Ac Theory

Module
AC Theory
1
What is AC?
AC Waves
What you'll learn in Module 1.
Section 1.1 AC Waves
Recognise common uses for AC
Recognise a sine wave
Section 1.2 Measuring the Sine Wave
Know measurements associated with sine waves
a. Peak to peak value.
b. Amplitude.
c. Peak value.
d. Periodic time.
e. Average value.
f. RMS value.
Section 1.3 AC Waves Quiz
Recall information on AC waves.
AC THEORY MODULE 01.PDF 1 © E COATES 2007 -2010

www.learnabout-electronics.org AC Waves
Module 1 − Introduction to AC Waves.

What is AC?
As you study this and the following modules on AC (Alternating Current) theory, notice that the circuits
described use two main components, inductors and capacitors, which in many ways seem to have
opposite and complimentary effects. It is the way they are connected in a circuit, as well as their
individual electrical values that are key to the many uses of these circuits. Although in many cases
these basic combinations of inductors and capacitors may now be replaced by new and usually
smaller ceramic components, the basic principles of these LCR (inductor - L, capacitor - C and resistor
- R) circuits are essential to understanding the operation of many electronic systems and the signals
that use them.
AC Waves.
Because waves are the basis of so many signals in electronic circuits, it is important that engineers
and technicians can make measurements of the important characteristics of the waves used in AC
technology. When AC is mentioned, perhaps the first thing that comes to mind is the "mains" or "line"
supply that brings electricity to homes, factories and offices. There are many different applications of
AC, and although the meaning of AC, is "Alternating Current" (a current that alternates its direction of
flow around a circuit) "AC" is often used in other terms such as "AC signal" and even "AC voltage".
Whenever the current in a circuit alternates, so will the voltage, and an alternating voltage will of
course, cause an alternating current, even though in many cases one or other of these properties
(voltage or current) may be so small as to be insignificant.
Complex Signal Waveforms
These alternating currents and voltages come in very many forms,

the electricity power supply of course, and all sorts of other signals
too. Sound, light, video, radio, all produce signals that alternate;
meaning, they change their values over time, alternating above and
below a particular value (often, but not always zero). Our bodies
also produce alternating electrical signals, as do all sorts of natural
and man-made objects and devices. These signals are what
engineers and technicians are most often interested in when
studying electronics, but signals come in many very different forms.
To understand complex signals, there is often a need to simplify them; if the signal can be understood
in its simplest form, then that understanding can be applied to the complex signal.
The Sine Wave
Many signal waves tend to be repetitive, or "periodic". They repeat

a particular pattern or wave shape over a regular time period. The
most important of all the different wave shapes is the sine wave,
because any periodic wave can be shown to be made up of a
series of pure sine waves, perhaps of many different frequencies
and amplitudes. The sine wave is important to electronics
engineers because of its purity, it consists of only a single
frequency; it alternates regularly above and below its mid value at
a constant rate. In a musical note this rate, the frequency, would
be referred to as the pitch of the note.
All waves except sine waves contain a number of different frequencies. They have one dominant
frequency called "the fundamental", plus (often many) others called "harmonics", that give a wave its
particular character. Rather than looking at how a circuit acts with complex periodic waves, which are
made up of many of pure sine waves, it is much easier to use single sine waves. Measuring sine
waves is therefore important, as the results obtained are a major source of information in
understanding the operation of electronic systems of many kinds.
AC THEORY MODULE 01.PDF 2 © E. COATES 2007 -2010
Module 1.1 AC Waves

What are Waves?
Information is passed from one place, or person, to another in many different ways. Whatever way
information is carried, the SIGNAL used takes the form of waves. These may be sound waves,
electrical waves or light waves, and although these are all physically very different from each other
they may all be represented by WAVEFORMS. A waveform is simply a graph, which shows how the
property described (e.g. sound or electricity), changes with time.
With many of the waves that concern electronics engineers, for example sound or radio waves, the
actual wave, acting at high speeds within the circuitry cannot be seen in any normal way. They must
be viewed with instruments such as the OSCILLOSCOPE, that can draw graphs of these "invisible"
waves, and so allow engineers to check that the wave is present, and has not been distorted in shape
by the equipment under test. The oscilloscope is also used to measure a number of properties of
waves, giving information on the performance of equipment.
Harmonics.
Signal waveforms having very complex shapes are often encountered in electronic equipment, but all
repetitive waves, no matter how complex, can be shown mathematically to consist of a series of much
simpler waves, each of which has the same shape. This wave shape is known as a SINE WAVE
because its graph follows the mathematical SINE function. The shape of a sine wave is quite familiar,
although not usually recognised as such, because its waveform or graph is not readily visible. The
swinging pendulum of a clock traces out a sine wave, and many naturally occurring vibrations are
SINUSOIDAL (that is "of a sine wave shape")
Fig 1.1.1 shows examples of sine waves, plotted mathematically over a series of calculated points
(bottom left). A sine wave can also be produced naturally (top right), by fixing a container such as a
saltshaker to the end of a swinging pendulum, and moving a sheet of coloured paper at a constant
speed beneath it as it swings and deposits its salt. The result is a beautiful sine wave!
Fig 1.1.1

Sine Waves.
The sine wave therefore is a mathematical function and a naturally occurring shape; it is also the basis
of many other wave shapes and is therefore the most important waveform in the study of AC theory.
Other important (complex) waveforms commonly encountered in electronics are:
• The Square wave:
• The Triangular wave:
• The Saw-tooth wave:
Complex Waves.
A complex wave is a wave made up of a series of sine waves; it is therefore more complex than a
single pure sine wave. This series of sine waves always contains a sine wave called the
"FUNDAMENTAL", which has the same FREQUENCY (repetition rate) as the COMPLEX WAVE
being created.
As well as the fundamental, a complex wave contains a series of HARMONICS. These sine waves
have frequencies that are WHOLE NUMBER MULTIPLES of the fundamental; that is, the
fundamental x 2, the fundamental x 3 etc. The fundamental and the harmonics are called the
COMPONENTS of a complex wave. One further component is often present in a complex wave. That
is a D.C. COMPONENT. This is a component "wave" whose frequency is ZERO, i.e. it is not really a
wave but merely a DC value that affects the resultant complex wave. Square, Triangular and Saw-
tooth waves can be shown to consist of a fairly straightforward series of components, you should
remember which series of harmonics makes up which of these three complex waves.
The SQUARE WAVE
Fig 1.1.2
The square wave contains a fundamental and a series of ODD
HARMONICS; that is harmonics which are odd number
multiples of the fundamental (x3 x5 x7 etc.) These are called
the 3rd harmonic, 5th harmonic etc.
The TRIANGULAR WAVE
Fig 1.1.3
The triangular wave also contains a fundamental and a series
of ODD HARMONICS, but in this case, each successive
harmonic component starts in the opposite PHASE to the
previous one. i.e. the 3rd harmonic starts by going positive, the
5th harmonic begins by going negative, the 7th positive and so
on.
This phase change of alternate harmonics is the only difference from the square wave components,
whose harmonics all start in a positive direction, yet the resultant waves are completely different.
Fig 1.1.4
The SAWTOOTH WAVE
The saw tooth wave contains a fundamental and both ODD

and EVEN HARMONICS.
In each of the above cases, the fundamental and just a few harmonic components will give the
resultant wave an approximate shape to the ideal waveforms illustrated. If more harmonics are
included in the series the resultant wave-shape is better, and the more harmonics that are included,
the nearer the complex wave will be to a perfect square or triangular shape. This fact is important in
equipment such as hi−fi amplifiers because the waveform at the loudspeaker should ideally be exactly
the same shape as the waveform at the system's input - so the sound we hear is as close to the
original as possible. This means that it is necessary to reproduce every sine wave component of the
original wave accurately without "losing" any components on the way. Neither should the system add
any harmonics which were not in the original signal. In either case the final output signal would not be
the same shape as the original and unwanted DISTORTION has been introduced into the system.
Fig 1.1.5 Harmonic Distortion
In practice however it is possible to

ignore many of the harmonic
components without a noticeable
effect on the waveform. This is
because the harmonics that are
closest to the fundamental frequency
(2nd, 3rd etc.) have large amplitudes.
They therefore have a greater effect
on the shape of the resultant wave, the
high frequency harmonics (15th, 16th
for example) are very small in
comparison to the lower harmonics
and fundamental, so they only change
the resultant wave very slightly.

Module 1.2 Measuring the Sine Wave.

Fig 1.2.1 Characteristics of a Sine Wave
A waveform is a graph showing the variation, usually of voltage or current, against time. The horizontal
axis shows the passing of time, progressing from left to right. The vertical axis shows the quantity
measured (this is voltage in Fig 1.2.1).
Six of the most important characteristics of a sine wave are;
• The PEAK TO PEAK value.
• The AMPLITUDE.
• The PEAK value.
• The PERIODIC TIME.
• The AVERAGE value.
• The RMS value.
Fig 1.2.1
These characteristics are illustrated in Fig 1.2.1
Peak to Peak value
The PEAK-TO-PEAK value is the vertical distance between the top and bottom of the wave. It will be
measured in volts on a voltage waveform, and may be labelled VPP or VPK−PK. In a current waveform it
would be labelled IPP or IPK−PK as I (not C) is used to represent current.
Amplitude
The AMPLITUDE of a sine wave is the maximum

vertical distance reached, in either direction from the
centre line of the wave. As a sine wave is symmetrical
about its centre line, the amplitude of the wave is half
the peak-to-peak value, as shown in Fig 1.2.2.
Peak value
The PEAK value of the wave is the highest value the

wave reaches above a reference value. The reference
value normally used is zero. In a voltage waveform the
peak value may be labelled VPK or VMAX (IPK or IMAX in a
current waveform).
Fig 1.2.2 Defining the Peak value VPK
If the sine wave being measured is symmetrical either side of zero volts (or zero amperes), meaning
that the dc level or dc component of the wave is zero volts, then the peak value must be the same as
the amplitude, that is half of the peak to peak value.
However this is not always the case, if a dc component other than zero volts is also present, the sine
wave will be symmetrical about this level rather than zero. The bottom waveform in Fig 1.2.2 shows

that the peak value can now be even larger than the peak to peak value, (the amplitude of the wave
however, remains the same, and is the difference between the peak value and the "centre line" of the
waveform).
Periodic Time & Frequency
The PERIODIC TIME (given the symbol T) is the time, in seconds milliseconds etc. taken for one
complete cycle of the wave. It can be used to find the FREQUENCY of the wave ƒ using the formula:
T =1/ƒ
Thus if the periodic time of a wave is 20ms (or 1/50th of a second) then there must be 50 complete
cycles of the wave in one second. A frequency of 50 Hz. Note that when you use this formula, if the
periodic time is in seconds then the frequency will be in Hz.
Determining the Average Value of a Sine Wave
The Average Value.

Fig 1.2.3
This is normally taken to mean the average value of
only half a cycle of the wave. If the average of the full
cycle was taken it would of course be zero, as in a
sine wave symmetrical about zero, there are equal
excursions above and below the zero line.
Using only half a cycle, as illustrated in Fig 1.2.3 the

average value (voltage or current) is always 0.637 of
the peak value of the wave.
VAV = VPK x 0.637
or
IAV = IPK X 0.637
The average value is the value that usually determines the voltage or current indicated on a test
meter. There are however some meters that will read the RMS value, these are called "True RMS
meters".
The RMS or Root Mean Squared Value
This is the value of the equivalent direct (non varying) voltage or current which would provide the
same energy to a circuit as the sine wave measured. That is, if an AC sine wave has a RMS value of
240 volts, it will provide the same energy to a circuit as a DC supply of 240 volts.
It can be shown that the RMS value of a sine wave is 0.707 of the peak value.
VRMS = VPK x 0.707 and IRMS = IPK x 0.707
Also, the peak value of a sine wave is equal to 1.414 x the RMS value.

The Form Factor
If VAV (0.637) is multiplied by 1.11 the answer is 0.707, which is the RMS value. This difference is
called the Form Factor of the wave, and the relationship of 1.11 is only true for a perfect sine wave. If
the wave is some other shape, either the RMS or the average value (or both) will change, and so will
the relationship between them. This is important when measuring AC voltages with a meter as it is the
average value that most meters actually measure. However they display the RMS value simply by
multiplying the voltage by 1.11. Therefore if the AC wave being measured is not a perfect sine wave
the reading will be slightly wrong. If you pay enough money however, you can buy a true RMS meter
that actually calculates the RMS value of non-sine waves.
The Mains (Line) Supply
To demonstrate some of these characteristics in use, consider a very common sine wave, the mains
supply or line waveform, which in many parts of the world is a nominal 230V.
Electrical equipment that connects to the mains supply

always carries a label giving information about what supply
the equipment can be connected to. These labels are quite
variable in appearance, but often there is a picture of a sine
wave showing that an AC supply must be used. The voltage
quoted will be 230V (or 120V in the USA) or range of voltages
including these values. These voltages actually refer to the
RMS value of the mains sine wave. The label also states that
the frequency of the supply, which is 50Hz in Europe or 60Hz
in the USA.
From this small amount of information other values can be worked out:
a. The peak voltage of the waveform, as VPK = VRMS x 1.414
b. The AVERAGE value of the waveform, as VAV = VPK x 0.637
c. The PEAK-TO-PEAK value of the waveform. Because VPK is already known from a. it follows
that VPP = VPK x 2
VPP in this case is twice the AMPLITUDE, (because the mains waveform is symmetrical
about zero volts the amplitude is the same value as VPK) .
d. The PERIODIC TIME which is given by T =1/ƒ

Module 1.3 AC Waves Quiz

What you should know.
After studying Module 1, you should:

Be able to describe waves relating to electronic systems.
Be able to describe measurements used in AC electronics
Be able to calculate AC values from other given values,

relating to AC waves
Try our quiz, based on the information you can find in Module 1. Check your answers on line at
http://www.learnabout-electronics.org/ac_theory/ac_waves03.php
1. If a sine wave has a RMS voltage of 12volts, what will be its Peak-to-Peak voltage?
a) 33.9V b) 8.484V c) 16.9V d) 15.3V
2. What is the peak value of a sine wave whose VAV value is 15V?
a) 19V b) 9.5V c) 21.2V d) 23.5V
3. Select the most accurate description of an AC signal
a) An AC signal is any complex wave
b) Has a rapidly changing voltage and a steady current
c) Has values that change above and below a particular level
d) An AC signal is always repetitive
4. Complete the sentence "A sine wave...
a) ...has many harmonics"
b) ...is a complex wave"
c)...consists of a fundamental only"
d) ...always has the same frequency"
5. If an AC waveform has a periodic time of 2ms, what will be its frequency?
a) 2kHz b) 500Hz c) 2MHz d) 50Hz
Continued..,

6.With reference to Fig 1.3.1, what is the value labelled A?
a) Periodic time
b) Amplitude
c) Frequency
d) RMS value
7. With reference to Fig 1.3.1, if the level labelled X has a value of 2V what is the
value labelled B?
a) The Root Mean Squared value.
b) The Amplitude.
c) The Average value.
d) The Peak value.
8. In Fig 1.3.2, how many complete cycles are shown?
a) 2
b) 3
c) 4
d) 7
9. What value is given by the formula VPK x 0.637?
a) VRMS
b) VMAX
c) The Form Factor
d) VAV
10. Which of the following features is true of a square wave signal?
a) It consists of a fundamental and an even number of harmonics
b) It consists of a fundamental and a number of even harmonics.
c) It consists of a fundamental and a number of odd harmonics.
d) It never has a DC component.

Module
AC Theory
2
Looking at Capacitors
Capacitors
What you'll learn in Module 2:
In section 2.1 Capacitors
Common capacitor types and their uses.
Basic Circuit Symbols for Capacitors.
In section 2.2 Charge & Discharge
How capacitors work.
What is charge?
Charge and discharge in a DC circuit
In section 2.3 Capacitance
What is capacitance?
Dielectric.
Permittivity.
Dielectric strength and maximum working voltage.
Calculating the charge on a capacitor.
In section 2.4 Capacitors in Circuits
Solving capacitor circuit calculations.
Capacitors in series.
Capacitors in parallel.
In section 2.5 Capacitor Quiz
Capacitor Quiz

www.learnabout-electronics.org Capacitors
Module 2 − Introduction to Capacitors
Capacitors
Capacitors are one of the most useful

components in electronics, and after resistors are
the most numerous components in circuits. This
module introduces diffent types of capacitor and
describes their basic operation. Later modules
look at how capacitors are used in AC circuits
where, together with inductors, they perform an
important job in many circuits.
This is module 2 of 14 modules.
In this module what you will learn is listed in the grey panel. It tells you "What you should
know..." as a result of studying the complete module.
Each module is divided into several smaller sections and you can check your learning with the
"Module Quiz" at the end of the module.
Study each section (numbered 2.1, 2.2 etc) in order, and use the quiz questions to help check
your understanding.
If you would like a PRINT version of other modules, go to the AC Theory section of
www.learnabout-electronics.org click the PDF icon in the left column on the appropriate module,
to download your copy.

Module 2.1 Capacitors

Capacitors (and inductors) have the ability to store electrical energy, inductors store energy as a
magnetic field around the component, but the capacitor stores electrical energy directly, as an
ELECTROSTATIC FIELD created between two metal "plates".
Fig 2.1.1 Basic Circuit Symbols for Capacitors
Fig 2.1.1 shows the UK and

US circuit symbols for a
variety of capacitor types. A
basic fixed value type of
capacitor consists of two
plates made from metallic
foil, separated by an
insulator. This may be made
from a choice of different
insulating materials, having
good DIELECTRIC
properties. Some basic types
of capacitor construction are
shown in fig 2.1.2a.
Capacitors Have Many Uses.
Capacitors have many uses in electronic circuits. Each purpose uses one or more of the features
described in this module. Fig 2.1.2 shows a variety of capacitors. Typical uses would include:
Fig 2.1.2

Capacitor types illustrated on page 3:
• High Voltage Electrolytic used in power supplies.
• Axial Electrolytic; lower voltage smaller size for general purpose where large capacitance
values are needed.
• High Voltage disk ceramic; small size and capacitance value, excellent tolerance
characteristics.
• Metalised Polypropylene; small size for values up to around 2µF good reliability.
• Sub miniature Multi layer ceramic chip (surface mount) capacitor. Relatively high
capacitance for size achieved by multiple layers, effectively several capacitors in parallel.
Fig. 2.1.2a Construction − Fixed Value Capacitors
The construction of non−polarized capacitors follows the same pattern over many types.
Variations consist of the area of the plates and type of dielectric material used for a given
capacitance; ideally the dielectric will be the thinnest material, with the best permitivity, that will
also withstand the voltage required. Each of the basic types shown in Fig 2.1.2a will be coated
with an insulating layer (often an epoxy resin).
Electrolytic Capacitors
The construction of electrolytic capacitors is similar in some ways to a rolled foil capacitor. Except
that the layers between the foil are now two very thin layers of paper, one that forms an insulator
separating the rolled pairs of layers and the other, a layer of tissue between the foil plates, soaked
in an electrolyte that makes the tissue conductive!
It would seem from the previous paragraph that the soaked tissue places a short circuit between
the plates. But the real dielectric layer is created after construction is complete, in a process called
"Forming". A current is passed through the capacitor, and the action of the electrolyte causes a
very thin layer of aluminium oxide to build up on the positive plate. It is this layer that is used as
the insulating dielectric. The capacitor therefore has a very thin and efficient dielectric, giving
capacitance values many hundreds times greater than is possible with a conventional plastic film
capacitor of a similar physical size.

The down side with this process is that the capacitor is polarised and must not have reversed
polarity voltages applied. If this occurs the insulating oxide layer is stripped away again and the
capacitor may pass a large current. As this occurs in a sealed container, the "liquid" electrolyte
quickly boils and expands rapidly. This can lead to an explosion within seconds! NEVER connect
an electrolytic capacitor the wrong way round!
Variable capacitors
Fig 2.1.3
The variable capacitors shown in fig. 2.1.3 are used as tuning capacitors in AM radios, although
they have largely been replaced by "Varicap" (variable capacitance) diodes, but they can still be
found in circuit diagrams and supplier's catalogues for replacement purposes.
Tuning capacitors have very small values of typically a few pF to a few tens of pF. Large air
dielectric types, like the animated one on the left have been superseded by miniature types as
shown top right (front and back to show the tiny trimmer capacitors accessed through holes in the
rear of the case).
Trimmer capacitors
Small trimmer capacitors, adjustable with special trimming tools (DON´T use a
screwdriver!) by technicians rather than the equipment user are available in a variety of
very small designs. They work in a similar way to the larger variables, with tiny rotating
plates and typically PVC film dielectric layers between. Their capacitance is only a few
pico farads and they are often used in conjunction with larger variable capacitors (and
even fitted inside the case of tuning capacitors) to improve accuracy.

Fig 2.1.4 Variable and Preset Capacitor Symbols
Symbols for variable capacitors are given in fig 2.1.4. Variable capacitors are often available as
GANGED components. Usually two variable capacitors are adjusted by a single control spindle.
The arrow symbol indicates a variable capacitor (adjustable by the equipment user, and the T
shaped diagonal indicates a preset capacitor, for technician adjustment only. The dotted line
connecting a pair of capacitors indicates that they are ganged.

