucson,
Arizona.