Module 2.2 Charge & Discharge

How a capacitor gets its charge Fig 2.2.1 Charge and Discharge
When a capacitor is connected in a DC circuit as in Fig 2.2.1a,
Fig
a large current will flow, but only for a short time. When the
switch is closed to contact A and electrons begin to flow from
the negative battery terminal, and appear to be flowing around
the circuit. Of course they can't because the capacitor has a
layer of insulation between its plates, so electrons from the
negative battery terminal crowd onto the right hand plate of
the capacitor creating an increasingly strong negative charge.
The very thin insulating (dielectric) layer between the plates is
able to efficiently transfer this negative charge from the
Fig
electrons, and this charge repels the same number of
electrons from the left hand plate of the capacitor. These
displaced electrons from the left hand plate are attracted
towards the positive terminal of the battery, giving the
impression of current flowing around the complete circuit.
Why the current falls
After a short time (Fig 2.2.1b) however, a large number of Fig

electrons have gathered on the right hand plate of the
capacitor, creating a growing negative charge, making it
increasingly difficult for electrons flowing from the negative
battery terminal to reach the capacitor plate because of the
repulsion from the growing number of negative electrons
gathered there.
Full charge
Fig
Eventually (Fig 2.2.1c) the repulsion from the electrons on the
capacitor's right hand plate is approximately equal to the force
from the negative battery terminal and current ceases. Once
the battery and capacitor voltages are equal we can say that
the capacitor has reached its maximum charge. If the battery
is now disconnected by opening the switch, the capacitor will
remain in a charged state, with a voltage equal to the battery
voltage, and provided that no current flows, it should remain
charged indefinitely. In practice a very small leakage current
will flow across the dielectric, and the capacitor will eventually Fig 2.2.1e
discharge. This process however can take seconds, hours,
days, weeks or months, depending on individual
circumstances.
Discharging the capacitor
Suppose that with the capacitor fully charged, the switch is

now closed in position B. (Fig 2.2.1d) the circuit is complete
once more, but this time consisting of a resistor and capacitor.
Electrons will now flow around the circuit via the resistor as the charge on capacitor acts as the
source of current The charge on the capacitor will be depleted as the current flows. (Fig 2.2.1e)
The rate at which the capacitor voltage reduces towards zero will depend on the amount of
current flowing, and thus on the value of the resistance in the circuit, in Fig 2.2.1 this resistance is
represented by the lamp.

The indicator lamp
Using a lamp as a load resistance connected in series with the capacitor gives a useful indication
of the operation of the circuit. Initially, as the capacitor begins to charge, the large current makes
the lamp glow brightly. As the current reduces due to the build up of charge on the capacitor, the
lamp dims and goes out once the capacitor is fully charged.
When the switch is in position B and the charged capacitor begins to discharge, the lamp glows
brightly once more, dimming and going out as the current falls towards zero due to the diminishing
charge on the capacitor. Notice that during discharge, the current is flowing through the lamp in
the opposite direction to the flow during the charging period.

Module 2.3 Capacitance

The amount of energy a capacitor can store depends on the value or CAPACITANCE of the
capacitor. Capacitance (symbol C) is measured in the basic unit of the FARAD (symbol F). One
Farad is the amount of capacitance that can store 1 Coulomb (6.24 x 1018 electrons) when it is
charged to a voltage of 1 volt. The Farad is much too large a unit for use in electronics however,
so we more often find the following sub-units of capacitance more useful.
Sub unit Abbreviation Standard notation

-6
micro Farads µF x 10
-9
nano Farads nF x 10
-12
pico Farads pF x 10
Remember however, that when working out problems involving capacitance, the formulae we use
need the values in the basic units of Farads, Volts etc. Therefore when entering a value of 0.47nF
into a formula (and your calculator) you should enter it as; 0.47 x 10-9 Farad
Capacitance depends on four things;
1.The area of the plates
2.The distance between the plates
3.The type of dielectric material
4.Temperature
Of these four, temperature has the least effect in most capacitors. The value of most capacitors is
fairly stable over a "normal" range of temperatures. Capacitor values may be fixed or variable.
Most variable capacitors have a very small value a few tens or hundreds of pF).
The value is varied by either:
• Changing the area of the plates.
• Changing the thickness of the dielectric.
Capacitance (C) is DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO THE AREA OF THE TWO PLATES that
directly overlap, the greater the overlapping area, the greater the capacitance.
Capacitance is INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL TO THE DISTANCE BETWEEN THE PLATES.
i.e. if the plates move apart, the capacitance reduces.
The Dielectric
The electrons on one plate of the capacitor affect the electrons on the other plate by causing the
orbits of the electrons within the dielectric material (the insulating layer between the plates) to
distort. The amount of distortion depends on the nature of the dielectric material and this is
measured by the permittivity of the material.
Permittivity
Permittivity is quoted for any particular material as RELATIVE PERMITTIVITY, which is a

measure of how efficient a dielectric material is. It is a number without units which indicates how
much greater the permittivity of the material is than the permittivity of air (or a vacuum), which is

given a permittivity of 1 (one). For example, if a dielectric material such as mica has a relative
permittivity of 6, this means the capacitor will have a permittivity, and so a capacitance, six times
that of one whose dimensions are the same, but whose dielectric is air.
Dielectric Strength
Another important aspect of the dielectric is the DIELECTRIC STRENGTH. this indicates the
ability of the dielectric to withstand the voltage placed across it when the capacitor is charged.
Ideally the dielectric must by as thin as possible, so giving the maximum capacitance for a given
size of component. However, the thinner the dielectric layer, the more easily its insulating
properties will break down. The dielectric strength therefore governs the maximum working
voltage of a capacitor.
Maximum Working Voltage (VDCwkg max)
It is very important when using capacitors that the maximum working voltage indicated by the
manufacturer is not exceeded. Otherwise there will be a great danger of a sudden insulation
breakdown within the capacitor. As it is likely that a maximum voltage existed across the capacitor
at this time (hence the breakdown) large currents will flow with a real risk of fire or explosion in
some circuits.
Charge on a Capacitor.
The charge (Q) on a capacitor depends on a combination of the above factors, which can be
given together as the Capacitance (C) and the voltage applied (V). For a component of a given
capacitance, the relationship between voltage and charge is constant. Increasing the applied
voltage results in a proportionally increased charge. This relationship can be expressed in the
formula;
Q = CV
or
C = Q/V
or
V = Q/C
Where V is the voltage applied, in Volts.
C is the capacitance in Farads.
Q is the quantity of charge in Coulombs.
So any of these quantities can be found provided the other two are known. The formulae can
easily be re-arranged using a simple triangle similar to the one used for calculating Ohm's Law
when carrying out resistor calculations.
Maths Help
Want some help with electronics math? Download our helpful booklet from the "Downloads" page
of www.learnabout-electronics.org with tips for buying and using a scientific calculator and for
sorting out all those electronics values; invaluable help for the questions in our Module Quizzes
and the examples in Module 2.4.
AC THEORY MODULE 02.PDF 10 © E. COATES 2007 -

2010
Module 2.4 Capacitors in Circuits

Capacitors in series.
Like resistors and inductors, capacitors can be connected in series, in parallel or in series-parallel.
Placing capacitors in series effectively increases the thickness of the dielectric, and so reduces
the total capacitance. Because the total capacitance is inversely proportional to the distance
between the plates, the formula we use for capacitors in SERIES is;
Note that the voltage across each capacitor will be inversely proportional to the capacitance, with
the total voltage being shared out between the capacitors, the smallest capacitance having the
largest voltage across it and the largest capacitance having the smallest voltage etc.
Capacitors in parallel.
Connecting capacitors in parallel effectively increases the area of the plates, therefore the total
capacitance is given by the sum of the individual capacitances.
Parallel capacitors all charge to the same voltage.
Note that when using these formulae the values must be put into the formula in their BASIC
UNITS i.e. FARADS (not µF) Coulombs (not µC) and VOLTS (not mV).
Briefly 47nF; (nanoFarads) is entered as; 15 EXP -09 and 25mC (milliCoulombs) is entered as; 25
EXP -03 etc. This is easiest to do using a scientific calculator.
Now try calculating the total capacitance of some series and parallel circuits in the
capacitors Quiz.

2010
Module 2.5 Capacitor Quiz

Be able to Recognise common capacitor types and circuit symbols
Be able to describe charge and discharge in capacitors
Be able to describe dielectric strength and capacitance, and relate

capacitance to charge.
Be able to use appropriate units of capacitance, and to calculate

capacitance in series and parallel capacitor networks.
http://www.learnabout-electronics.org/ac_theory/capacitors06.php
1.
What is the approximate total capacitance of this parallel

circuit?
a) 320pF b) 147pF c) 3.2nF d) 1.47nF
2.
What is the approximate total capacitance of this series circuit?
a) 1.6nF b) 576pF c) 14.4pF d) 12pF
3.
When might it be necessary to use a 2 µF polyester capacitor rather than a 2 µF electrolytic

capacitor?
a) When High Voltages are present
b) When the capacitor passes AC
c) In low temperature conditions
d) When small size is the most important factor.
4.
When a DC voltage is applied to a capacitor in its uncharged state:-
a) The capacitor voltage will be maximum but fall after a short time
b) The voltage will gradually rise at the same rate as the applied current
c) Maximum current will flow immediately
d) Maximum current will flow until the capacitor is fully charged

2010
5.
Complete the following sentence: As a capacitor charges ..
a) Electrons gather on the negative plate and displace electrons from the positive plate.
b) Electrons flow across the dielectric layer until the capacitor is fully charged
c) Electrons gather on the positive plate displacing electrons from the negative plate.
d) Current only flows through the capacitor for a short time.
6.
What type of capacitor does the component symbol (right) represent?
a) A preset capacitor
b) An electrolytic capacitor
c) A variable capacitor
d) A ganged capacitor
7.
Calculate the value of capacitance needed to store 1 µC of charge at 10V.
a) 10 µF b) 1nF c) 100nF d) 10nF
8.
If a voltage is applied across the capacitor network shown, which individual capacitor has the
largest voltage across it?
a) C1 b) C2 c) C3 d) C4
9.
What is the approximate total capacitance of the network

shown?
a) 13.05nF b) 1.01uF c) 391pF d) 2.3nF
10.
Capacitance is directly proportional to:
a) The distance between the plates.
b) The area of the plates.
c) The dielectric strength.
d) The charge multiplied by the applied voltage.

2010
Module
AC Theory
3
Inductors
What you’ll learn in Module 3.
Introduction
Section 3.1 Electromagnetic Induction. Inductors are components that are simple in their
construction, consisting of coils of insulated copper
• Magnetic Fields around Conductors.
wire wound around a former that will have some
• The Solenoid. type of core at its centre. This core might be a metal
such as iron that can be easily magnetised; or in
Section 3.2 Inductance & Back e.m.f. high frequency inductors, it will more likely to be
just air.
• The Unit of Inductance.
• Factors affecting Inductance.

Inductors depend for their action on the magnetic
field that is present around any conductor when it is
• Voltage and e.m.f. carrying a current. If the wire coil is wound around
a core made of a material that is easily magnetised,
• Back e.m.f.
such as iron, then the magnetic field around the coil
• Self Induction. is concentrated within the core; this greatly
increases the efficiency of the inductor.
Section 3.3 Practical Inductors.
• The Solenoid.
• Practical Inductors.
• Inductor schematic symbols.
Section 3.4 Inductor Colour Codes.
• Colour codes for Inductors.

Section 3.5 Inductors Quiz.

www.learnabout-electronics.org Inductors
Inductors in AC Circuits.
Inductors are extensively used in alternating current (AC) applications such as radio, TV and
communications equipment, and in these systems, how inductors react to AC signals of different
frequencies is very useful
Chokes.
Another name used for an inductor is a "Choke". Inductors, being just coils of copper wire, will
allow DC to pass easily, but when AC is applied, inductors create an opposition to current flow that
increases, as the frequency of the alternating current increases. Therefore AC is prevented from
flowing or is "Choked off" while DC is allowed to pass. This effect is used in power supply circuits
where the public AC mains (line) supply has to be converted to a DC supply suitable for powering
electronic circuits.
Energy Storage.
The magnetic field around an inductor is a store of energy (from the current that caused the field).
When the current is turned off, the energy stored in the magnetic field is returned to the inductor,
causing a current to flow in the opposite direction. This can produce a pulse of high voltage across
the coil. The pulse of energy can be a problem in some electronic circuits and can easily destroy
other components if not properly controlled, but it can also be extremely useful; such high voltage
pulses produced by an inductor are used to create the spark that ignites the petrol in automobile
engines.
Inductors of many types.
The physical size of inductors varies greatly, depending on the power being handled, and on the
frequency of the AC being used; from huge power transformers in power stations and the electricity
supply grid, to tiny inductors in radio equipment consisting of a few turns of wire and only a few
millimetres across.

Module 3.1 Electromagnetic Induction.

Magnetic Field Around a Conductor.
A conductor carrying an electric current will produce a magnetic

field around the conductor as shown in Fig.3.1.1. This field has a
circular shape and exists along the whole length of the
conductor. Because of its circular shape, the magnetic field does
not have specific north or south poles, but is considered to flow
in a continuous circular loop towards an undefined north pole.
Fig. 3.1.1 Magnetic Field Around a Conductor.
Right Hand Grip Rule.
The direction of a magnetic field around a conductor can be

remembered using the right hand grip rule shown in Fig 3.1.2.
Imagine grasping a conductor in the right hand as shown, with
the thumb indicating the direction of conventional current flow
from positive to negative. The fingers of the right hand, curled
around the conductor indicate the direction of flow of magnetic
flux.
Fig. 3.1.2 Right Hand Grip Rule.
Magnetic Fields Around Parallel Conductors.
If two parallel conductors carry the same current, the direction of

the magnetic fields around each conductor will interlink and
oppose each other between the conductors as shown in Fig. 3.1.3
forming an area of zero magnetic flux (no flow) between the
conductors, this happens between adjacent conductors around the
axis of a coil.
Fig. 3.1.3 Magnetic Field Around Parallel Conductors
Magnetic Fields Around Coils.
When the conductor is bent into a loop or coil however, the

direction of the magnetic fields inside the coil coincide,
concentrating the magnetic flux within the coil as shown in Fig
3.1.4.
Fig. 3.1.4 Magnetic Field Around Looped Conductors.

The Solenoid.
When wire coils are formed into a series of

continuous loops called a solenoid, the
effects described above produce a
magnetic field pattern that is similar to that
around a bar magnet, as shown in Fig
3.1.5. Increasing or decreasing the current
through the inductor increases or decreases
the strength of the magnetic field, giving
the effect of a bar magnet, but with a
variable field strength.
This changing magnetic field can have
several effects. It can be used to produce
movement, for example in electric motors,
or it can be used produce electrical effects Fig. 3.1.5 Magnetic Field Around a Solenoid
in other conductors affected by the field. and a Bar Magnet.
As this module deals with AC signals in static components such as inductors and transformers,
(rather than moving machines such as motors or generators) the effects described relate changes in
the magnetic fields around static inductors, to changes in current through the those inductors.
Terms used in electromagnetism.
Magnetic Flux is the name given to the magnetic equivalent of electric current. It is the
flow of magnetism from the north to the south pole of a magnet. Magnetic Flux flows
along lines of magnetic force that make up a magnetic field.
Just like electric current, it is easier for magnetic flux to flow through some materials
than others, soft iron for example has a very high permeability. That means, it is very
easy for magnetic flux to flow through it. High permeability can also be described as a
very low reluctance to the flow of magnetic flux (the magnetic equivalent of resistance).
Air has more reluctance and so is less permeable than iron. It is therefore easier for a flux
to flow through iron than through air, and many electromagnetic devices use materials
such as iron to concentrate magnetic flux into a small area and so increase the
effectiveness of devices such as transformers, motors and electromagnets.

Module 3.2 Inductance

A current generated in a conductor by a changing magnetic field is proportional to the rate of change of the
magnetic field. This effect is called INDUCTANCE and is given the symbol L. It is measured in units called the
henry (H) named after the American Physicist Joseph Henry (1797-1878). One henry is the amount of inductance
required to produce an e.m.f. of 1 volt in a conductor when the current in the conductor changes at the rate of 1
Ampere per second. The Henry is a rather large unit for use in electronics, with the milli-henry (mH) and micro-
henry (μH) being more common. These units describe one thousandth and one millionth of a henry respectively.
Although the henry is given the symbol (capital) H, the name henry, applied to the unit of
inductance uses a lower case h. The plural form of the henry may be henries or henrys; the
American National Institute of Standards and Technology recommends that in US publications
henries is used.
Factors Affecting Inductance.
The amount of inductance in an inductor is dependant on:

• a. The number of turns of wire in the inductor.
• b. The material of the core.
• c. The shape and size of the core.
• d. The shape, size and arrangement of the wire making up the coils.
Because inductance (in henries) depends on so many variable quantities, it is

quite difficult to calculate accurately; numerous formulae have been developed
to take different design features into account. Also these formulae often need to
use special constants and tables of conversion data to work with the required
degree of accuracy. The use of computer programs and computer-aided design
has eased the situation somewhat. However, external effects caused by other
components and wiring near the inductor, can also affect its value of inductance Fig. 3.2.1
once it is assembled in a circuit, so when an accurate value of inductance is Variable
required, one approach is to calculate an approximate value, and design the Inductor.
inductor so that it is adjustable.
A typical formula for approximating the inductance value of an inductor is given below. This
particular version is designed to calculate the inductance of "A solenoid wound with a single layer
of turns of infinitely thin tape rather than wire, and with the turns evenly and closely spaced."
Where:
• L is the inductance in henries.
• d is the diameter of the coil in metres.
• n is the number of turns in the coil.
• l is the length of the coil in metres.
For coils not conforming exactly to the above specification extra factors must be incorporated.
Voltage and e.m.f.
A voltage induced into a conductor is called an e.m.f. (electro motive force) because its source is
the changing magnetic field around and external to the conductor. Any externally produced voltage
(including those produced by an external battery or power supply) is called an e.m.f., whilst a
voltage (a potential difference or p.d.) across an internal component in a circuit is called a voltage.
Back e.m.f.
A back e.m.f.(also called a Counter e.m.f.) is an e.m.f. created across an inductor by the changing
magnetic flux around the conductor, produced by a change in current in the inductor. Its value can
be calculated using the formula:
Where:
• E is the induced back e.m.f. in volts
• L is the inductance of the coil in henries.
• ΔI is the change in current, in amperes.
• Δt is the time taken for the change in current, in seconds.
Notes:
Δ (Greek D – Delta) denotes a difference or change in a property.
So the formula describes the back e.m.f. as depending on the inductance (in henries) multiplied by
the rate of change in current (in amperes per second).
The minus sign before L indicates that the polarity of the induced back e.m.f. will be reversed
compared with the changing voltage across the conductor that originally caused the changing
current and consequent changing magnetic field.
Remember that when working in practical values of milli or micro henries that all
values used in the formula must be converted to the standard values of henries
amperes and seconds as described in our Maths Tips booklet.
Example
Because the value of back e.m.f. depends on the rate of change of the current, it will be greatest
when the fastest change occurs. For example, the rate of change is extremely fast whenever the
current through an inductor is switched off; then the change can be from maximum to zero in just a
few milliseconds.
Imagine that an inductor of 200mH connected across a supply of 9V is passing a current of
2amperes. When the current is switched off, it collapses to zero in 10ms, what would be the
back e.m.f. generated across the coil?
E = 200mH x 2A / 10ms
or
E =200 x 10-3 x 2/10 x 10-3
= 40volts
So the back e.m.f. generated at switch off is more than 4 times higher than the supply voltage!

These high voltage pulses that occur when an inductive component such as a motor or relay coil is
switched off, can potentially cause damage to the output transistor or integrated circuit switching
the device. Therefore essential protection is provided by including a diode in the output stage as
shown in Figs. 3.2.2 and 3.2.3
Back e.m.f. Protection
The protection diode in Fig 3.2.2 connected across the inductor is normally reverse biased, as the
voltage on its cathode, connected to the +V supply rail, will be more positive than its anode on the
collector of the transistor. At switch off however, a large voltage spike of opposite polarity appears
across the inductor, due to the collapsing magnetic field. For the duration of this voltage spike, the
collector of the transistor could be at a higher potential than the supply, except that if this happens,
the diode will become forward biased and prevent the collector voltage rising any higher than the
supply rail.
Fig 3.2.3 shows a popular I.C. (ULN2803) for switching inductive loads. The outputs of the eight
inverting amplifiers are each protected by a diode, having their common cathodes connected to the
positive supply rail +V on pin 10.
Fig. 3.2.2 Back Fig. 3.2.3 Protection

e.m.f. Protection Diodes in the
Self-induction
The effect of an inductor inducing an e.m.f. into itself is called Self Induction (but often referred to
simply as Induction). When an inductor induces an e.m.f. into a separate nearby inductor, this is
called Mutual Induction and is a property used by transformers.
The way self-induction works depends on two interlinked actions occurring simultaneously,
and on each of these actions depending on the other.
Action 1.
Any conductor, in which the current is changing, will produce a changing magnetic field around it.
Action 2.
Any conductor within a CHANGING magnetic field will have a changing e.m.f. induced into it.
The value of this induced e.m.f. and the amount of induced current it produces in the conductor
will depend on the rate of change of the magnetic field; the faster the flux of the field changes, the
greater will be the induced e.m.f. and its consequent current.

The changing magnetic field created around a conductor by the changing current in the conductor
causes a varying e.m.f. to be set up across that conductor. This varying e.m.f. in turn produces a
varying current flowing in the opposite direction to the original current. The changes in this current
therefore oppose the changes in the original current.
The effect of Action 2 is therefore to limit the changes occurring because of Action 1. If the original
current is increasing, the induced current will slow the rate of increase. Similarly, if the original
current is decreasing, the induced current will slow the rate of decrease. The overall result of this is
to decrease the amplitude of the AC current through the inductor and so also reduce the amplitude
of the AC voltage across the inductor.
Because the strength of the magnetic field set up by the original current is dependent on the rate
(speed) of change of current, an inductor reduces the flow of alternating current (AC) more at high
frequencies than at low. This limiting effect produced by the induced e.m.f. will be greater at higher
frequencies because at high frequencies, the current and therefore the flux is changing more rapidly.
The name given to this effect is Inductive Reactance.
Inductive Reactance.
Reactance produces an opposition to the flow of alternating current. Like resistance, it is measured
in Ohms, but because resistance has the same value at any frequency and the opposition to AC
found in inductors varies with frequency, it cannot be called resistance. Instead, it is called
Reactance (X). Capacitors also have the property of reactance but they respond to frequency in a
different way, therefore there are two types of reactance; inductors have Inductive Reactance (XL),
and capacitors have Capacitive Reactance (XC).

Module 3.3 Practical Inductors
The Right Hand Curl Rule for a Solenoid.
Many practical inductors are based on the solenoid.

Because of its shape, the lines of magnetic flux are
concentrated along the centre line of the coil and this
produces a magnetic field with a north and a south
pole. To find out which end of the solenoid is the
north pole, imagine grasping the solenoid in the right
hand as shown in Fig 3.3.1 with the fingers curled
around the solenoid in the direction of
CONVENTIONAL CURRENT FLOW, from
positive to negative around the solenoid, the right
thumb is laid along the side of the solenoid and will Fig. 3.3.1 The Right Hand Curl Rule.
be pointing towards the solenoid’s north pole.
Fig. 3.3.2 Practical Inductors.
a b c
d e f

(a) Air Cored Inductors
Simple air cored inductors are used in many circuits operating in the 1MHz to several hundred MHz
range, including radio and TV receivers.
(b) AM Radio Antennas
AM radio receivers use internal antennas that have a number of inductors wound around a ferrite
rod. These are combined with fixed and variable capacitors to enable the radio to be tuned to the
various station frequencies.
(c) Colour Coded Axial Lead-out Inductors
Looking very similar to resistors, colour coded inductors have typical values from 0.1µH to 1mH.
The value given by the colour bands are given by a standard EIA 4 band code for commercial
inductors, and by a Military Standard 5 band code for military types On which the first band is
always silver (denoting a military component) and the fifth band has an extended range of
tolerances to indicate close tolerance types of +/- 1% to 4%
(d) Toroidal Inductors
Toroidal (ring shaped) cores are very efficient at concentrating the magnetic flux within the coil and
are often used for large current inductors and transformers, such as those used in power supplies.
(e) SMD Chip Inductors
Surface mounted multi-layer chip inductors are tiny; often only 3 or 4mm across. Although this
physical size limits the values of inductance that can be achieved, typical values of less than 1µH up
to a few hundred µH are useful for many radio frequency and communications applications. The
example shown is part of a hard disk drive control circuit.
(f) Inductors at UHF
Air cored inductors for UHF applications may consist of only one or two turns of wire. In some
cases even a straight-line conductor, a few millimetres long can have enough inductance to form a
useful inductor or transformer. In these situations the exact positioning of inductors relative to other
components or metal casing, such as screening cans, is vitally important. During construction
individual inductances may have had their inductance fine-tuned by slightly altering their positions,
or the spacing between turns.
Fig. 3.3.3 Inductor

(Schematic) Circuit
Symbols.

Module 3.4 Inductor Colour Codes

Fig 3.4.1 Four Band Standard E I A Colour Code For Inductors.
Band 1 2 3 4
Meaning 1st Digit 2nd Digit (No. of zeros) Tolerance %
Gold .0 (divide by 10) +/-5%
Silver .00 (divide by 100) +/-10%
Black 0 0 No Zeros +/-20%
Brown 1 1 0
Red 2 2 00
Orange 3 3 ,000
Yellow 4 4 0,000
Green 5 5
Blue 6 6
Violet 7 7
Grey 8 8
White 9 9

Fig 3.4.2 Five Band Military Standard Inductor Colour Code
Band 1 2 3 4 5
Meaning Digit or Digit or Digit

Mil. Spec. Tolerance %
(See Notes) Dec. point Dec. point (or Multiplier)
Decimal Decimal
Gold +/-5%
point point
Always Silver
Silver +/-10%
double width
0
Black 0 0 +/-20%
(or x 1)
1
Brown 1 1 +/-1%
(or x 10)
2
Red 2 2 +/-2%
(or x 100)
3
Orange 3 3 +/-3%
(or x 1,000)
4
Yellow 4 4 +/-4%
(or x 10,000)
Green 5 5 5
Blue 6 6 6
Violet 7 7 7
Grey 8 8 8
White 9 9 9
See notes on next page:

Notes:
The military standard for cylindrical inductors specifies 5 coloured bands The same colours are
used as in the EIA 4 band code, but:
For band 1, a double width sliver band is used to signify Military Standard.
For values less than 10µH:

Bands 2, 3 and 4 indicate the value of inductance in µH
A gold band might be used in either band 2 or band 3. In either of these two bands, gold indicates a
decimal point and band 4 is used as a digit instead of a multiplier band.
When no gold band is present in bands 2 or 3, band 4 is a multiplier band.
For example:
If bands 2,3 and 4 were red, gold, red the value would be 2.2 µH
If bands 2,3 and 4 were gold, yellow, violet the value would be 0.47 µH (470nH)
Band 5 indicates the tolerance between 1% and 20%
For values of 10µH or more:
Bands 2 and 3 represent basic value, and band 4 gives the number of zeros.
For example:
If bands 2, 3 and 4 were red, violet, orange the value would be 27000 µH
Chip (SMD) Inductors
For inductors of a very small physical size, coloured dots may be used instead of bands. In such
cases, The silver dot indicating a Military (Mil) specification will be larger than the other dots and
will be placed a the beginning of the dot sequence.
In some cases only a single coloured dot is used, and for their meaning it is necessary to refer to
individual manufacturers data for accurate interpretation.
Dot code examples from Coilcraft Inc. http://www.coilcraft.com/colrcode.cfm
Dot code examples from Viking Tech Corporation. http://www.vikingamerica.com/ftp/NL.pdf

Module 3.5 Inductors Quiz

http://www.learnabout-electronics.org/ac_theory/inductors05.php

• Be able to describe electromagnetic effects in static conductors.
• Be able to describe inductors, units of inductance and circuit symbols.
• Be able to describe Self Induction and the effects of Back (counter) e.m.f. .
• Be able to describe frequency effects in inductors.
• Be able to describe constructional features and typical applications of inductors.
1.
What type of is inductor illustrated in Fig 3.5.1 ?
a) A laminated iron cored inductor.
b) A ferrite cored inductor.
c) A preset inductor.
d) An air cored inductor.

2.
The inductance of an inductor will be affected by which property or properties of the inductor's core?
a) The material of the core.
b) The material and size of the core.
c) The shape and size of the core.
d) The shape, size and material of the core.

3.
Which of the following ranges of inductance values would be most commonly encountered in
electronic circuits?
a) henrys.
b) milli-henrys.
c) henrys and milli-henrys.
d) milli-henrys and micro-henrys.

4.
Which of the following properties of an inductor change with the applied frequency:
a) Reactance
b) Inductance
c) Reluctance
d) Resistance

5.
What is the value of the inductor shown in Fig 3.5.2?
a) 27µH +/-10%
b) 2.7µH +/-20%
c) 270µH +/-10%
d) 27µH +/-5%
6.
Which of the following describes what happens to a non-moving conductor within a changing
magnetic field?
a) The conductor will have a changing e.m.f. induced into it.
b) An e.m.f. will be induced into the conductor, proportional to conductor’s reactance.
c) The conductor will have a steady current induced into it.
d) A current will be induced into the conductor, inversely proportional to conductor’s reluctance.
7.
Which of the formulae shown in Fig 3.5.3 would be used for calculating back e.m.f. ?
a)
b)
c)
d)
8.
Complete the following statement:
The magnetic field produced by a solenoid shaped inductor is:
a) Concentrated within, and along the axis of the coil.
b) Less likely to produce a back e.m.f. effect than in other coil shapes.
c) Most effective at very low frequencies.
d) More likely to produce a back e.m.f. effect than in other coil shapes.
9.
When using the right hand curl rule for a solenoid, what do the fingers of the right hand indicate?
a) The direction of conventional current flow.
b) The direction of the solenoid’s north pole.
c) The direction of the solenoid’s south pole.
d) The negative terminal of the solenoid.

10.
What would be the value of back e.m.f. induced at switch off, in a 3.3mH inductor passing a current of
250mA, assuming the time for the current to decay to zero was 50µs?
a) 10V b) 16.5V c) 22V d) 32.7V

Module
AC Theory
4
DC Transients
What happens when things change.

Introduction
What you'll learn in Module 4.
AC Theory could be described
as "The study of electronic
4.1 Resistors in DC Circuits circuits in which things are
always changing". Voltages,
Transient events in DC circuits. currents and other quantities
in AC circuits are in a
The difference between Ideal and Practical circuits continual process of change.
Transient current and voltage relationships in a simple resistive circuit. Before studying AC circuits in
depth, Module 4 looks at what
4.2 Capacitance and Resistance in a DC Circuit happens when conditions
suddenly change (called
transient events) in DC
Transient voltage and current relationships in a simple CR circuit circuits, so that what is
learned here can be used as
4.3 CR Time Constant a foundation for later modules.
The Time constant of a CR circuit.
Calculations involving time constants in a simple CR circuit.
4.4 Inductance and Resistance in DC Circuits
Transient voltage and current relationships in a simple LR circuit
4.5 LR Time Constant

Each time a switch is clicked
The Time constant of a LR circuit.
or an input is connected,
circuit conditions change, but
Calculations involving time constants in a simple LR circuit.
only for short time, during
these brief transient events,
4.6 DC Transients Quiz components and circuits may
behave differently to the way
Module 4 Quiz: Revision questions on DC transient events. they behave under normal
"static" conditions.
This module describes the
effects of transient events on
resistors, inductors and
capacitors.

www.learnabout-electronics.org DC Transients
Module 4.1 Resistors in DC Circuits

Transient Events
In AC circuits, voltage and current conditions are continually changing. We therefore need to include
the effects of time and transient (passing) events on circuit conditions. A transient event is something
that happens over a period of time, such as a switch opening or closing.
Fig 4.1.1 Ideal circuits in a practical world.
A theoretical or "ideal" DC circuit such as illustrated

(right) contains only resistance. Every practical (real)
circuit however, contains at least some capacitance
and some inductance as well as resistance. Any
circuit must contain metal conductors that will have
some inductance. Also components or wires that are
near others, with an insulating gap (air and/or
plastic) between them, must effectively be
capacitors. Therefore a purely resistive circuit only Fig 4.1.1
exists in theory. A practical circuit such as that in Fig.
4.1.1 can have one property, such as resistance much greater than the capacitance or the inductance
naturally present, so these can be ignored for theoretical purposes, and the circuit considered as
having only resistance. To indicate this, the circuit is called an "ideal circuit". That is, one that contains
only one pure property, in this case resistance.
Fig 4.1.2 What happens in the circuit.
The transient operation of the circuit Fig.4.1.1,

during switch operation, is shown in Fig. 4.1.2.
As the switch closes on contact B, the amount of

current flowing, which has previously been zero,
will instantly rise to a maximum level. This will
make the current(I) equal to the battery EMF (E)
divided by the resistance (R). That is;
I=E/R
Which is an expression of Ohms law that can be

used to calculate the value of current at any time,
given the other two values.
Suppose E=10V and R=5Ω
This gives I=10/5 = 2Amperes.

Fig 4.1.2
And if R is increased to 10Ω while E remains the same,
Then I=10/10 = 1Ampere.
Increasing the resistance has reduced current flow.
If the EMF supplying the circuit is increased, while the resistance remains the same, the current
increases.
Fig. 4.1.2, shows what happens to the voltage and current whilst the switch is closed, and then
opened again. Both current and voltage rise immediately to a steady value as the switch is closed,
then fall immediately to zero when the switch is opened.

The voltage across the resistor (VR) whilst the switch remains closed is given by:
VR = I x R
The difference between E and V for voltage.
In a practical circuit it is possible for E and VR to be slightly different. This is because any power
supply, such as a battery will have an internal resistance, designated (r), which although usually very
small, will be in series with the circuit resistance R. This can make E and V slightly different, so to be
totally accurate, E and V should be shown as separate quantities, which would modify the formula for
current to:
I = E/(R+r)
The formula for VR remains V VR = IR but the current (I) would be slightly less because of the effect of r
in the formula for current.
The resistance R can be calculated by :
R = VR /I

Module 4.2 Capacitance and Resistance in DC Circuits

The voltage across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously as some time is required for the
electric charge to build up on, or leave the capacitor plates.
The CR circuit
In Fig 4.2.1, when the switch is changed from

position A to position B, the capacitor voltage tries to
charge to the same voltage as the battery voltage,
but unlike the resistor circuit, the capacitor voltage
can´t immediately change to its maximum value,
which would be (E). Fig 4.2.1
Charging and Discharging the Capacitor
As soon as the switch reaches position B, the circuit

current rises very rapidly, as C begins to charge (Fig
4.2.2). Although the voltage is still low, its rate of change
is large and the voltage graph is initially very steep,
showing that the voltage is changing in a very short time.
As the capacitor charges, the rate of change of voltage
slows and charge slows as the charging current falls. The
curve describing the charging of the capacitor follows a
recognisable mathematical law describing an exponential
curve until the current is practically zero and the voltage
across the capacitor is at its maximum.
If the switch is now changed to position C, the supply is

disconnected and a short circuit is placed across C and
R. This causes the capacitor to discharge through R.
Immediately maximum current flows, but this time in the
opposite direction to the that during charging. Again an
exponential curve describes the fall of this negative
current back towards zero. The voltage also falls
exponentially during this time, until the capacitor is fully Fig 4.2.2
discharged.
Opposites
Compare the graphs describing the actions of the CR circuit described above and the LR circuits in
section 4.4. Notice that the curves described are the same, but the voltage and the current curves
have "changed places". These "opposite" effects of L and C will be noticeable in many of the actions
described in later modules.

Module 4.3 CR Time Constant
Fig 4.3.1
When a voltage is applied to a capacitor it take some amount of time for the voltage to increase in a
curve that follows a mathematically "exponential" law to its maximum value, after which, the voltage
will remain at this "steady state" value until there is some other external change to cause a change in
voltage. From the instant the voltage is applied, the rate of change of the voltage is high, and if it was
to continue in a linear manner, then VC would reach its maximum value in a time equal to one time
constant (T), where T (in seconds) is equal to C (in Farads) multiplied by R (in ohms), see fig 4.3.1.
above. That is:
T = CR
Fully Charged?
After about 5 time constant periods (5CR) the capacitor voltage will have very nearly reached the
value E. Because the rate of charge is exponential, in each successive time constant period VC rises
to 63.2% of the difference in voltage between its present value, and the theoretical maximum voltage
(VC = E). Therefore the 63.2% becomes a smaller and smaller voltage rise with each time constant
period and although, for all practical purposes VC = E in fact VC never quite reaches the value of E.
About the Formula
For this reason the time when VC = E cannot be accurately defined, therefore some other accurate
time measurement must be used to define the time it takes for VC to reach some given level. One
simple solution would be to say that a time constant will equal the time it takes for VC to reach half the
supply voltage. This would work but then the formula for T would not be as easy to remember as CR
(or L/R), it would also make calculations involving time constants more difficult. Because time constant
calculations are important, and often needed, it is better to make the definition of the time constant (T)
in a CR circuit:
THE TIME TAKEN FOR THE VOLTAGE ACROSS A CAPACITOR TO INCREASE BY 63.2% OF
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ITS PRESENT AND FINAL VALUES.
A slightly more complicated definition, but this provides a much easier formula to remember and to
work with, T = CR.
Discharging C
When the capacitor is discharging the same CR formula applies, as the capacitor also discharges in
an exponential fashion, quickly at first and then more slowly. During discharge the voltage will
FALL by 63.2% to 36.8% of its maximum value in one time constant period T.

Module 4.4 Inductance and Resistance in DC circuits.

Fig. 4.4.1 The LR Circuit with Inductance (L) and Resistance (R)
In a circuit which contains inductance (L),

as well as resistance (R), such as the one
shown in Fig. 4.4.1, when the switch is
closed the current does not rise
immediately to its steady state value but
rises in EXPONENTIAL fashion. This is
due to the fact that a BACK EMF is created
by the change in current flow through the
inductor. This back EMF has an amplitude Fig 4.4.1
which is proportional to the RATE OF
CHANGE of current (the faster the rate of change, the greater the back EMF) and a polarity which
opposes the change in current in the inductor that caused it initially. The back EMF is produced
because the changing current in the inductor causes a changing magnetic field around it and the
changing magnetic field causes, in turn, an EMF to be induced back into the inductor. This process is
called SELF INDUCTION.
Current Through an Inductor
Because the back EMF opposes the rapid change in current taking place in the inductor, the rate of
change of current is reduced and what would be a vertical line on the graph (Fig. 4.4.2) becomes a
slope. The rate of change of current through the
inductor is now less, so a smaller back EMF is
produced. This allows the current to increase further.
The relationship between the changing current and
back EMF produces a curve which always follows a
mathematical law to produce a particular shape of
curve i.e. an exponential curve. When the switch is
opened, the current decays in a similar exponential
manner towards zero.
Fig 4.4.2
Voltage Across an Inductor
Looking at Fig. 4.4.3 which shows the voltage (VL)

across the inductor (L) we can see that at switch on,
the voltage immediately rises to a maximum value.
This is because a voltage is being applied to the
circuit and little or no current is flowing because L is
effectively (for a very short time) a very high
resistance due to the back EMF effect. The full supply
EMF is therefore developed across the inductor. As
current begins to flow through L however, the voltage
VL decreases until a point is reached where the whole
of the battery voltage is being developed across the
resistor R and the voltage or potential difference (pd) Fig 4.4.3
across L is zero.
When the current is switched off, the rapidly collapsing magnetic field around the inductor produces a
large spike of induced current through the inductor in the opposite direction to the current that was
flowing before switch−off. These rapid changes in current as the switch opens can cause very large
voltage spikes, which can lead to arcing at the switch contacts, as the large voltage jumps the gap
between the contacts. The spikes can also damage other components in a circuit, especially
semiconductors. Care must be taken to prevent these spikes that can occur in any circuit containing
inductors. In some circuits however, where high voltage pulses are required, this effect can also be
used to advantage.

Module 4.5 LR Time Constant

When a current is applied to an inductor it takes some time for the current to reach its maximum value,
after which it will remain in a "steady state" until some other event causes the input to change. The
time taken for the current to rise to its steady state value in an LR circuit depends on:
• The resistance (R)
This is the total circuit resistance, which includes the DC resistance of the inductor (RL) itself, plus any
external circuit resistance.
• The inductance of L
Which is proportional to the square of the number of turns, the cross sectional area of coil and the
permeability of the core.
The LR Time Constant
Fig 4.5.1
An Inductor opposes CHANGES in current flow
When the circuit in Fig 4.5.1 is switched on current changes rapidly from zero, this sudden change
creates a rapidly expanding magnetic field around the coil, and in doing so induces a voltage back into
the coil. This induced voltage (called a back EMF) creates a current flowing in the OPPOSITE
direction to the original current. The result of this is that the initial rate of change of the circuit current is
reduced. If this initial rate of change were to continue in a linear fashion, the current would reach its
maximum or steady "state value" in a time given by:
T = L/R seconds.
T is the TIME CONSTANT and is measured in seconds
L is the INDUCTANCE and is measured in Henrys
R is the TOTAL CIRCUIT RESISTANCE and is measured in Ohms.

Seconds and Henrys are usually far too large for most electronics measurements, and milli and micro
units are commonly used, but remember when calculating to convert any of these sub units to
seconds or Henrys for use in formulae.
The rise in current is not linear however, but follows a curved "exponential" path, and in one time
constant the current will have only risen to 63.2% of its maximum (steady state) value. After five time
constants it will reach 99.5%, which is regarded as its maximum value

Discharge
If the circuit is switched off, current does not immediately fall to zero, it again falls exponentially, and
after one time constant period will have reached 36.8% of the previous steady state value (i.e. the
steady state value -63.2%). It is considered to reach zero in five time constant periods.
The Exponential Curve
The change of current in an inductor in response to a step change in input is exponential. For a series
of equal time periods, the current charges the inductor towards its maximum value, by a percentage of
the remaining difference between the present and maximum values. So although this difference
continues to shrink, the extra charge built up during each time period also shrinks. The outcome of this
is that the current can never ever reach the maximum!
Why 63.2%?
If the current never reaches its steady state value, this presents a problem of how to measure the time
taken to fully charge. This is why the idea of a time constant, (the time it takes to charge by 63.2%) is
used. Why choose 63.2% when there are easier numbers such as 50% that could be used? Well 50%
would be nice but would create an awkward formula with which to calculate the time taken.
It's Simple!
It so happens that using 63.2% (which is not too different from 50%) results in a nice simple formula of
L/R for the inductor time constant, and CR for the capacitor time constant. This greatly simplifies
calculations, and because the current will have reached 99.5% of the steady state value after 5 time
constants, this is near enough in practice to consider that the maximum value has been reached.

Module 4.6 DC Transients Quiz


Be able to describe transient events in DC circuits.
Be able to describe transient voltage and current

relationships in a simple LR, CR and resistive
circuits.
Be able to describe transient events in CR and LR

combinations in DC circuits.
Be able to calculate LR and CR time constants.
Try our quiz, based on the information you can find in Module 4. Check your answers on line at:
http://www.learnabout-electronics.org/ac_theory/dc_ccts06.php
1.
When the switch in Fig. 4.6.1 is closed, how long will it take for the
capacitor voltage to reach its steady state value?
a) 1ms b) 10ms c) 50ms d) 500us
2.
When the switch in Fig. 4.6.2 is closed, how long will it take for the capacitor voltage to rise to 6.3
volts?
a) 2.2ms b) 220ms c) 2.2s d) 120ms
3.
A CR circuit connected to a DC supply will, for a time after a voltage is

applied to it, behave as though the capacitors were very ________ value resistances, but these
effects will disappear after a time approximately equal to _______ time constant(s). The missing
words in this sentence are:
a) Low and one b) Low and five c) High and one d) High and five
4.
Refer to Fig. 4.6.3: What will be the approximate voltage across the
inductor 100ns after the switch is closed?
a) 6.3V b) 7.07V c) 0V d) 10V
5.
Calculate the time constant of a circuit consisting of a 15mH inductor and a 470Kohm resistor.
a) 32ns b) 7s c) 31.9ms d) 70ms
Continued:

6.
If a simple LR circuit consisting of a 20Ω resistor in series with a 100mH inductor is connected to a
10V supply, from which it draws a current of 500mA after it has reached its steady state. How long
after switch on, will the current take to reach 316mA?
a) 5ms b) 2ms c) 2s d) 500ms
7.
An ideal circuit is a useful theoretical tool because:
a) It uses real components
b) It is drawn in a simplified format
c) It is designed to give optimum results
d) Real but unimportant factors can be ignored.
8.
In the formula I = E/(R+r) the quantity r is added to compensate for:
a) The internal resistance of the power supply.
b) The resistance of the switch contacts.
c) The delay caused by the switch closing and opening.
d) The tolerance rating of the resistor.
9.
The back EMF produced as an inductor charges up is proportional to:
a) The supply EMF
b) The charging current
c) The voltage across the inductor
d) The rate of change of the applied current
10.
The back e.m.f produced when an inductor is first connected to a DC supply is..
a) Proportional to the applied voltage.
b) Inversely proportional to the value of inductance.
c) Initially high, and then gradually reduces.
d) Initially low, and then gradually increases.

2010
Module
5 AC Theory
Phasors
Phase and Phasor Diagrams

Introduction
What you'll learn in Module 5. The AC circuits described in this module are
some of the simplest in construction, consisting
5.1 Phase Shift of only two or three components, but in their
operation can seem almost magical, and are
Phase Shift in Common AC Components. amazingly useful in so many ways. They might
form the tuning circuit of a radio, and be used to
improve the performance of amplifiers. They
5.2 Phasors
can greatly magnify alternating voltages or
currents, and also reject radio interference. They
Use of Phasors to Simplify Complex Waveform may also be called "Tuned" or "Resonant"
diagrams. circuits and produce oscillations of a particular
pitch or frequency in musical instruments. They
Relationship Between Waveform and Phasor are used to separate the high, low and mid
Diagrams. range notes in a hi-fi speaker system. These
same circuits perform functions like sensing a
5.3 Phasor Diagrams car as it approaches a traffic light, or help find
buried precious metals with a metal detector.
Using Phasor Diagrams to Show Phase Difference.
As you study this and the following modules,
Drawing Phasor Diagrams. notice that the circuits described use two main
components, inductors and capacitors, which in
many ways seem to have opposite and
5.4 Phasor Calculations complimentary effects. It is the way they are
connected in a circuit, as well as their individual
Using Phasor Diagrams to Calculate Unknown electrical values that are key to the many uses
Values. of these circuits. Although in many cases these
basic inductor/capacitor combinations may now
Scale Drawings be replaced by new and usually smaller ceramic
components, the basic principles of these
Pythagoras´ Theorem LCR (inductor/capacitor/resistor) circuits are
essential to understanding the operation of
Trigonometry many electronic systems.
5.5 Phasor Quiz
Phasor Quiz

www.learnabout-electronics.org Phase and Phasors
Module 5.1 Phase Shift

Fig 5.1.1 AC Phase Relationships in R, L and C
Resistance in AC Circuits
In purely resistive circuits, the current and voltage

both change in the same way, and at the same
time, as described in Module 4.1. This relationship
is true, whether the applied voltage is direct or
alternating. The main difference in AC circuits is
that the voltage continues to change in a way that
depends on the shape of the input wave. When a
sine wave voltage is applied to a purely resistive
circuit, it produces a sine wave (sinusoidal) current.
Both waveforms attain their peak values at the
same time, and pass through zero at the same
time. Voltage and current in a purely resistive circuit
are therefore said to be "IN PHASE" with each
other.
Inductance in AC Circuits
In a purely inductive circuit the voltage and

current waveforms are not in phase. Inductance
opposes change in current due to the back emf
effect. This causes the current to reach its peak
value some time after the voltage. So in an
inductive circuit, current "LAGS" voltage.
In DC circuits the current eventually settles to a

steady state value, and the period of change
prior to steady state depends on the time
constant (i.e. the component values) of the
circuit. In an AC circuit however, as the voltage is
continually changing, the current also continues to change, and in a purely inductive circuit, the peak
values of current occur a quarter of a cycle (90°) after those of the voltage.
In a circuit containing both inductance and resistance, which is usually the case as the inductor (a coil
of wire) will have some internal resistance, the current will lag the voltage by an amount between
practically 0° (nearly pure resistance) and almost −90° (nearly pure inductance). Since voltage and
current no longer rise and fall together, a "PHASE SHIFT" is occurring in the circuit.
Capacitance in AC Circuits
Capacitance has the property of delaying

changes in voltage as described in Module 4.3.
That is, the applied voltage reaches steady state
only after a time dictated by the time constant. In
AC circuits voltage and current are changing
continuously, and in a purely capacitive AC circuit
the peak value of the voltage waveform occurs a
quarter of a cycle after the peak value of the
current. Therefore a phase shift is occurring in
the capacitor, the amount of phase shift between
voltage and current is +90° for a purely capacitive
circuit, with the current LEADING the voltage.
The opposite phase shift to an inductive circuit.

A very CIVIL relationship
One way to memorise these current/voltage (I/V) relationships in capacitors(C) and inductors (L) is to
consider the positions of letters in the word CIVIL. The first three letters CIV indicate that in a capacitor
(C), V lags (comes after) I, and the last three letters VIL indicate that I lags (comes after) V in an
inductor (L).

Module 5.2 Phasors

A better way to analyse complex waveform diagrams
In discussing phase shifts between currents and voltages in ac circuits, diagrams showing multiple
waveforms such as those in module 5.1 could be used, but this involves a lot of complex drawing of
waveforms which would, in many cases, be hard to interpret, and even more difficult to take
measurements from. If calculations involving these waveforms were needed the waveforms would
also need to be accurately drawn to scale.
A much more convenient method is to replace the sine wave drawings with phasor diagrams. Making
use of a few facts about a sine wave, provides a much simpler way to represent a wave.
A sine wave has only one frequency, so this can be

represented by simply choosing a suitable point on a horizontal
line that represents a suitable range of frequencies .
The sine wave will have a particular amplitude, this can be

represented by using a vertical line equal to the amplitude of
the wave.
So the complex drawing af a sine wave shape can be simplified to just a couple of straight lines; one
representing a frequency, and the other showing amplitude. The problem here however, is to draw a
diagram that can represent a number of sine waves, each having the same frequency, but with
different phase relationships to each other, which is where phasors are used.
Fig 5.2.1 How a Phasor Relates to a Sine Wave.
A phasor is a straight line drawn in such a way that its length is related to the amplitude of the sine
wave represented, and its angular position relative to other phasors is related to the phase difference
between the quantities.
The relationship between a phasor and a single sine wave is illustrated in fig 5.2.1. The phasor
represented by the arrow is rotating in an anticlockwise direction about the centre origin point,
describing the sine wave as it rotates.

Note that:
a. At any point in time, the length of the red dotted line represents the instantaneous value of the
wave.
b. The length of the phasor represents the amplitude of the wave.
c. The angle of the phasor gives the phase of the waveform. Increments in phasor angle in the
circular diagram are equivalent to time or angle increments along the horizontal axis of the
waveform diagram. So with this addition of angular information, the phasor gives a relatively
simple way to show the complex relationships that exist between sine waves in an ac circuit.
Angular Velocity.
As a phasor is rotating, the speed at which it rotates about the origin point will depend on the
frequency (ƒ) of the wave represented. In one second the phasor will rotate through ƒ revolutions, or
through ƒ x 360° (since one revolution = 360°).
In calculations involving such rotation, it is more common to use the angular unit RADIAN (rad.) where
360° = 2π rads. The phasor can therefore be said to rotate through 2πƒ radians per second. This is
called the ANGULAR VELOCITY of the phasor, and is commonly represented by 2πƒ or alternatively
by the symbol ω (omega).

Module 5.3 Phasor Diagrams

Phasor Diagrams Show Phase Difference
A phasor diagram is used to show the phase relationships between

two or more sine waves having the same frequency. Section 5.2 Five Rules for Drawing
showed a phasor continually rotating, but in use phasor diagrams Phasor Diagrams.
are static. Imagine that the phasors are rotating in an anticlockwise
(counter clockwise) direction. Rule 1. The length of the
phasor is directly proportional
Every phasor in the diagram will have the same angular velocity to the amplitude of the wave
because they represent sine waves of identical frequency. The depicted.
length of the each phasor arm is directly related to the amplitude of
the wave it represents, and the angle between the phasors is the Rule 2. In circuits which have
same as the angle of phase difference between the sine waves. combinations of L, C & R in
SERIES (studied in Module 8)
it is customary to draw the

phasor representing
CURRENT horizontally, and
call this the REFERENCE
phasor. This is because the
current in a series circuit is
common to all the
components.
Fig 5.3.1 Showing Phase Relationship with Phasors
Fig 5.3.1 shows how a phasor diagram is used to illustrate the

phase difference between waves 1 and 2.
The main value of phasor diagrams is that they can be used, not Rule 3. In parallel circuits,
(studied in Module 9) the
only to represent waveform diagrams, but also in carrying out
phasor representing the
calculations involving ac waves. The calculations can involve any of
SUPPLY VOLTAGE is always
the common values (RMS, peak values, phase angles etc.) and will
drawn in the REFERENCE
be much quicker and easier than performing the calculations on direction. This is because in a
waveform diagrams. parallel circuit it is the supply
voltage that is common to all
It can be seen from Fig 5.3.1 that the waveform diagrams can be components.
represented in phasor form without any loss of information. Phasors
can be used to calculate unknown values in different types of Rule 4. The direction of
circuits where capacitors, resistors and inductors may be connected rotation of all phasors is
in series or in parallel to achieve different effects, provided some considered to be
basic rules are followed. ANTICLOCKWISE.
Rule 5. In any one diagram,

the same type of value (RMS,
peak etc.) is used for all
phasors, not a mixture of
values.

Module 5.4 Phasor Calculations

Find Unknown Values Using Phasor Diagrams
There are several ways of using phasor diagrams to find out important data about LCR circuits. For
example: "What supply voltage will be needed to ensure a particular voltage across the inductor in a
circuit?" or "What would be the phase difference between the supply voltage and supply current at a
particular frequency of operation?" and many others. The three methods described below introduce
different ways of using phasor diagrams to find unknown quantities.
Study these three methods and once you are familiar with these methods, you can choose the best
one to solve any particular problem involving the values and phase angles of AC currents and
voltages.
To help you on the right track why not download our "Maths Tips" booklet from the Downloads page
our website http://www.learnabout-electronics.org, which shows you how to use your calculator to
calculate angles and values using trigonometry functions and get the right answer every time.
No scientific calculator? The "Maths Tips" booklet explains what you need and don't need from a
calculator. If you don't want to buy a scientific calculator, you can always pick up a free one from the
net. PC users can try Calc98 from http://www.calculator.org/download.html. Whichever calculator you
choose remember that you should read its instructions to become familiar with the working methods
you should use as these do vary from calculator to calculator.
Method 1 Scale Drawing
Using a phasor diagram drawn to scale, find the supply voltage VS when VR = 6V and VL = 8V.
Because the components of

the circuit are connected in
series, IS is common to all
components, so IS will be the
reference phasor. It is drawn
at 0° (horizontally to the right
of the origin point). As the
problem only requires
voltages, the scale of IS does
not matter.
A phasor is drawn 6 units (cm,

inches etc.) long. Because
both resistor current and
voltage are always in phase with each other, VR is in phase with the reference phasor IS. The value is
shown as VR = 6V. (the small tick marks on the phasor are only given her to show scale.)
In a pure inductor, voltage (VL) leads current (IS) by 90°, so an 8V phasor is drawn vertically from the
common point of origin.
A line, the same length as, and parallel to VR is drawn from the top of VL to form the top of a rectangle
(VR').
The right side of the rectangle (VL') is drawn from the tip of VR, the same length as, and parallel to (VL)
A phasor showing VS can now be drawn from the origin point, diagonally to the opposite corner of the
rectangle.
The measured length of this phasor will be the phasor sum of VR and VL, which in this case will be
10V.

Method 2 Pythagoras' Theorem
Because, in this example, the area within VS, VL and VR is a right angle triangle, the length of the
Hypotenuse (VS) can be found using Pythagoras' Theorem, which states:
The square of the hypotenuse (VS in this example) of a right angle triangle is equal to the sum of the
squares of the two adjacent sides (VL' and VR).
1. The formula: VS2 = VL2 + VR2 (using the symbols from the phasor diagram).
2. VS2 = 82 + 62 (replace the symbols with the known values).
3. VS2 = 64 + 36 = 100 (work out the value of VS2).
4. VS = √100 (find the square root of VS2 to give VS)
5. The Answer: VS = 10V (remember the units you are working in - Volts in this example).

Method 3 Using the Inverse Trigonometry Functions
The formula for finding an angle depends on which sides of the triangle have a known value. The
choice for finding he unknown angle θ (in degrees) is between:
θ° = sin-1 (Opposite / Hypotenuse)
θ° = cos-1 (Adjacent / Hypotenuse)
θ° = tan-1 (Opposite / Adjacent)
Even if the value of the hypotenuse (VS) is not yet known (from Method 1 or 2) the tan-1 formula can
be used to find the angle θ.
θ° = tan-1 (Opposite / Adjacent)
θ° = tan-1 (8 / 6)
θ° = tan-1 1.33
θ° = 53.13° (53° would normally be near enough)
To help you on the right track why not download our "Maths Tips"
booklet, available from
http://www.learnabout-electronics.org/ac_theory/ac_ccts_54.php
which shows you how to use your calculator to calculate angles and
values using trigonometry functions and get the right answer every
time.
No scientific calculator? The "Maths Tips" booklet explains what you
need and don't need from a calculator. If you don't want to buy a
scientific calculator, you can always pick up a free one from the net.
PC users can try Calc98 from www.calculator.org/download.html.
Whichever calculator you choose remember that you should read its
instructions to become familiar with the working methods you should
use, as these do vary from calculator to calculator.

Module 5.5 Phasor Quiz

After studying Module 5, you should be able to:

Describe phase relationships in sine waves applied
to capacitive, inductive and resistive circuits.
Describe the representation of sine waves using

phasors.
Interpret phasor diagrams relating to voltage

current and phase relationships in ac circuits.
Calculate values in ac circuits using phasor

diagrams.
1.
In an inductor, an increase in the value of the internal resistance has the effect of:
a) Increasing the inductance.
b) Decreasing the phase difference between the inductor voltage (VL and current (IL).
c) Decreasing the inductance.
d) Increasing the phase difference between the inductor voltage (VL and current (IL).
2.
Complete the sentence: In a capacitor…
a) Current leads voltage by 90°.
b) Voltage leads current by 90°.
c) Current Lags Voltage by between 0° and 90°.
d) Voltage leads current by between 0° and 90°.
3.
Which property of a sine wave does the length of a phasor represent?
a) Frequency. b) Phase. c) Amplitude. d) Instantaneous value.
Continued:

4.
Refer to Fig. 5.5.1: Which of the following statements about Fig 5.5.1 is true?
a) All the waves depicted have the same frequency and same amplitude.
b) All the waves depicted have the same phase and same frequency.
c) All the waves depicted have the same shape and same frequency.
d) All the waves depicted have the same phase and same shape.
5.
Refer to Fig 5.5.2: What is the phase difference θ between the supply
voltage and the supply current?
a) 53° b) 37° c) 30° d) 59°
6.
Refer to Fig 5.5.3: Which of the phasor diagrams describes a CR series Circuit?
7.
Refer to Fig 5.5.1: If phasor P2 represents 5V and phasor P3 represents 11V, what is the approximate
angle between P2 and P3?
a) 27° b) 67° c) 71° d) 63°
8.
In a parallel LCR circuit, which of the following properties is used as the reference phasor?
a) Supply current (IS ).
b) Reactive voltage (VC − VL).
c) Supply voltage (VS) .
d) Reactive voltage (VL − VC).
Continued:

9.
A phasor representing a 1kHz sine wave will rotate through how many complete radians in one
second?
a) 360,000 b) 6283 c) 1000 d) 3142
10.
In a phasor diagram, the frequency of each of the waves shown by the phasors is:
a) The same for all waves, and shown by the point of origin of the phasors.
b) Different for each wave, and proportional to the different lengths of the phasors.
c) Different for each wave, and shown by the change in angle of the phasors.
d) Not shown.

Module
AC Theory
6
Reactance
Ohms but not Resistance

What you'll learn in Module 6 Reactance.
Section 6.1 Inductive Reactance.
Inductive Reactance.
The relationship between reactance, frequency and inductance.

Reactance and Resistance
Graphical representation of inductive reactance.
Section 6.2 Capacitive Reactance. Resistance is unaffected by the rate of
change of voltage or current and
remains the same whether DC, or AC
Capacitive Reactance. of any frequency is applied. In a purely
resistive circuit Ohms law applies and
The relationship between reactance, frequency and capacitance.
V= IR. Calculations of resistance in AC
Graphical representation of capacitive reactance. circuits are the same as for DC. The
only extra thing to remember when
Section 6.3 XL Calculations. calculating AC values, is that the same
type of value, e.g. the RMS, Average
value, or the peak-to-peak value must
Calculations involving inductive reactance. be used for all AC voltages or currents
throughout the equation. Inductance
Multi stage calculations.
and capacitance however, have an
Section 6.4 XC Calculations. effect on current that depends on
frequency, and when either component
is used with AC voltages and currents,
Calculations involving capacitive reactance. then the frequency of the waveform
must be taken into account.
Multi stage calculations involving reactance & resistance.
Section 6.5 Reactance Quiz. With inductive and capacitive
reactance, each has opposite effects
in relation to frequency. Inductive
Choosing standard formulae to solve reactance rises with an increase in
frequency, and capacitive reactance
inductive and capacitive reactance problems. falls. Both are similar to resistance and
are measured in Ohms, but resistance
Using Multi stage calculations involving is not dependent on frequency, whilst
reactance is.. The interplay between
inductive and capacitive reactance & resistance.
resistance and reactance will form the
basis of many effects in later modules.

www.learnabout-electronics.org Reactance
Module 6.1 Inductive Reactance

Inductive Reactance XL
When the current in an Inductor changes, a back emf is created that opposes the change in current,
and the faster the initial change in current the greater the back emf. So it is not surprising that, the
faster rates of change of current that occur as the frequency of the wave increases, produce a greater
back emf effect that in turn, reduces current flow more than it does at lower frequencies.
This variable opposition to current flow in an inductor is related to the amount of the inductance,
because the larger the value of inductance the greater the back emf effect produced. The opposition
to current flow through an inductor is proportional to both the amount of inductance and to the
frequency of the current in the inductor. This opposition to current flow is called INDUCTIVE
REACTANCE (XL). The formula for Inductive Reactance multiplies the angular velocity of the AC wave
by the value of Inductance:
Where 2πƒ or ω is the angular velocity and L is the inductance in

HENRYS.
Like resistance, reactance it is measured in ohms, but is

separate from the opposition to current caused by any internal Fig 6.1.1
resistance within the inductor. Large values of inductance (found
in large types of inductors used at low frequencies) have higher
values of internal resistance than the much smaller types of
inductor used at radio frequencies and above. Inductors are
basically coils of wire, and the more coils of wire an inductor has,
the longer the wire will be, and the greater its value of resistance.
This internal resistance cannot be separated from the inductor
and must be accounted for in calculations, especially in low
frequency applications that use large inductors. The small
amounts of resistance present in the much smaller radio
frequency inductors however, can usually be ignored.
Fig 6.1.1 shows a graph of inductive reactance against frequency for a particular value of inductance,
with XL increasing with frequency in a linear fashion
Resistance in Inductors
The resistance present in the wire of large inductors has a noticeable effect on current through, and
voltage across an inductor. Although the effect of reactance can be calculated, it will not account for
the total effect on current and voltage, the resistance must also be taken into account. The internal
resistance of an inductor cannot be physically separated from the inductor as shown in Fig 6.1.2
Fig. 6.1.2 also shows the effect Fig 6.1.2

that the internal resistance of an
inductor has on its phasor
diagram. The voltage across
the internal resistance (Vr) may
be small in comparison to the
voltage across the inductance,
but Vr will be in phase with the
reference phasor (current I) and
so will produce a phase shift
causing the phasor for VL to
shift towards 0°.

Because VL is the phasor sum of the voltages VXL and Vr (due to both the reactance and the internal
resistance of the inductor), it will also be slightly larger than the voltage (VXL) that would be calculated
due to the inductance alone. This means that in practical inductor, the voltage phasor is not going to
lead the current phasor by exactly at +90°, the actual amount of phase shift will also depend on the
amount of internal resistance. Whilst this is not a big problem with the small inductors used in high
frequency applications, it does need to be considered in large, low frequency inductors where the coil
is larger so its resistance is greater.
Module 6.2 Capacitive Reactance

Capacitive Reactance XC
In a capacitor with direct voltage applied, module 4.2 showed that the current flow falls to zero after the
initial transient period. When an alternating voltage of any appreciable frequency is applied however,
current flows first in one direction, and then the other. The capacitor is first charging, and then
discharging, so provided that the frequency of the applied AC is high enough, the capacitor never
reaches its fully charged, zero current state in either polarity, and current continues to flow all the time.
The amount of current flowing will depend on the angular velocity of the applied voltage, and on the
capacitance of the capacitor
Fig 6.2.1 Capacitive Reactance XC
The lower the frequency of the applied voltage, the more time
the capacitor has to reach the fully charged, zero current state
before the voltage reverses its polarity and begins to discharge
the capacitor again. The capacitor therefore spends more time
fully charged and passing much less current, the average value
of current flow is therefore less at low frequencies. When a
higher frequency is applied, the capacitor changes from
charging to discharging sooner in its charge curve and it remains
further from its fully charged state. As a consequence, more
current flows. The opposition to current flow in any capacitor of a
given size therefore reduces as frequency increases. This
frequency dependent opposition to current flow in a capacitor is
called CAPACITIVE REACTANCE (XC).
The formula for capacitive reactance is:
Fig 6.2.1 shows a graph of capacitive reactance against frequency for a given value of capacitor, with
capacitive reactance (XC) inversely proportional to frequency, (XC reducing as frequency increases).
Reactance is also inversely proportional to the value of capacitance, and the value of XC at any one
particular frequency will be less in larger capacitors than in smaller ones. All capacitors will have
infinitely high values of reactance at 0Hz, (i.e. no current flows at dc), but in large capacitors, the
reactance falls to a low level at much lower frequencies than in smaller capacitors. For this reason
larger capacitors are used in low frequency applications.

Module 6.3 XL Calculations

Inductive Reactance XL
For calculations based on Inductive Reactance, you firstly need to think about the information on
Reactance & Resistance in the introduction to this module on page 1, to learn about the differences
between reactance and resistance. For calculations you can choose which formula to use for inductive
reactance, either 2πƒL or ωL, but 2πƒL is more commonly used, one reason being that scientific
calculators mostly have a π (pi) key, but no ω (omega) key!.
Remember that some problems you may need to work out will not necessarily have an obvious
solution, such as just calculating the reactance of a component. For example, if you are asked to
calculate the supply voltage required to produce a certain current flow through, or voltage across a
component, two or more steps may be needed, using the answer from one calculation to provide
information for a second calculation before reaching the final answer.
Before you start, think about the following tips, they will make the problems easier if you follow them
carefully.
1. Work out the answers using pencil and paper; redraw the circuit you are working on.
2. List the items of information you are given, and what you need to find for your answer. Doing
this will help you decide whether the answer can be found in a single step, or if you will need
an intermediate answer.
3. Once you have listed the information in step 2 (above), you will need to decide on which
appropriate formula (or formulae) to use. Write this down as well.
4. Of course the answer is not just a number, if you are calculating XL it will be a certain number
of Ohms, don't forget to show the correct unit multiple (e.g. Ω, KΩ or MΩ) or your answer is
meaningless.
5. When you put values into your calculator convert all KΩ or MΩ values to Ohms by using the
EXP key. If you slip up here you'll get answers, thousands of times too big or too small.
All these steps seem rather a toil at first, but get into the habit and they will make your calculations easier,
because you will be following a familiar method. They will also be more reliable, and when you need to
carry out multiple step calculations you need to be organised. It is so easy to go wrong part way through
your working out because you have forgotten just where you are in the calculation. If you have written each
problem out however, it will allow you to go back and see where you went wrong, so you don't keep
making the same mistakes.
Why go to all this trouble when there are lots of calculators on the web that will do the calculations for
you?
Many web based electronics calculators are excellent, but you still need to know instinctively which
formula to use and when − and why. To be familiar enough to do this well, you need to know how the
various formulae work. The best way to do this is to start by working out some problems manually, then
you will find many of the calculators offered on websites much more useful.
To help you on the right track why not download our "Maths Tips" booklet, which shows
you how to use your calculator with exponents and engineering notation to deal with these
units and get the right answer every time.

No scientific calculator? The "Maths Tips" booklet explains what you need (and what
you don't need so you don't spend your money unnecessarily). If you don't want to buy
a scientific calculator, you can always pick up a free one from
www.calculator.org/download.html. PC users can try Calc98.
Whichever calculator you choose, remember that you should read the instructions to
become familiar with the working methods you should use, as these do vary from
calculator to calculator.
OK so now you have read these instructions, you are ready to start. Here is a way to solve a typical
problem on paper so (with practice) you don't get confused.
Reactance Examples.
Question:
Calculate the supply voltage (VS) needed to cause a current of 10mA to flow through a 15mH inductor at a
supply frequency of 400Hz.
Note: If you are using Calc98 for your calculations you need to set the View>Option>Display menu to
Engineering (under the "Decimal" choices) and it would be a good idea whilst you are in this menu to
select 2 from the Decimals drop down box to set the number of digits after the decimal place. This will
round your answer down to two decimal places, which is sufficiently accurate for most uses and stops you
getting silly answers such as 75.666666666667, which would be far too accurate for most purposes.

Module 6.4 XC Calculations

Capacitive Reactance XC
For calculations based on Capacitive Reactance, you firstly need to think about the information on
Reactance & Resistance in the introduction to this module on page 1, to learn about the differences
between reactance and resistance. For calculations you can choose which formula to use for
capacitive reactance, either 2πƒL or ωL, but 2πƒL is more commonly used, (one reason being that
scientific calculators mostly have a π key, but no ω key!).
Remember that some problems you may need to work out will not necessarily have an obvious
solution, such as just calculating the reactance of a component. For example, if you are asked to
calculate the supply voltage required to produce a certain current flow through, or voltage across a
component, two or more steps may be needed, using the answer from one calculation to provide
information for a second calculation before reaching the final answer.
Before you start, think about the following tips; they will make the problems easier if you follow them
carefully.
1. Work out the answers using pencil and paper; redraw the circuit you are working on.
2. List the items of information you are given, and what you need to find for your answer; doing
this will help you decide whether the answer can be found in a single step or if you will need
an intermediate answer.
3. Once you have listed the information in step 2 you will need to decide on which appropriate
formula (or formulae) to use. Write this down as well.
4. Of course the answer is not just a number, if it is a certain number of Ohms (or any other
unit), don't forget to show the correct unit multiple (e.g. Ω, KΩ or MΩ) otherwise your answer
is meaningless.
5. When you put values into your calculator convert all large or small (Meg, micro etc.) values
into their basic units (volts ohms etc.) by using the EXP key. Its easy to slip up here and get
answers, thousands of times too big or too small.
All these steps may seem rather a toil at first, but get into the habit and they will make your calculations
easier, because you will be following a familiar method. They will also be more reliable, and when you
need to carry out multiple step calculations you need to be organised. It is so easy to go wrong part way
through your working out because you have forgotten just where you are in the calculation. If you have
written each problem out however, it will allow you to go back and see where you went wrong so you don't
keep making the same mistakes.
Why go to all this trouble when there are lots of calculators on the web that will do the calculations for
you?
Many web based electronics calculators are excellent, but you still need to know instinctively which
formula to use and when − and why. To be familiar enough to do this well, you need to know how the
various formulae work. The best way to do this is to start by working out some problems manually, then
you will find many of the calculators offered on websites much more useful.
To help you on the right track why not download our "Maths Tips" booklet, which shows
you how to use your calculator with exponents and engineering notation to deal with these
units and get the right answer every time.

No scientific calculator? The "Maths Tips" booklet explains what you need (and what
you don't need so you don't spend your money unnecessarily). If you don't want to
buy a scientific calculator, you can always pick up a free one from
www.calculator.org/download.html. PC users can try Calc98.
Whichever calculator you choose, remember that you should read the instructions to
become familiar with the working methods you should use as these do vary from
calculator to calculator.
OK so now you have read these instructions, you are ready to start. Here is a way to solve a typical
problem on paper so (with practice) you don't get confused.
Reactance Examples.
The problem below is a typical example where a number of related values need to be found, including
the reactance of the capacitor. Other values, such as the RMS Voltage (VRMS) and RMS Current (IRMS)
are described in Module 1.2
Note:
If you are using Calc98 for your calculations you need to set the View>Option>Display menu to
Engineering (under the "Decimal" choices) and it would be a good idea whilst you are in this menu
to select 2 from the Decimals drop down box to set the number of digits after the decimal place.
This will round your answer down to two decimal places, which is sufficiently accurate for most
uses and stops you getting silly answers such as 75.666666666667Ω, which would be far more
accurate than needed for most purposes.

Module 6.5 Reactance Quiz

After studying Module 6, you should be able to:

Be able to Recognise reactance graphs
Be able to describe the relationships between

reactance, frequency, capacitance and
inductance
Be able to choose standard formulae to solve

inductive and capacitive reactance problems
Be able to carry out single and multi step

calculations involving inductive and capacitive
reactance
.
1.
Which formula from the following list would be used to calculate the reactance of a capacitor?
2.
Which of the following graphs illustrates the formula 2πƒ L ?
3.
What is the reactance of a 0.01µF capacitor at a frequency of 1MHz?
a) 15.9Ω b) 1MΩ c) 62KΩ d) 0.01Ω
4.
The effect of internal resistance in an inductor in a LR circuit is to: (Complete the sentence from the
following choices)
a) Increase the phase difference between the inductor voltage and the supply current.
b) Increase the phase difference between the inductor voltage and the resistor voltage
.
c) Decrease the phase difference between the inductor voltage and the supply current.
d) Decrease the phase difference between the supply voltage and the supply current
Continued.

5.
Calculate the reactance of the capacitor in Fig 6.5.1.
a) 6.28Ω b) 27Ω c) 159Ω d) 125Ω
6.
If the frequency of the supply in Fig 6.5.1 is doubled from the value shown, how will this affect XC?
a) It will rise slightly from its original value.
b) It will fall slightly from its original value.
c) It will rise to double its original value.
d) It will fall to half its original value.
7.
Calculate the approximate supply voltage needed to cause a current of 10mA to flow through a 15mH
inductor at a supply frequency of 4kHz .
a) 3.8V b) 0.4V c) 37.7V d) 376mV
8.
What is the reactance of the inductor in Fig 6.5.2?
a) 1.6Ω b) 31.4Ω c) 15.9Ω d) 159Ω
9.
What will be the current flowing in Fig 6.5.2?
a) 628µA b) 15.9mA c) 6.28mA d) 1.59mA
10.
What will be the current flowing in Fig 6.5.2 if the supply frequency is doubled and the supply
frequency is halved?
a) It will be double its original value.
b) It will remain the same.
c) It will be half its original value.
d) It will be four times its original value.

Module
AC Theory
7
Impedance
Measured in Ohms but NOT Resistance.
A Combined Opposition The term Impedance is familiar to anyone who has

connected a loudspeaker to an audio system, it is
generally a number of Ohms, often printed next to many
What you'll learn in Module 7. input or output sockets. However he property of
Impedance is perhaps less understood.
Section 7.1 The Impedance Triangle.
The Impedance Triangle.
Graphical representation of Impedance.
Calculating Impedance in inductive and

capacitive circuits.
Section 7.2 Impedance Matching.
Impedance matching.
The word impedance is used in many engineering
The effects of input and output disciplines to refer to an opposition to work done, so this
Impedance on amplifier gain. article refers specifically to electrical impedance, which
describes the combined effect of resistance (R),
Section 7.3 Measuring Impedance. inductive reactance (XL) and capacitive reactance (XC) in
an AC circuit, whether it occurs in a single component, or
Practical methods of measuring in a whole circuit.
Impedance.
Because electrical impedance (here called simply
Section 7.4 Impedance Quiz. "impedance") is affected by reactance (X), as well as
resistance (R), it is also affected by frequency (ƒ) and the
value of impedance will change at different frequencies.
Calculations involving Impedance. Describing the impedance of a component or circuit in
terms of so many Ohms is therefore inadequate (but
Understand the relationships between commonly done). To be accurate, the impedance needs
Impedance, and other AC circuit to be expressed as so many Ohms at a particular
properties. frequency. What frequency is used will depend on the
type of circuit being described and what range of
Multi stage calculations involving frequencies the circuit is handling. The frequency chosen
impedance reactance & resistance. for the measurement of impedance is usually around the
equipment's mid frequency range. For example, in audio
circuits which may have a frequency range from a few
Hz to around 20kHz a frequency of 1kHz is commonly
specified. Although at first this does seem like the centre
of the frequency range, if this range is considered on a
logarithmic scale (as frequency scales commonly are)
then 1kHz is at the centre of the audio range.
AC THEORY MODULE 07.PDF 1  E. COATES 2007 -2010
www.learnabout-electronics.org Impedance
Module 7.1 The Impedance Triangle

The effect of a practical (real) inductor in limiting the flow of current is not solely due to the back emf
effect that gives rise to the inductive reactance XL, but is also partly due to the internal resistance of
the inductor. As these two causes, occurring in the same component, cannot be physically separated,
it is often essential to consider the combined effects of both reactance and resistance on the current
through the inductor. The name used to describe this combined opposition to current flow is
IMPEDANCE, which is measured in OHMS but has the symbol Z.
Fig 7.1.1 Constructing an Impedance Triangle from

a LR Phasor Diagram.
This combination of reactance plus resistance is not simply

the sum of these quantities. To obtain the impedance of a
simple series LR circuit for example, we must calculate the
PHASOR SUM of the resistance and the reactance. The
reason for this can be understood by studying Fig 7.1.1, which
shows a phasor diagram for the circuit redrawn as a right
angle triangle. The three sides of the triangle represent the
three voltage phasors in the circuit VR VL and VS. Because the
circuit components are in series, the same current is common
to them all.
Considering the voltages VR and VL in Fig 7.1.1, Ohms law

states that VR = IR (current multiplied by resistance), therefore
VL will equal IXL (current multiplied by reactance)
Now, as Z is the impedance of the total circuit, the total

voltage across the circuit, VS = IZ
Because these phasors now form a right angle triangle,

Pythagoras´ theorem can be used to relate all these voltage
phasors:
2 2 2
VS = VR + VL
Therefore (Because V = IR etc.)

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
(IZ) = (IR) + (IXL) or I Z = I R + I XL
2 2 2 2 2
Next, dividing throughout by I eliminates I to give Z = R + XL
and taking the square root of both sides of this equation gives a formula to calculate Z (the total
impedance of the LR circuit).
Note: When using this formula on a calculator it is important to remember to use the brackets, or
2 2
alternatively, to find the sum of R + XL before using the square root key.
Remember that impedance, resistance and reactance are not phasor quantities themselves. They
do affect the voltages and currents, causing these quantities to change their relationships with
each other, but as Z, R and X themselves are not varying with time, they are not phasors.

Fig 7.1.2 Impedance Triangle for CR circuits.
Fig 7.1.2 illustrates the similar relationship that exists in a

resistive/capacitive circuit. The voltage phasor diagram for CR
circuits can be converted to a right angle triangle and treated in
the same way as the LR diagrams in Fig 7.1.1 to give:
Fig 7.1.3 Impedance Triangle for LCR circuits.
Fig 7.1.3 shows a further variation of the

Impedance Triangle that can be used to
calculate Impedance when resistance
(R), Inductance (L) and Capacitance (C)
are all present in the circuit, and the total XL - XC
reactance (X) is the difference between
the Inductive Reactance (XL) and
Capacitive Reactance (XC). In this case
the formula for Z becomes:
Z = √ (R2 + (XL-XC)2)
Impedance is just one of the properties that is vital to understanding AC circuits. If you have studied
this module and modules 5 (Phase and Phasors) and 6 (Reactance) you should begin to see how
these properties work together. To understand how impedance depends on other properties of a
circuit, such as reactance and resistance, and see how impedance affects such things as current and
voltage, try some calculations using the formulae from these modules in the Module 7 (Impedance
Quiz).

Module 7.2 Impedance Matching.

Fig 7.2.1 Defining the Impedance Frequency.
The component or circuit will not have the same impedance at all frequencies. It is common for inputs
and outputs on many types of equipment to have their impedances quoted in Ohms and to assume a
common frequency for that particular type of equipment. For example, audio commonly uses a
frequency of 1kHz as the standard for measuring impedance. This is because 1kHz is approximately
the centre of an audio amplifier’s bandwidth, measured on a logarithmic scale, as shown in Fig 7.2.1.
The thing to notice in equipment designed to interconnect with other units is that most inputs (to
amplifiers etc) have high impedances (in Ohms) whereas outputs have much lower impedances. The
reason for this is because of the effects of impedance.
Fig 7.2.2 Input and Output Impedances
An amplifier can be considered to have two

impedances that affect the way it can be connected
to other amplifiers, one impedance is considered to
be connected across the input terminals (because
when an input source is connected to these
terminals, a current flows across the terminals,
therefore, there must be an impedance (shown as a
resistor) for the current to flow through. At the output
there is another imaginary resistor (impedance), this
time connected in series with the flow of current.
The effect of this output impedance is to reduce the
voltage at the output terminals, and the more current
drawn from the output, the more the terminal voltage
is reduced, therefore there must be an (invisible)
resistance across which the voltage is being
dropped. The input and output impedances of an
amplifier are illustrated in Fig 7.2.2

Fig. 7.2.3 Matching Input and Output Impedances.
Impedance matching of inputs and outputs is necessary because the gain of a single amplifier is often
insufficient for a given purpose. For this reason several stages of amplification are used, which
involves feeding the output of one amplifier into the input of another. This is called connecting the
amplifiers in "Cascade". It is then important that the output impedance of the first amplifier and the
input impedance of the second amplifier form a potential divider as shown in Fig 7.2.3.
Matching Voltage Amplifiers
If the amplifiers are voltage amplifiers, i.e. amplifier stages whose voltage gain is greater than either
their current or power gains, the voltage waveform needs to be coupled from one stage to the next
with as little reduction in its voltage amplitude as possible. Notice that the output impedance of the first
stage and the input impedance of the second stage form a potential divider, as shown in the shaded
portion of Fig. 7.2.3. The voltage available at the junction of the two impedances will depend on the
relative values of Zin (B) to Zout (A). The higher the value of an impedance, the more voltage will be
developed across it for a given current flow. Provided that Zout (A) is much smaller than Zin (B), the
majority of the available voltage at point X (the input to stage B) will be developed across its input
impedance Zin (B), and so across stage B input terminals rather than across the first amplifier´s output
impedance.
Matching Power Amplifiers
In the case of power amplifiers however, as the waveform current is shared between the input and
output impedances in opposite proportions the the waveform voltage, the maximum power (V x I) is
transferred from output to input if both impedances are equal.
The values of input and output impedance therefore have a considerable effect on the gain of multi
stage amplifiers. There is always some loss of signal amplitude that occurs due to the coupling of
successive amplifier stages, and in calculating the overall gain of a multi stage amplifier, the overall
gain will be less than equal to the product of the individual gains of each amplifier. I.e if each stage of a
two stage amplifier has a gain of 10, then the overall gain might be supposed to be 10 x 10 = 100; in
practice however, this is not achievable due to the coupling losses incurred in matching the amplifiers,
and because of even the best impedance matching, a slightly lower gain results. The value of input
and output impedance can be arranged to an appropriate value by the choice of amplifier design.
More complex methods of controlling impedance in multi-stage amplifiers, using negative feedback, is
dicussed in Amplifiers Module 3.2.
Although the above description refers to coupling amplifiers together, the same considerations apply
when an amplifier is driving a power device such as a loudspeaker, a current operated device such as
a motor, or in matching an input device such as a microphone to the input of a voltage amplifier.

Module 7.3 Measuring Impedance

Measuring Impedance
Because Impedance is an AC property it cannot be easily measured like resistance. Connecting an

Ohmmeter across the input or output of an amplifier only indicates the DC resistance. It is quite
possible however to measure input and output impedance at any frequency using a signal generator,
an oscilloscope (or AC voltmeter) and a decade resistance box or a variable resistor.
Fig 7.3.1 Measuring Input Impedance
The set up for measuring input

impedance is illustrated in Fig. 7.3.1.
A variable resistor or decade
resistance box is connected between
the signal generator and the amplifier
input and its resistance is set to zero
Ohms. An oscilloscope or AC
voltmeter is connected across the
amplifier load (e.g. loudspeaker).
The signal generator is set to provide a sine wave output at 1kHz. The amplitude of the input signal
should be adjusted so that the display on the oscilloscope is noise free (large enough) and distortion
free (not too large). The display on the oscilloscope screen should be as large as is practical and set
so that its amplitude and half its amplitude can be easily estimated.
The resistance at the amplifier input should then be increased until the output waveform is exactly half
its previously set value. At this setting the signal is shared equally between the test resistance and the
input impedance of the amplifier, meaning that the resistance and impedance are equal. After
switching off and removing the test resistance, the reading of the decade box settings or measuring
the variable resistor with an Ohmmeter gives the value equivalent to the input impedance of the
amplifier.
Fig 7.3.2 Measuring Output Impedance
The measurement of output

impedance uses the same method as
for input impedance but with different
connections. In this case the amplifier
load is replaced with the decade box or
variable resistor. Care must be taken
however, to ensure that the resistance
connected in place of the load is able
to dissipate sufficient power without
damage. The amplifier need not be run
at full power for this test.
Connect the test circuit as shown in Fig. 7.3.2 and initially the output from the amplifier should be
adjusted for a display similar to that used for the input impedance test, but this time with no load
connected to the output terminals. The test resistance is then connected across the output terminals
and adjusted for maximum resistance before switching on the amplifier. The test resistance is reduced
in value until the display indicates half the amplitude of that noted with no load. The test resistance is
now the same value as the output impedance.

Module 7.4 Impedance Quiz

Be able to carry out calculations involving Impedance.

Understand the relationships between Impedance, and other
AC circuit properties.
Be able to carry out multi stage calculations involving

impedance reactance & resistance.
Be able to describe practical methods of measuring input and

output impedance in amplifiers.
Try our quiz, based on the information you can find in Module 7.
Note, some questions will also require a knowledge of associated modules 5 and 6.
Submit your answers and see how many you get right, but don't be disappointed if you get answers wrong. Just
follow the hints to find the right answer and learn about Impedance as well as revising Reactance and AC Circuits
as you go.
1.
With reference to Fig 7.4.1, what is the reactance XL of inductor L?

a) 545.25Ω
b) 276.47Ω
c) 3.67Ω
d) 360Ω
2.
With reference to Fig 7.4.1, what is the Circuit Impedance Z?

a) 545.28Ω
b) 221.20kΩ
c) 61MΩ
d) 276.52Ω
3.
With reference to Fig 7.4.1, what is the Supply Current IS?

a) 3.67mA
b) 36µA
c) 4.2mA
d) 373mA

4.
With reference to Fig 7.4.1, what is the voltage (VR) across the resistor R?
a) 2V
b) 0.54V
c) 1.61V
d) 1.72V
5.
With reference to Fig 7.4.2, Which of the formulae is correct for

finding the value of Z in a LCR circuit?
a) Formula a
b) Formula b
c) Formula c
d) Formula d
6.
With reference to Fig 7.4.3, What is the Reactance (XC) of capacitor C?

a) 3.39kΩ
b) 2.95kΩ
c) 6.28kΩ
d) 1.54kΩ
7.
With reference to Fig 7.4.3, what is the Impedance (Z) of the circuit?
a) 224.8kΩ
b) 7.4MΩ
c) 4.04kΩ
d) 21kΩ
8.
When connecting two amplifiers, x and y in cascade, overall gain is reduced because the output impedance of
amplifier x, and the input impedance of amplifier y... (Complete the sentence)
a) Form a series impedance network.
b) Contain reactance, which increases with frequency.
c) Form a parallel impedance network.
d) Form a potential divider.

9.
Fig 7.4.4 shows a test set-up for measuring the ZIN of an audio amplifier. Which of the following should be initially
connected at point X?
a) An AC Voltmeter set to the mV range.
b) A variable resistor set to maximum

resistance.
c) A frequency meter set to the 0 - 20kHz

range.
d) A decade resistor box set to zero

resistance.
10.
With reference to Fig 7.4.2, what is the Voltage (VC) across capacitor C?
a) 4.2V
b) 2.5V
c) 3.03V
d) 4.98V

Module
AC Theory
8
Filters & Wave Shaping
Introduction to Passive Filters
Passive Filters & Passive filters, often consisting of only two or three
Wave Shaping components, are used to reduce (ATTENUATE) the

amplitude of signals. They are frequency selective, so
they can reduce the signal amplitude at some
frequencies, without affecting others. Filter circuits are
What you'll learn in Module 8. named to show which frequencies they affect.
Fig 8.0.1 shows the symbols used in block (system)
Module 8 Introduction diagrams for some filters, and beside them a diagram
Recognise passive filters with reference to their representing the frequency response of that filter. The
response curves. block diagrams indicate the frequency that is attenuated
by showing three sine waves with one or two crossed
• High pass, Low pass, Band pass, Band out, the vertical position of the wave indicating high
stop. medium or low frequencies.
Section 8.1 Differentiators.
Recognise typical filter circuits.
• RC, LC and LR filters.

• Uses for passive filters
Recognise packaged filters.
• Ceramic filters, SAW filter, Three−wire

encapsulated filters.
Section 8.2 How Filters Work
Passive filters, frequency selective attenuation, phase
change with reference to phasor diagrams.
• High pass and Low pass filters.

Fig 8.0.1
Section 8.3 Bode Plots
Bode Plots, the use of Bode plots to describe: To indicate the effect a filter has on wave amplitude at
different frequencies, a frequency response graph is
• Attenuation. used. This graph plots gain (on the vertical axis) against
• Phase Change frequency, and shows the relative output levels over a
Section 8.4 Differentiators band of different frequencies.
The use of RC filters in waveshaping on Passive filters only contain components such as
non−sinusoidal waveforms. resistors, capacitors, and inductors. This means that, the
signal amplitude at a filter output cannot be larger than
• Differentiation. the input. The maximum gain on any of the frequency
Section 8.5 Integrators response graphs is therefore slightly less than 1.
The use of RC filters in waveshaping on The main difference between passive filters and active
non−sinusoidal waveforms. filters (apart from the active filter's ability to amplify
signals) is that active filters can produce much steeper
• Integration. cut off slopes. However, passive filters do not require any
Section 8.6 Filter Quiz external power supply and are adequate for a great
many uses.

www.learnabout-electronics.org Filters & Wave shaping
Module 8.1 Passive Filters

Uses for passive filters.
Filters are widely used to give circuits such as amplifiers, oscillators and power supply circuits the
required frequency characteristic. Some examples are given below. They use combinations of R, L
and C
As described in Module 6, Inductors and Capacitors react to changes in frequency in opposite ways.
Looking at the circuits for low pass filters, both the LR and CR combinations shown have a similar
effect, but notice how the positions of L and C change place compared with R to achieve the same
result. The reasons for this, and how these circuits work will be explained in Section 8.2 of this module.
Low pass filters.
Low pass filters are used to remove or

attenuate the higher frequencies in circuits
such as audio amplifiers; they give the required
frequency response to the amplifier circuit. The
frequency at which the low pass filter starts to
reduce the amplitude of a signal can be made
adjustable. This technique can be used in an
audio amplifier as a "TONE" or "TREBLE CUT" control. LR low pass filters and CR high pass filters
are also used in speaker systems to route appropriate bands of frequencies to different designs of
speakers (i.e. ´ Woofers´ for low frequency, and ´Tweeters´ for high frequency reproduction). In this
application the combination of high and low pass filters is called a "crossover filter".
Both CR and LC Low pass filters that remove practically ALL frequencies above just a few Hz are
used in power supply circuits, where only DC (zero Hz) is required at the output.
High pass filters.
High pass filters are used to remove or

attenuate the lower frequencies in amplifiers,
especially audio amplifiers where it may be
called a "BASS CUT" circuit. In some cases
this also may be made adjustable.
Band pass filters.
Band pass filters allow only a required band of frequencies to pass,

while rejecting signals at all frequencies above and below this band.
This particular design is called a T filter because of the way the
components are drawn in a schematic diagram. The T filter consists of
three elements, two series connected LC circuits between input and
output, which form a low impedance path to signals of the required
frequency, but have a high impedance to all other frequencies.
Additionally, a parallel LC circuit is connected between the signal path (at the junction of the two series
circuits) and ground to form a high impedance at the required frequency, and a low impedance at all
others. Because this basic design forms only one stage of filtering it is also called a ´first order´ filter.
Although it can have a reasonably narrow pass band, if sharper cut off is required, a second filter may
be added at the output of the first filter, to form a ´second order´ filter.

Band stop filters.
These filters have the opposite effect to band pass filters,

there are two parallel LC circuits in the signal path to form a
high impedance at the unwanted signal frequency, and a
series circuit forming a low impedance path to ground at the
same frequency, to add to the rejection. Band stop filters
may be found (often in combination with band pass filters)
in the intermediate frequency (IF) amplifiers of older radio
and TV receivers, where they help produce the frequency response curves of quite complex shapes
needed for the correct reception of both sound and picture signals. Combinations of band stop and
band pass filters, as well as tuned transformers in these circuits, require careful frequency adjustment.
I.F. Transformers.
These are small transformers, used in radio and TV equipment to pass

a band of radio frequencies from one stage of the intermediate
frequency (IF) amplifiers, to the next. They have an adjustable core of
compressed iron dust (Ferrite). The core is screwed into, or out of the
windings forming a variable inductor.
This variable inductor, together with a fixed capacitor ´tunes´ the

transformer to the correct frequency. In older TV receivers a number of
individually tuned IF transformers and adjustable filter circuits were
used to obtain a special shape of pass band in a chain of amplifiers
that amplify sound and vision signals. This practice has largely been
replaced in modern receivers by packaged filters and SAW Filters.
Packaged Filters.
There are thousands of filters listed in component catalogues, some using combinations of L C and R,
but many making use of ceramic and crystal piezo-electric materials. These produce an a.c. electric
voltage when they are mechanically vibrated, and they also vibrate when an a.c. voltage is applied to
them. They are manufactured to resonate (vibrate) only at one particular, and very accurately
controlled frequency and are used in applications such as band pass and band stop filters where a
very narrow pass band is required. Similar designs (crystal resonators) are used in oscillators to
control the frequency they produce, with great accuracy. One packaged filter in TV receivers can
replace several conventional IF transformers and LC filters. Because they require no adjustment, the
manufacture of RF (radio frequency) products such as radio, TV, mobile phones etc. is simplified and
consequently lower in price. Sometimes however, packaged filters will be found to have an
accompanying LC filter to reject frequencies at harmonics of their design frequency, which ceramic
and crystal filters may fail to eliminate.
TV SAW Filter
The illustration (right) shows a Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) IF

(intermediate frequency) filter for PAL TV. SAW filters can be
manufactured to either a very narrow pass band, or a very wide band
with a complex (pass and stop) response to several different
frequencies. They can produce several different signals of specific
amplitudes at their output. Special TV types replace several LC tuned
filters in modern TVs with a single filter. They work by creating acoustic
waves on the surface of a crystal or tantalum substrate, produced by a
pattern of electrodes arranged as parallel lines on the surface of the chip. The waves created by one
set of transducers are sensed by another set of transducers designed to accept certain wavelengths
and reject others. Saw filters are produced for many different products and have response curves
tailored to the requirements of specific types of product.

Ceramic Filters
Ceramic filters are available in

a number of specific
frequencies, and use a tiny
block of piezo electric ceramic
material that will mechanically
vibrate when an AC signal of
the correct frequency is applied
to an input transducer attached
to the block. This vibration is
converted back into an electrical signal by an output transducer, so only signals of a limited range
around the natural resonating frequency of the piezo electric block will pass through the filter. Ceramic
filters tend to be cheaper, more robust and more accurate than traditional LC filters for applications at
radio frequencies. They are supplied in different forms including surface mount types, and the
encapsulated three-pin package shown here.

Module 8.2 How Filters Work.

CR Filter Operation.
Figs 8.2.1 and 8.2.2 show two common methods of using C and R together to achieve alterations in
AC signals. These CR combinations are used for many purposes in a wide variety of circuits. This
section describes their effects when used as filters with sine wave signals of varying frequencies. The
same circuits are also used to change the shape of non-sinusoidal waves and this topic
"Differentiation and Integration" is described in Section 8.4 and 8.5 of this module.
High Pass CR Filter
The CR circuit illustrated in Fig 8.2.1, when used with sinusoidal Fig 8.2.1
signals is called the HIGH PASS FILTER. Its purpose is to allow high
frequency sine waves to pass unhindered from its input to its output,
but to reduce the amplitude of, (to attenuate) lower frequency signals.
A typical application of this circuit would be the correction of frequency
response (tone correction) in an audio amplifier or tape recorder.
As described in Module 6 (Resistance and Reactance), resistance is constant at any frequency, but
the opposition to current flow offered by the capacitor (C) however, is due to capacitive reactance XC,
which is greater at low frequencies than at high frequencies.
The reactance of the capacitor (XC) and the resistance of the resistor (R) in fig 8.2.1 act as a potential
divider placed across the input, with the output signal taken from the centre of the two components. At
low frequencies where XC is much greater than R, the share of the signal voltage across R will be less
than that across C and so the output will be attenuated. At higher frequencies, it is arranged, by
suitable choice of component values, that the resistance of R will be much greater than the (now low)
reactance XC, so the majority of the signal is developed across R, and little or no attenuation will occur.
Low Pass CR Filter
In Fig 8.2.2 the positions of the resistor and capacitor are reversed, so Fig 8.2.2
that at low frequencies the high reactance offered by the capacitor allows
all, or almost all of the input signal to be developed as an output voltage
across XC. At higher frequencies however, XC becomes much less than
R and little of the input signal is now developed across XC. The circuit
therefore attenuates the higher frequencies applied to the input and acts
as a LOW PASS FILTER.
The band of frequencies attenuated by high and low pass filters depends on the values of the
components. The frequency at which attenuation begins or ends can be selected by suitable
component choices. In cases of audio tone correction, the resistor may be made variable, allowing a
variable amount of bass or treble (low or high frequency) cut. This is the basis of most inexpensive
tone controls.
High and low pass filters can also be constructed from L and R. In this case the action is the same as
for the CR circuit except that the action of XL is the reverse of XC. Therefore in LR filters the position of
the components is reversed.

Phase Change in Filters
The above description of high and low pass filters explains how they operate in terms of resistance
and reactance. It shows how gain (Vout/Vin) is different at high and low frequencies due to the relative
values of XC and R. However this simple explanation does not take the phase relationships between
capacitors or inductors, and resistors into account. To accurately calculate voltage values across the
components of a filter it is necessary to take phase angles into consideration as well as resistance and
reactance. This can be done by using phasor diagrams to calculate the values graphically, or by a
branch of algebra using ´complex numbers´ and ´j Notation´. However these calculations can also be
done using little more than the Reactance calculations learned in Module 6 and the Impedance
Triangle calculations from Module 7.
Problem:
Calculate the peak to peak voltages VR appearing across R

and VC appearing across C when an AC supply voltage of 2VPP
at 1kHz is applied to the circuit as shown.
Note:
Although C and R form a potential divider across VS it is not
possible (because phase angles must also be taken into
account) to calculate these values using the potential divider
equation:
Follow these steps:
1. Find the value of capacitive reactance XC using:
2. Use the Impedance Triangle to find Z (the impedance of the whole circuit).
3. Knowing that the supply voltage VS is developed across Z, the next step is to calculate the volts per
ohm (V/Ω),
Contd.
Because the volts per ohm will be the same for each component as
it is for the circuit impedance, the result from step 3 can now be
used to find the voltages across C, and across R.
If required, the Phase angle θ could also be found using trigonometry as described in Phasor
Calculations, Module 5.4 (Method 3). To find the angle θ (the phase difference between the supply
voltage VS and the supply current, which would be in the same phase as VR) the two voltages already
found could be used.

Fig 8.2.3 demonstrates how phasor diagrams can explain both the amplitude and phase effects of a
CR High Pass filter. Notice that it is the input voltage that apparently changes phase, but this is just
because the circuit current phasor (and the VR phasor) is used as the static reference phasor. The
thing to remember is that there is a phase change of between 0° and 90° happening between VIN and
VOUT, which depends on the frequency of the signal.
Fig 8.2.3
• At low frequencies the output VOUT (VR) is much smaller than VIN (VC) and a phase shift of
up to 90° occurs with the output phase leading the input phase.
• At high frequencies there is little or no difference between the relative amplitudes of VOUT (VR)
and VIN(VC), and little or no phase shift is taking place.

Fig 8.2.4 similarly demonstrates the action of a CR Low Pass Filter.
Fig 8.2.4

Module 8.3 Bode Plots

Showing Phase Shift and Attenuation
When considering the operation of filters, the two most important characteristics are:
• The FREQUENCY RESPONSE, which illustrates those frequencies that will, and will not be
attenuated.
• The PHASE SHIFT created by the filter over its operating range of frequencies.
Bode Plots show both of these characteristics on a shared frequency scale making a comparison
between the gain of the filter and the phase shift simple and accurate.
Fig 8.3.1 Bode Plot for a Low Pass Filter.
Frequency is plotted on the horizontal axis using a logarithmic scale, on which every equal division
represents ten times the frequency scale of the previous division, this allows for a much wider range of
frequency to be displayed on the graph than would be possible using a simple linear scale. Because
the frequency scale increases in "Decades" (multiples of x10) it is also a convenient way to show the
slope of the gain graph, which can be said to fall at 20dB per decade.
The vertical axis of the gain graph is marked off in equal divisions, but uses a logarithmic unit, the
decibel (dB) to show the gain, which with simple passive filters is always unity (1) or less. The dB units
therefore have negative values indicating that the output of the filter is always less than the input, (a
gain of less than 1). The upper section of the vertical axis is plotted in degrees of phase change,
varying between 0 and 90° or sometimes between −90° and +90°
A Bode plot for a low pass filter is shown in Fig 8.3.1. Note the point called the corner frequency. This
is the approximate point at which the filter becomes effective. Frequencies below this point are
unaffected by the filter, while above the corner frequency, attenuation of the signal increases at a
constant rate of -6dB per octave. This means that the signal output voltage is halved (−6dB) for each
doubling (an octave) of the input frequency.
Alternatively the same fall off in gain may be labelled as −20dB per decade, which means that the gain
falls by ten times (to 1/10 of its previous value) for every decade (tenfold) increase in frequency, i.e. if
the gain of the filter is 1 at a frequency of 1kHz, it will be 0.1 at 10kHz. The fall off in gain of a filter is
quite linear beginning from the corner frequency (also called the cut off frequency). This linear fall off in
gain is common to both high and low pass filters, it is just the direction of the fall, increasing or
decreasing with frequency, that is different.
The corner (or cut off) frequency (ƒC) is where the active part of the gain plot begins, and the gain has
fallen by −3dB. The phase lag of the output signal in a low pass filter (or phase lead in a high pass
filter) is at 45°, exactly half way between its two possible extremes of 0° and 90° The corner frequency
may be calculated for any two values of C and R using the formula:
For LR filters the formula is similar:
Note that the corner frequency is that point where two straight lines representing the two
sections of the graph either side of ƒC would intersect. The actual curve makes a smooth
transition between the horizontal and sloping sections of the graph and the gain of the
filter is therefore -3dB at ƒC

8.4 Differentiators
Differentiation
Simple RC networks such as the high and low pass filters, when used with sine waves, do not alter the
shape of the wave. The amplitude and phase of the wave may change, but the sine wave shape does
not alter. If however, the input wave is not a sine wave but a complex wave, the effects of these simple
circuits appears to be quite different. When using a square or triangular wave as the input, the RC
High pass circuit produces a completely different shape of wave at the output.
The change in shape also depends on the frequency of the wave and on the circuit's component
values. The various effects possible with a simple high pass RC filter can be summarised by Table
8.4.1.
Table 8.4.1 Differentiation.
When a high pass filter is used with a sine wave input, the output is also a
sine wave. The output will be reduced in amplitude and phase shifted
when the frequency is low, but it is still a sine wave. This is not the case
for square or triangular wave inputs. For non-sinusoidal inputs the circuit
is called a differentiator.
Sine Wave Square Wave Triangular Wave
Input Wave
Output at low frequency.

(Periodic time T is much longer
than time constant CR.)
Output at high frequency.

(Periodic time T is similar to or
shorter than time constant CR).
The Square Wave column in Fig 8.4.1 shows the differentiator action of a high pass filter. This
happens when the time constant of the circuit (given by C x R) is much shorter than the periodic time
of the wave, and the input wave is non-sinusoidal. The output wave is now nothing like the input wave,
but consists of narrow positive and negative spikes. The positive spike coincides in time with the rising
edge of the input square wave. The negative spike of the output wave coincides with the falling, or
negative going (towards zero volts) edge of the square wave.
The circuit is called a DIFFERENTIATOR because its effect is very similar to the mathematical
function of differentiation, which means (mathematically) finding a value that depends on the RATE
OF CHANGE of some quantity. The output wave of a DIFFERENTIATOR CIRCUIT is ideally a graph
of the rate of change of the voltage at its input. Fig. 8.4.2 (overleaf) shows how the output of a
differentiator relates to the rate of change of its input, and that actually the actions of the high pass filter
and the differentiator are the same.

Fig 8.4.2 Differentiation.
The differentiator output is effectively a graph of the rate of change of the input. Whenever the input is
changing rapidly, a large voltage is produced at the output. The polarity of the output voltage depends
on whether the input is changing in a positive or a negative DIRECTION.
A graph of the rate of change of a sine wave is another sine wave that has undergone a 90° phase
shift (with the output wave leading the input wave).
A square wave input produces a series of positive and negative spikes coinciding with the rising and
falling edges of the input wave.
A triangular wave has a steady positive going rate of change as the input voltage rises, so produces a
steady positive voltage at the output. As the input voltage falls at a steady rate of change, a steady
negative voltage appears at the output. The graph of the rate of change of a triangular wave is
therefore a square wave. Wave shaping using a simple high pass filter or differentiator is a very widely
used technique, used in many different electronic circuits. Although the ideal situation is shown here,
how closely the output resembles perfect differentiation depends on the frequency (and periodic time)
of the wave, and the time constant of the components used. In practice the result is usually
somewhere between the two output waveforms shown for each input wave in Fig. 8.4.1

Module 8.5 Integrators

Integration
Integration in some ways is the opposite effect to differentiation. The shape of the input wave of an
integrator circuit in many cases is a graph of the rate of change of the output wave. Fig. 8.5.1 shows
the effects of integration on square, triangular and sine wave inputs. Notice that the circuit is that of the
RC low pass filter. We use the name Integrator when;
a. The input wave is not a sine wave, and
b. The time constant of the circuit is much LONGER than the periodic time of the wave.
Table 8.5.1 Integration.
When a low pass filter is used with a sine wave input, the output is also a
sine wave. The output will be reduced in amplitude and phase shifted
when the frequency is high, but it is still a sine wave. This is not the case
for square or triangular wave inputs. For non-sinusoidal inputs the circuit
is called an integrator and its actions are in some (but not all) ways,
opposite to that of a differentiator.
Sine Wave Square Wave Triangular Wave
Input Wave
Output at low frequency.

(Periodic time T is much longer
than time constant CR.)
Output at high frequency.

(Periodic time T is similar to or
shorter than time constant CR).
With the correct conditions of periodic time and time constant, integration takes place. The integrator
has the opposite effect to the differentiator, the output should now be (if the input and output waves
are considered as simple graphs rather than waveforms), a graph of the changing area beneath the
input wave. For example, with a square wave input the output is a triangular wave, the slope of which
describes the increase in area beneath the square wave (moving from left to right).
However, this theory seems to fall apart when the input is a triangular wave. The input seems to
become a sine wave. This effect does not really fit with a theory of true mathematical integration.
Remember however, that the integrator circuit is also a low pass filter, which has the effect of
removing the higher frequency harmonics present in the complex (triangular) wave at its input.
If most of the higher frequencies in a complex wave such as a triangular wave are removed, this
removes those harmonics that give the wave its shape; all that is left is the fundamental frequency,
which is of course, a sine wave. In practice the integrator does remove many of the harmonics present
in the input wave, but not all. Therefore the output wave is NEARLY a sine wave but slightly distorted,
and the positive and negative half cycles are more nearly semi-circles than sine or cosine shapes.
If the input is a sine wave, the output is also a sine wave, but reduced in amplitude and lagging in
phase on the input wave by 90 degrees, the identical (and not surprising) effect of the low pass filter.
Module 8.6 Filter Quiz
After studying Module 8, you should: Try our quiz, based on the information
you can find in Module 8. Submit your
Be able to recognise typical filter circuits. answers and see how many you get
right, but don't be disappointed if you get
Be able to describe how passive filters work, and relate this to
phasor diagrams.
answers wrong. Just follow the hints to
find the right answer and learn about
Be able to describe Bode Plots and their uses. Filters and Wave Shaping Circuits as
Be able to describe the use of RC filters in wave shaping.
you go.
1.
Refer to Fig 8.6.1. What is this circuit called when used with
sinusoidal signals?
a) A high pass filter.
b) A differentiator.
c) A low pass filter.
d) An integrator.
2.
With reference to Fig 8.6.2, which of the formulae would be

used to find the corner frequency of a low pass filter?
a) Formula a b) Formula b
c) Formula c d) Formula d
3.
Which of the following labels would most appropriately

describe a High pass filter when used in an audio amplifier?
a) Bass boost b) Bass cut c) Treble boost d) Treble cut
4.
With reference to Fig 8.6.3 what would be the approximate amplitude of

the signal at the output?
a) 1V b) 500mV c) 250mV d) 125mV
Continued

5.
Which of the following describes the circuit in Fig 8.6.4?
a) Band stop filter
b) Band pass filter
c) High pass filter
d) Low pass filter
6.
What will be the waveform at the output of Fig 8.6.5?
a) A rounded square wave
b) Differentiated pulses
c) A triangular wave
d) A parabolic wave
7.
A square wave with a periodic time of 10µs is applied to the input of a differentiator circuit. For
differentiated pulses to appear at the output, the time constant of the CR network should be
approximately:
a) 1µs b) 2.5µs c) 5µs d) 10µs
8.
Which of the following networks can be used as a differentiator?
a) Notch filter b) High pass filter c) Band pass filter d) Band stop filter
9.
With reference to Fig 8.6.5, if a DC voltmeter is connected across the output terminals of the circuit
with the input shown, what will be the voltmeter reading?
a) 5V b) 2.5V c) 1.25V d) 0V
10.
With reference to Fig 8.6.6, if a triangular wave having a long time constant is applied to the input,
what waveform would be expected at the output?
a) A Square wave
b) A triangular wave
c) Differentiated pulses
d) A sine wave

Module
9 AC Theory
LCR Series Circuits

Introduction to LCR Series Circuits
What you'll learn in Module 9. Amazing LCR Circuits.
This module introduces some of the most useful and most

Module 9 Introduction amazing circuits in electronics. They can be as simple as
two or three components connected in series, but in their
Introduction to LCR Series Circuits.
operation they can perform many complex tasks and are
used perhaps, in more circuit applications than any other
Section 9.1 LCR Series Circuits. circuit arrangement.
Recognise LCR Series circuits and describe their action

using phasor diagrams and appropriate equations:
Below Resonance
Above Resonance
At Resonance
Section 9.2 Series resonance.
Describe LCR Series Circuits at resonance.

Describe the conditions for series resonance.
Carry out calculations on LCR series circuits,
involving reactance, impedance, voltages and
current.
Section 9.3 Voltage Magnification. Connecting an inductor, a capacitor and perhaps a resistor,
either in series or in parallel, makes some surprising things
Describe voltage magnification in LCR Series happen. Previous modules in this series have examined
Circuits capacitors and inductors in isolation, and combined with
Calculate Voltage Magnification using resistors. These have created useful circuits such as filters,
appropriate formulae. differentiators and integrators. Now module 9 looks at what
happens when inductors and capacitors are combined in a
Section 9.4 LCR Series Quiz. single circuit network.
LCR Series Circuits Quiz. Capacitors and inductors act in different (and often opposite)
ways in AC circuits. This module is about combining the
properties of reactance and impedance of capacitors and
inductors with varying frequency to produce amazing effects.
A circuit containing L,C and R at a certain frequency can make L and C (or at least their electrical
effects) completely disappear! The LCR circuit can appear to be just a capacitor, just an inductor, or
solely a resistor! Not only that, the series LCR circuit can magnify voltage, so the voltages across
individual components within the circuit, can actually be much larger than the external voltage
supplying the circuit. LCR circuits can also dramatically change their impedance to offer more or less
opposition to current at different frequencies. All these effects can be used separately or together to
make the wide range of electronic devices that use AC.

www.learnabout-electronics.org LCR Parallel Circuits
Module 9.1 LCR Series Circuits.

The circuit in Fig 9.1.1 contains all the elements so far Fig 9.1.1
considered separately in modules 1 to 8, namely inductance,
capacitance and resistance, as well as their properties such
as Reactance, Phase, Impedance etc.
This module considers the effects of L C and R connected

together in series and supplied with an alternating voltage. In
such an arrangement, the same circuit supply current (IS)
flows through all the components of the circuit, and VR VL and
VC indicate the voltages across the resistor, the inductor and
the capacitor respectively.
Module 6.1 described the effect of internal resistance on the

voltage measured across an inductor. In LCR circuits both
internal (inductor) resistance, and external resistance are present in the complete circuit. Therefore, it
will be easier to begin with, to consider that the voltage VR is the voltage across the TOTAL circuit
resistance, which comprises the internal resistance of L, added to any separate fixed resistor. Where
VS is mentioned, this is the applied supply voltage.
The phase relationship

between the supply voltage
VS and the circuit current IS
depends on the frequency of
the supply voltage, and on
the relative values of
inductance and capacitance,
and whether the inductive
reactance (XL) is greater or
less than the capacitive
reactance (XC). There are
various conditions possible,
which can be illustrated Fig 9.1.2 Phasors for VL Fig 9.1.3 VL is greater than
using phasor diagrams. and VC are in anti phase. VC so the circuit behaves
like an inductor
Fig 9.1.2 shows the circuit conditions when the inductive reactance (XL) is greater than the capacitive
reactance (XC). In this case, since both L and C carry the same current, and XL is greater than XC, it
follows that VL must be greater than VC.
VL = ISXL and VC = ISXC
Remember that VC and VL are in anti-phase to each other due to their 90° leading and lagging
relationship with the circuit current (IS). As VL and VC directly oppose each other, a resulting voltage is
created, which will be the difference between VC and VL. This is called the REACTIVE VOLTAGE and
its value can be calculated by simply subtracting VC from VL. This is shown in Fig 9.1.3 by the phasor
(VL − VC).
The length of the phasor (VL − VC) can be arrived at graphically by removing a portion from the tip of
the phasor (VL), equivalent to the length of phasor (VC).
VS is therefore the phasor sum of the reactive voltage (VL − VC) and VR. The phase angle θ shows that
the circuit current IS lags on the supply voltage VS by between 90° and 0°, depending on the relative
sizes of (VL − VC) and VR. Because IS lags VS, this must mean that the circuit is mainly inductive, but
the value of inductance has been reduced by the presence of C. Also the phase difference between IS
and VS is no longer 90° as it would be if the circuit consisted of only pure inductance and resistance.

Because the phasors for (VL − VC), VR and VS in Fig 9.1.3 form a right angle triangle, a number of
properties and values in the circuit can be calculated using either Pythagoras´ Theorem or some basic
trigonometry, as illustrated in "Using Phasor Diagrams" in Module 5.4.
For example:
VS2 = (VL − VC)2 + VR2 therefore
The total circuit impedance (Z) can be found in a similar way: The phase angle between (VL − VC) and
VR can be found using trigonometry as illustrated in "Using Phasor Diagrams" in Module 5.4.
tan θ = opposite ÷ adjacent, therefore tan θ = (VL − VC) ÷ VR
so to find the angle θ
Also, Ohms Law states that R (or X) = V / I
Therefore if (VL − VC) and VR are each divided by the current (IS) this allows the phase angle θ to be
found using the resistances and reactances, without first working out the individual voltages.
This can be useful when component values need to be chosen for a series circuit, to give a required
angle of phase shift.

When VC is larger than VL the circuit is capacitive.
Fig 9.1.4 illustrates the phasor diagram for a LCR series circuit in
which XC is greater than XL showing that when VC exceeds VL the
situation illustrated in Fig 9.1.3 is reversed.
The resultant reactive voltage is now given by (VC − VL) and VS is

the phasor sum of (VC − VL) and VR.
The phase angle θ now shows that the circuit current (IS) leads
supply voltage (VS) by between 0° and 90°. The overall circuit is
now capacitive, but less so than if L was not present.
In using the above formulae, remember that the reactive value (the difference between VL and VC or
XL and XC) is given by subtracting the smaller value from the larger value. For example, when VC is
larger than VL:
Looking at the phasor diagrams for a LCR series circuit it can be seen that the supply voltage (VS) can
either lead or lag the supply current(IS) depending largely on the relative values of the component
reactances, XL and XC.
When VL and VC are equal the circuit is purely resistive.
As shown in Module 6.1 and 6.2, the reactance of L and

C depends on frequency, so if the frequency of the
supply voltage VS is varied over a suitable range, the
series LCR circuit can be made to act as either an Fig 9.1.5
inductor, or as a capacitor, but that's not all.
Fig 9.1.5 shows the situation, which must occur at some

particular frequency, when XC and XL (and therefore VC
and VL) are equal.
The opposing and equal voltages VC and VL now

completely cancel each other out. The supply voltage
and the circuit current must now be in phase, so the
circuit is apparently entirely resistive! L and C have
completely "disappeared".
This special case is called SERIES RESONANCE and is explained further in Module 9.2.

Module 9.2 Series Resonance

Series Resonance happens when reactances are equal.
Inductive reactance (XL) in terms of frequency and inductance is given by:
and capacitive reactance (XC) is given by:
Inductive reactance is directly proportional to frequency, and its graph, plotted against frequency (ƒ)
is a straight line.
Capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to frequency, and its graph, plotted against ƒ is a
curve. These two quantities are shown, together with R, plotted against ƒ in Fig 9.2.1 It can be seen
from this diagram that where XC and XL intersect, they are equal and so a graph of (XL − XC ) must be
zero at this point on the frequency axis.
Fig 9.2.1 The Properties of a Series LCR Circuit at Resonance.
Fig 9.2.1a shows a series LCR circuit and Fig 9.2.1b shows what happens to the reactances (XC and
XL), resistance (R) and impedance (Z) as the supply (VS) is varied in frequency from 0Hz upwards. At
first the circuit behaves as a capacitor, the total impedance of the circuit (Z) falls in a very similar curve
to XL − XC.
Fig 9.2.1c illustrates the relationships between the individual component voltages, the circuit
impedance(Z) and the supply current (IS) (which is common to all the series components).
At a particular frequency ƒr it can be seen that XL − XC has fallen to zero and only the circuit resistance
R is left across the supply. The current flowing through the circuit at this point will therefore be at a
maximum. Now VC and VL are equal in value and opposite in phase, so will completely cancel each
other out. Reactance is effectively zero and the circuit is completely resistive, with Z equal to R. The
circuit current (IS) will be at its maximum and will be in phase with the supply voltage (VS) which is at its
minimum.
As the frequency increases above this resonant frequency (ƒr) the impedance rises, and as XL is now
the larger of the two reactances, the impedance curve begins to follow an increasing value more like
the linear graph of XL.

At frequencies below resonance the circuit behaves like a capacitor, at resonance as a resistor, and
above ƒr the circuit behaves more and more like an inductor, and the graph of XL − XC soon becomes
an almost straight line.
This behaviour of a LCR Series Circuit allows for the statement of a number of useful facts about a
series circuit that relate to its resonant frequency ƒr.
6 Things you need to know about LCR Series Circuits.
1. AT RESONANCE (ƒr) VC is equal to, but in anti-phase to VL
2.; AT RESONANCE (ƒr) Impedance (Z) is at minimum and equal to the RESISTANCE (R)
3. AT RESONANCE (ƒr) Circuit current (IS) is at a maximum.
4. AT RESONANCE (ƒr) The circuit is entirely resistive.
5. BELOW RESONANCE (ƒr) The circuit is capacitive.
6. ABOVE RESONANCE (ƒr) The circuit is inductive.
Two Formulae for Series Resonance.
The fact that resonance occurs when XL = XC allows a formula to be constructed that allows
calculation of the resonant frequency (ƒr) of a circuit from just the values of L and C. The most
commonly used formula for the series LCR circuit resonant frequency is:
Notice that this formula does not have any reference to resistance (R). Although any circuit containing
L must contain at least some resistance, the presence of a small amount of resistance in the circuit at
high frequencies does not greatly affect the frequency at which the circuit resonates. Resonant
circuits designed for high frequencies are however, affected by stray magnetic fields, inductance and
capacitance in their nearby environment. These enviromental issues have a greater effect on the
resonant frequency than the small amount of internal resistance present. therefore most high
frequency LC resonant circuits will have both screening (using some form of metal container) to isolate
them from external effects as much as possible, and may also be made adjustable over a small range
of frequency, so they can be accurately adjusted after assembly in the circuit.

Where does the formula for ƒr come from?
The formula for finding the resonant frequency

can be built from the two basic formulae that and
relate inductive and capacitive reactance to
frequency.
At the resonant frequency ƒr of an LC
circuit, the values of XL and XC are equal, so
their formulae must also be equal.
=
Multiplying both sides of the equation by 2π ƒr C removes the fraction on
the right and leaves just a single term of ƒ (in the term 4 π 2ƒr2 LC) on the
left.
Dividing both sides of the result by 4π2 LC leaves just ƒr2 on the left.
Finally, taking the square root of both sides gives an equation for ƒr and
a useful formula for finding the resonant frequency of an LC circuit.
However, although this formula is widely used at radio frequencies it is often not accurate enough at
low frequencies where large inductors, having considerable internal resistance are used. In such a
case a more complex formula is needed that also considers resistance. The formula below can be
used for low frequency (large internal resistance) calculations.
The need for careful adjustment after circuit assembly is often a deciding factor for the discontinued
use of pure LC circuits in many applications. They have been replaced in many applications by solid-
state ceramic filters and resonating crystal tuned circuits that need no adjustment. Sometimes
however, there may be a problem of multiple resonant frequencies at harmonics (multiples) of the
required frequency with solid state filters. A single adjustable LC tuned circuit (that will have only one
resonant frequency) may then also be included to overcome the problem.
Series Circuit Calculations.
In a series LCR circuit, especially at resonance, there is a lot happening, and consequently
calculations are often multi stage. Formulae for many common calculations have been described in
earlier modules in this series. The difference now is that the task of finding out relevant information
about circuit conditions relies on selecting appropriate formulae and using them in a suitable
sequence.
Continued.

For example, in the problem below, values shown in red on the circuit diagram are required, but notice
that VC and VL can't be worked out first, as a value for ƒr (and another formula) is needed to calculate
the reactance. Sometimes the task is made easier by remembering the 6 useful facts (page 6) about
series resonance. In example 9.2.2 below there is no need to calculate both VC and VL because, at
resonance XC and XL are equal, so calculate one and you know the other!
Notice however that VL is not the same as the total voltage measured across L. The voltage across
the internal resistance (at 90° to VL) needs to be included, and because of the phase difference
between VL and the internal resistance voltage (V RL), the total measurable inductor voltage VL TOT will
be the phasor sum of VL and V RL.
Example 9.2.2 Series LCR Circuit Calculations.
Work out each of these formulae (with pencil and paper and a calculator) remembering to work out the
bracketed parts of the formula first, then check your answers by reading the text in in Module 9.3
Working this way while learning, is a good way to help understand how the maths work. There are of
course a good many LCR calculators on the web but take a tip, WORK IT OUT FIRST, then try a web
calculator (or more than one, as some are cleverer than others) to check your answer.

Module 9.3 Voltage Magnification

In the answers to the calculations in example 9.2.2 it should be noticeable that, at the circuit´s
resonant frequency ƒr of 107kHz, the reactive voltages across L and C are equal and each is
greater than the circuit supply voltage VS of 100V.
This is possible because, at resonance the voltage (VC = 199.56V) across the capacitor, is in
anti−phase to the voltage (VL = 199.56V) across the inductance. As these two voltages are equal and
opposite in phase, they completely cancel each other out, leaving only the supply voltage developed
across the circuit impedance, which at resonance is the same as the total resistance of 320 + 18 =
338Ω.
At the resonant frequency the current through the circuit is at a maximum value of about 296mA.
Because of the anti phase cancelling effect at resonance, the two reactive voltages VC and VL have
"disappeared"! This leaves the supply current IS effectively flowing through R and the inductor
resistance RL in series.
In this example the effect of the inductor´s 18Ω internal resistance on VL is so small (0.03V) as to be
negligible and VL TOT is the same value as VL at approximately 199.6V..
As the total circuit impedance is less than either the capacitive or inductive reactances at resonance,
the supply voltage of 100V (developed across the circuit resistance) is less than either of the opposing
reactive voltages VC or VL. This effect, where the internal component reactive voltages are greater
than the supply voltage is called VOLTAGE MAGNIFICATION.
This can be a very useful property, and is used for example in the antenna stages of radio receivers
where a series circuit, resonant at the frequency of the transmission being received, is used to magnify
the voltage amplitude of the received signal voltage, before it is fed to any transistor amplifiers in the
circuit.
The voltage magnification that takes place at resonance is given the symbol Q and the "Q Factor" (the
voltage magnification) of LC Band Pass and Band Stop filter circuits for example, controls the
"rejection", the ratio of the wanted to the unwanted frequencies that can be achieved by the circuit.
The effects of voltage magnification are particularly useful as they can provide magnification of AC
signal voltages using only passive components, i.e. without the need for any external power supply.
In some cases voltage magnification can also be a dangerous property. in high voltage mains (line)
operated equipment containing inductance and capacitance, care must be taken during design to
ensure that the circuit does not resonate at frequencies too close to that of the mains (line) supply. If
that should happen, extremely high reactive voltages could be generated within the equipment, with
disastrous consequences for the circuit and / or the user.
The Q factor can be calculated using a simple formula. The ratio of the supply voltage VS to either of
the (equal) reactive voltages VC or VL will be in the same ratio as the total circuit resistance (R) is to
either of the reactances (XC or XL) at resonance. The ratio of the reactive voltage VL to the supply
voltage VS is the magnification factor Q.
The formula for finding Q (the voltage magnification) uses the ratio of the inductive reactance to the
total circuit resistance.
Where XL is the inductive reactance at resonance, given

by 2πƒrL and R is the TOTAL circuit resistance. Note that
Q does not have any units (volts, ohms etc.), as it is a
RATIO
Question: What is the magnification factor Q of the circuit in Example 9.2.2 in Module 9.2?
(No answer given, this one is down to YOU!)

Module 9.4 LCR Series Quiz

Try our quiz, based on the information
Be able to recognise LCR Series circuits and describe their you can find in Module 9. Submit your
action using phasor diagrams and appropriate equations. answers and see how many you get
right, but don't be disappointed if you get
Be able to describe LCR Series Circuits at resonance and the
answers wrong. Just follow the hints to
conditions for series resonance.
find the right answer and learn more
Be able to carry out calculations on LCR series circuits, about LCR Series Circuits and
involving reactance, impedance, component and circuit Resonance as you go.
voltages and current.
Be able to Describe voltage magnification and calculate Q

factor in LCR Series Circuits
1.
With reference to Fig 9.4.1 the resonant frequency of the circuit

will be approximately:
a) 71.2kHz
b) 444.3MHz
c) 2.251 kHz
d) 7.12MHz
2.
With reference to Fig 9.4.1, what will be the maximum supply current?
a) 70mA b) 250mA c) 500mA d) 14.14mA
3.
With reference to Fig 9.4.1, what will be the approximate voltage across C at resonance?
a) 177V b) 70V c) 1.7kV d) 353V
4.
With reference to Fig 9.4.1, what is the Q factor of the circuit?
a) 3.535V b) 1.4 c) 0.707 d) 3.5
Continued

5.
Which of the following statements about a series LCR circuit is true?
a) At resonance, the total reactance and total resistance are equal.
b) The impedance at resonance is purely inductive.
c) The current flowing in the circuit at resonance is at maximum.
d) The impedance at resonance is at maximum.
6.
If the values of L and C in a series LCR circuit are doubled, what will be the effect on the resonant
frequency?
a) It will be halved.
b) It will not be changed.
c) It will double.
d) It will increase by four times.
7.
With reference to Fig 9.4.2, which phasor diagram shows a series LCR circuit at resonance?
Fig 9.4.2
8.
What words are missing from the following statement? The impedance of series LCR circuit at
resonance will be _______ and equal to the circuit _______ .
a) Minimum and resistance.
b) Maximum and resistance.
c) Minimum and reactance.
d) Maximum and reactance.
Continued

9.
With reference to the graph of voltages and current in a series resonant circuit shown in Fig 9.4.3,
What quantity is represented by line A?
a) Circuit impedance.
b) Voltage across the capacitor.
c) Supply voltage.
d) Circuit current.
10.
With reference to the graph of voltages and current in a series resonant circuit shown in Fig 9.4.3,
What quantity is represented by line B?
a) Circuit impedance.
b) Voltage across the capacitor.
c) Supply voltage.
d) Circuit current.

Module
10 AC Theory
LCR Parallel Circuits

Introduction to LCR Parallel Circuits
What you'll learn in Module 10. The LCR Parallel Circuit.
Module 10.1 Ideal Parallel Circuits.
Recognise ideal LCR parallel circuits and

describe the effects of internal resistance.
Module 10.2 Practical Parallel Circuits.
Describe the action of practical LCR

parallel circuits with the use of phasor
diagrams.
Module 10.3 Parallel Resonance.
Describe the action of LCR parallel

circuits above, below and at resonance.
Describe current magnification, and

dynamic resistance in LCR parallel In introducing the LCR Series Circuit, one of the most useful
circuits. combinations of "passive components" in electronics,
Module 9 set the groundwork for Module 10. If the LCR
Use appropriate formulae to carry out series circuit is just one of the most useful circuits, here is
calculations on LCR parallel circuits, the other one, the LCR Parallel Circuit!
involving resonance, impedance and
dynamic resistance. The parallel LCR circuit uses the same components as the
series version, its resonant frequency can be calculated in
the same way, with the same formula, but just changing the
Module 10.4 Damping.
arrangement of the three components from a series to a
parallel connection creates some amazing transformations.
Describe methods of damping in LCR Almost everything about the series circuit is turned upside
parallel circuits, and relate Q factor and down by the parallel circuit. As you read through this
bandwidth. module, notice how many opposites there are between
series and parallel circuits. It is because of these opposite
Module 10.5 Parallel Circuits Quiz. effects, that series and parallel resonant circuits can together
perform very many more important tasks in analogue
LCR Parallel Circuits Quiz. electronics.

Module 10.1 The Ideal Parallel LCR Circuit.

The circuit in Fig 10.1.1 is an "Ideal" LC circuit consisting of only an
inductor L and a capacitor C connected in parallel. Ideal circuits exist in
theory only of course, but their use makes understanding of basic
concepts (hopefully) easier. It allows consideration of the effects of L
and C, ignoring any circuit resistance that would be present in a
practical circuit.
Fig 10.1.2 shows phasor diagrams for the circuit in Fig 10.1.1 under
three different conditions, below, above and at resonance. Unlike the
phasor diagrams for series circuits, these diagrams have a voltage VS
as the reference (horizontal) phasor, and have several phasors
depicting currents. This is because, in a parallel circuit the voltage VS
is common to both the L and C arms of the circuit but each of the
component arms (L and C) has individual CURRENTS.
The phasors for L and C seem to be

reversed compared with the phasor
diagrams for series circuits in module 9,
but the parallel phasor diagram shows
the current IC through the capacitor
leading the supply voltage VS by 90°,
while the inductive current IL lags the
supply voltage by 90°. (The mnemonic
CIVIL introduced in Module 5.1 still works
for these diagrams.)
The supply current IS will be the phasor sum of IC and IL but as, in the ideal circuit, there is no
resistance present, IC and IL are in antiphase, and IS will be simply the difference between them.
Fig 10.1.2a shows the circuit operating at some frequency below resonance ƒr where IL is greater than
IC and the total current through the circuit IS is given by IL − IC and will be in phase with IL, and it will be
lagging the supply voltage by 90°. Therefore at frequencies below ƒr more current flows through L than
through C and so the parallel circuit acts as an INDUCTOR.
Fig 10.1.2b shows the conditions when the circuit is operating above ƒr. Here, because XC will be
lower than XL more current will flow through C. IC is therefore greater than IL and as a result, the total
circuit current IS can be given as IL − IC but this time IS is in phase with IC. The circuit is now acting as a
CAPACITOR.
Notice that in both of the above cases the parallel circuit seems to act in the opposite manner to
the series circuit described in Module 9. The series circuit behaved like a capacitor below
resonance and an inductor above. The parallel circuit is acting like an inductor below resonance
and a capacitor above. This change is because the parallel circuit action is considered in terms of
current through the reactances, instead of voltage across the reactances as in the series circuit.
At resonance (ƒr) shown in Fig 10.1.2c, the reactances of C and L will be equal, so an equal amount of
current flows in each arm of the circuit, (IC = IL). This produces a very strange condition. Considerable
current is flowing in each arm of the circuit, but the supply current is ZERO! There is no phasor for IS!
This impossible state of affairs of having currents flowing around the circuit with no supply current,
indicates that the circuit must have infinite impedance to the supply. As there is no resistance in either
L or C in the ideal circuit, current continues to flow from L to C and back again. This only happens of
course in an ideal circuit, due to the complete absence of resistance in either arm of the circuit, but it is
surprisingly close to what actually happens in a practical circuit, because current is in effect "stored"
within the parallel circuit at resonance, without being released to the outside world. For this reason the
circuit is sometimes also called a "tank circuit".

Module 10.2 Practical Parallel Circuits

Fig 10.2.1a Looking at the inductive (LR) branch of the parallel
circuit.
Fig 10.2.1a shows a practical LCR parallel circuit, where R is the

internal resistance of the inductor L, plus any additional resistance in
the inductive arm of the circuit. Before considering the whole circuit,
the inductive branch will be examined as though it was a separate
LR series circuit, and the arm containing C will be temporarily
ignored. An understanding of what happens in L and R will be the
foundation for a better understanding of the whole circuit.
Fig 10.2.1b Phasors for the L and R
Fig 10.2.1b shows a phasor diagram for the LR branch of the

circuit in Fig 10.2.1a, drawn as it would be for an LR series circuit.
The branch of the circuit containing C is being ignored. The
reference phasor is (IS) and because the same current (IS) passes
through both R and L, the phasors for IL and VR will be in the
same phase. VS is the phasor sum of VL and VR.
In a parallel circuit it will be the supply voltage VS that is common
to all components and so will be used as the reference phasor in
Fig 10.2.2.
Fig 10.2.2 Phasors for the LR branch of a parallel LCR circuit
Fig 10.2.2 shows Fig 10.2.1b modified for a parallel circuit. The
complete diagram is rotated so that the phasor for VS is horizontal
and used as the reference phasor. This is because, when
describing PARALLEL circuits, it is the supply voltage (VS) that is
common to all components.
The phasors for IL and VR are in phase with each other, and VL
leads IL by 90°. However the phase angle θ between VS and IL
(and IS) will vary with frequency. This is because the value of XL
and therefore VL will increase as frequency increases. Because VL
changes in length, and VS is fixed, angle θ will change, which will
have an effect on the phasor diagrams for the complete LCR circuit.
Fig 10.2.3a Phasors for the LR branch of a parallel LCR circuit at HIGH frequency.
Fig 10.2.3a represents the condition when the frequency of the supply is high, so XL and therefore VL
will be large. VS is the phasor sum of VR and VL.
It follows then, that the phase angle θ is some value

between 0° and 90° with IL lagging on VS. In the ideal
circuit IL always lags on VS by 90°, so the effect of adding
some resistance will be to reduce the angle of lag (θ). At
higher frequencies however VL and θ increase and the
circuit becomes more like a pure inductor.
It is important to note that the value of XL depends on both

the frequency and the value of inductance. The value of R
will also depend on the design of the inductor and so VL
and θ will depend on both the frequency of VS and on
component values.

Fig 10.2.3b Phasors for the LR branch of a parallel LCR circuit at LOW frequency.
Fig 10.2.3b shows the effect of reducing the frequency

of VS to a low value. XL will now be smaller, and so will
VL.
VS is still the phasor sum of VR and VL, due to the

reduction in XL, IL will increase and most of the supply
voltage will be developed across R, increasing VR. With
VL reduced in amplitude and VR increased, angle θ is
very small making IS and VS nearly in phase, making
the circuit much more resistive than inductive.
This means that in a practical circuit, where the inductor must possess some resistance, the
angle θ by which IL lags VS is not the 90° difference that would be expected of a pure inductor,
but will be somewhere between 0° and 90°, depending on the frequency of the supply. At
frequencies where XL is much greater than R the circuit is predominantly inductive but at
comparatively low frequencies where the normally small value of R may become comparable
or even greater than XL the circuit becomes more predominantly resistive.
Fig 10.2.4a The complete LCR parallel circuit.
Returning to the whole LCR circuit, three phasors, IC, IL and the
reference phasor VS are used to show the operation of the complete
parallel circuit shown in Fig 10.2.4a.
Current phasors for L and C are used because VL (combined with its
internal resistance RL) and VC will be the same as they are connected
in parallel across the supply. It is the currents through L and through
C that will differ. The phasor for IC leads VS (which is also the voltage
across C and L) by 90° and IL lags VS by somewhere between 0°and
90°, depending on component values and supply frequency.
Fig 10.2.4b Phasors for the complete LCR parallel circuit.
Returning to the whole LCR circuit, three phasors, IC, IL and the
reference phasor VS are used to show the operation of the
parallel circuit in Fig 10.2.4a.
The phasor for IC leads VS (which is also the voltage across C) by

90° and IL lags VS by somewhere between 0°and 90°, depending
on component values and supply frequency.
A fourth phasor IS (the supply current) will be the phasor sum of

IC and IL , which in this diagram is larger than IC. The two current
phasors IC and IL are not in exact anti phase so the phasor for IS
is lagging that for VS. Therefore the circuit is inductive.

Module 10.3 Parallel Resonance

Just as in series resonant circuits, there are three basic conditions in a parallel circuit. Dependent on
frequency and component values, the circuit will be operating below, above or at resonance. This
section describes these three conditions using phasor diagrams involving the current phasors IC, IL
and their phasor sum IS, with the reference phasor VS. Note that VR is not shown, but its presence in
the circuit is indicated by the variable angle of IL as described in Module 10.2.
Below Resonance
Firstly, if the supply frequency is low, below the

resonant frequency ƒr then the condition shown in Fig
10.3.1 exists, and the current IL through L will be large
(due to its comparatively low reactance). At the same
time the current IC through C will be comparatively
small. Because IC is smaller than IL the phase angle θ
will be small. Including IS in the diagram shows that it
will be lagging on VS and therefore the circuit will
appear to be INDUCTIVE. (Note that this is the
opposite state of affairs to the series circuit, which is
capacitive below resonance). Fig. 10.3.1 Below Resonance
Above Resonance
Fig 10.3.2 shows what happens at frequencies above

resonance. Here the current IC through C will be
greater than the current IL through L, because the
frequency is higher and XC is smaller than XL, θ is
greater than in Fig 10.3.1. This gives us the condition
where IS (the phasor sum of IC and IL) is leading VS
and so the circuit is capacitive.
Fig 10.3.2 Above Resonance

At Resonance
At resonance the ideal circuit described in Module

10.1 has infinite impedance, but this is not quite the
case in practical parallel circuits, although very
nearly. Fig 10.3.3 shows the conditions for
resonance in a practical parallel LCR circuit. IC is
leading VS by 90° but IL is not quite in anti phase (due
to the resistance in the circuit´s inductive branch). In
the parallel circuit therefore, resonance must be
defined as the frequency where the values of IC
and IL are such that IS is IN PHASE with VS.
Fig 10.3.3 At Resonance

Dynamic Resistance
At resonance, Fig 10.3.3 shows that IS is very small, much smaller than either IC or IL so the
impedance across the parallel circuit must be very high at ƒr and as IS is in phase with VS, the circuit
impedance is purely resistive. This pure resistance that occurs only at ƒr is called the DYNAMIC
RESISTANCE (RD) of the circuit and it can be calculated (in ohms) for any parallel circuit from just the
component values used, using the formula:
Where R is the total resistance of the circuit, including the internal resistance of L.
Current Magnification
The other important point shown in Fig 10.3.3 is the size of the phasor for IS compared with IC and IL.
The supply current is much smaller than either of the currents in the L or C branches of the circuit. This
must mean that more current is flowing within the circuit than is actually being supplied to it!
This condition is real and is known as CURRENT MAGNIFICATION. Just as voltage magnification
took place in series circuits, so the parallel LCR circuit will magnify current. The MAGNIFICATION
FACTOR (Q) of a parallel circuit can be found using the same formula as for series circuits, namely;
Adjusting for resonance.
The formula for the resonant frequency of a LCR parallel circuit also uses the same formula for ƒr as in
a series circuit, that is;
However, it should be noted that this formula ignores the effect of R in slightly shifting the phase of IL.
In fact the formula only gives an approximate value for ƒr. However, because the internal resistance of
L is usually quite small, so is its effect in shifting the resonant frequency of the circuit. For this reason,
the same formula may be used for ƒr in both series and parallel circuits. In those practical LC circuits
designed to operate at high frequencies, and where accurate control over ƒr is required, it is normal for
either L or C to be made adjustable in value.
The final values for L and C would be achieved by adjusting one of

the two components as shown in Fig. 10.3.4 which would be of a
variable type, once the system containing the LC circuit was
operating. By this method, not only is the effect of R compensated
for, but also any stray inductance or capacitance in the circuit that
may also affect the final value of ƒr. Because, at high frequencies,
magnetic fields easily radiate from one component in a circuit to
another, LC tuned circuits would also be shielded (screened) by
containing them in a metal screening can as shown in Fig 10.3.5.
Fig 10.3.5 Tuned transformer

in Screening Can
Fig 10.3.4 Parallel LC Tuned Circuits.

Module 10.4 Damping

The Effects of Resistance in LC Parallel Circuits
Ignoring resistance, the resonant frequency of a LC parallel circuit is given by the same formula as is
used for LC series circuits:
Although this formula is only approximate due to the

resistance in a LC parallel circuit, inaccuracies will be
small at high frequencies. In practice we can still use
the above formula for both series and parallel LC
circuits.
Resistance in a parallel circuit does however

substantially change the graph of impedance (Z)
against frequency (f).
The graph of impedance against frequency in Fig

10.4.1 shows that, as frequency increases from zero
towards resonance (ƒr) the impedance of the circuit
increases to a maximum value (RD) at resonance and
then decreases again for frequencies above
resonance. The graph shows the FREQUENCY Fig 10.4.1 Parallel LCR Circuit
RESPONSE of the circuit. Response Curve.
The shape of the response curve can be changed considerably by

adding resistance either to the inductive branch of the circuit, e.g.
increasing the internal resistance of the inductor, or by adding an
external resistor called a SHUNT resistor, across the LC circuit as
illustrated in Fig 10.4.2. Adding resistance by either method is called Fig 10.4.2 Damping
DAMPING. Using a Shunt Resistor
Damping is frequently used in LC circuits to obtain a flatter response curve giving a wider bandwidth to
the circuit, as shown by the lower curve in Fig 10.4.1. Applying damping has two major effects.
1. It reduces current magnification by reducing the Q factor. (R is bigger compared with XL).
2. It increases the BANDWIDTH of the circuit.
The bandwidth of a LC parallel circuit is a range of frequencies, either side of RD, within which the total
circuit impedance is greater than 0.707 of RD.
The lower curve in Fig 10.4.1 indicates the condition where the Q factor is reduced by including a
damping resistor. The Dynamic Resistance is lower (RD2) and now the area above the (green)
0.707xRD2 line covers a wider band of frequencies.
Bandwidth, resonant frequency and Q factor in a parallel circuit are connected by the formula:
Where B is the bandwidth (upper frequency limit − lower frequency limit)

in Hz.

It can be seen from these equations that, if Q is reduced while ƒr is constant then bandwidth (B) must
increase.
In a parallel circuit the amount of damping is set by both the value of the internal resistance of L and
the value of the shunt resistor. The Q factor will be reduced by increasing the value of the internal
resistance of L, The larger the internal resistance of the inductor, the lower the Q factor.
The shunt resistor has an opposite effect on Q, and the lower the value of R, the more the Q factor is
reduced. If the value of the shunt resistor is halved, then so is the Q factor but the bandwidth is
doubled.
Having two quite different formulae complicates the issue, but often in practice, either the internal
resistance or the shunt resistance is by far the dominant effect, to the extent that the other can be
ignored.
6 Things you need to know about LCR parallel Circuits
(and that are different to the Series Circuit.)
1. AT RESONANCE (ƒr) VC is not necessarily exactly equal to VL but VS and IS are IN PHASE
2.. AT RESONANCE (ƒr) Impedance (Z) is at maximum and is called the DYNAMIC
RESISTANCE (RD)
3. AT RESONANCE (ƒr) Circuit current (IS) is at minimum.
4. AT RESONANCE (ƒr) The circuit is entirely resistive.
5. BELOW RESONANCE (ƒr) The circuit is inductive.
6. ABOVE RESONANCE (ƒr) The circuit is capacitive.

Module 10.5 LCR Parallel Quiz

Try our quiz, based on the information
After studying Module 10, you should: you can find in Module 10. Submit your
answers and see how many you get
Be able to recognise LCR parallel circuits and describe their action right, but don't be disappointed if you get
using phasor diagrams and appropriate equations. answers wrong. Just follow the hints to
find the right answer and learn more
Be able to describe LCR parallel Circuits at resonance and the
about LCR parallel Circuits and
conditions for parallel resonance.
Resonance as you go.
Be able to carry out calculations on LCR parallel circuits, involving
reactance, impedance, component and circuit voltages and current.
Be able to describe current magnification, dynamic impedance and

Q factor, and be able to calculate their values in LCR Parallel
Circuits.
1.
With reference to Fig 10.5.1 the resonant frequency of the circuits L1/C1 and L3/C3 will be:
a) The same as L2/C2
b) Twice the frequency if L2/C2
c) Half the frequency of L2 /C2
d) Above and below the frequency of L2/C2
2.
In a parallel resonant circuit at resonance, the impedance is referred to as:
a) The equal reactance point and is at maximum.
b) The dynamic resistance and is at minimum.
c) The equal reactance point and is at minimum.
d) The dynamic resistance and is at maximum.
3.
What will be the approximate resonant frequency of a parallel LCR circuit containing L=1mH, C=1nF,
R= 15Ω ?
a) 159kHz b) 251kHz c) 2.5MHz d) 2.7kHz
Continued.

4.
Phasor diagrams a-d show a single parallel resonant

circuit operating at different frequencies. Which diagram
shows the highest frequency?
a) Diagram a
b) Diagram b Fig 10.5.2
c) Diagram c
d) Diagram d
5.
For a parallel LCR circuit at resonance, which of the following statements is true?
a) At resonance, XC and XL are equal.
b) The phasors IL and IC are in anti−phase.
c) The current flowing into the circuit at resonance is at maximum.
d) The impedance at resonance is at maximum.
6.
If the Q factor of a parallel resonant circuit is halved, what will be the effect on the bandwidth?
a) It will be halved.
b) It will not be changed.
c) It will double.
d) It will increase by four times.
7.
Which formula in Fig 10.5.3 is correct for calculating the Q factor of a parallel resonant circuit?
a) Formula a Fig 10.5.3

b) Formula b
c) Formula c
d) Formula d
Continued.

8.
What words are missing from the following statement? The supply current phasor for IS in a parallel
LCR phasor diagram at resonance will be _____________ amplitude.
a) Lagging IC by 90° and at its Maximum.
b) In phase with VS and at its Maximum
c) In phase with VS
d) Leading IL by 90° and at its Minimum.and at its Minimum.
9.
With reference to Fig 10.5.4 What quantity is represented by axis A?
a) Inductive Reactance.
b) Current. Fig 10.5.4
c) Capacitive Reactance.
d) Impedance
10.
What is the approximate Q factor of the circuit mentioned in Question 3?
a) 67
b) 81
c) 15
d) 32

Module
11 AC Theory
Transformers
What you’ll learn in Module 11.
• Section 11.1 Transformer Operation.
• Transformer Operation.
• Transformer Losses.
• Off Load Current.
Introduction
• Volts per Turn.
Transformers have been an essential component in electrical
• Section 11.2 Magnetic Circuits &
and electronic circuits since the 1830s and although new
Transformer Cores.
technologies in some electronic circuits have reduced the
• Magnetic Circuits & Cores. need for transformers, they are still essential in many
• Magnetic Flux. applications.
• Reluctance. How Transformers work.

• Permeability. This module describes how transformers work, and how the
design of both the transformer coils, and the core on which
• Common Core Types. they are wound affects the efficiency of the transformer.
• Section 11.3 Power Transformers. Detailed descriptions of many types of transformer are also
given together with typical applications.
• Tappings.
Isolation
• Toroidal Power Transformers.
Transformers can allow separate circuits to be physically
• Isolation.
isolated from each other whilst still allowing current and
• Autotransformers. voltage to pass between the two. They can also be used to
reduce or increase the voltage or current that is passed as
• Switch Mode Power Supply Transformers. required.
• Transformer Faults. Impedance Matching
• Section 11.4 Audio Transformers. Another common use for transformers can be to match input
• AF Transformers. and output impedances where the output of one circuit needs
to pass an AC signal to the input of another. The advantage
• Microphone Transformers. of this technique is that the transfer can be achieved with
• 100V Line Transformers. practically no loss of power in the transfer.
• Data/Pulse Transformers. Transformers of many types.

• Section 11.5 Radio frequency Transformers are made in a very wide range of sizes and
Transformers. configurations, from the enormous power transformers,
weighing many tons that connect the different parts of the
• RF Transformers. public electricity grid together, to tiny transformers
• VHF Transformers. consisting of nothing more than a few turns of wire, found in
UHF radio equipment.
• UHF Transformers.
• Screening.
• Section 11.6 Transformers Quiz.

www.learnabout-electronics.org Transformers
Module 11.1 Transformer Basics

What you’ll learn.
• After studying this section, you should be able to describe:
• Basic transformer operation
• Turns ratio.
• Power ratio.
• Transformation ratio.
• Transformer losses: Copper, Hysteresis & Eddy current.
• Transformer efficiency and off load current.

Transformers.
A transformer uses the principles of electromagnetism to change one A.C. voltage level to another.
Faraday's work in the 19th century showed that a changing current in a conductor (e.g. a
transformer primary winding) sets up a changing magnetic field around the conductor. If another
conductor (secondary winding) is placed within this changing magnetic field a voltage will be
induced into that winding.
Turns Ratio.
Faraday also calculated that the voltage induced into the secondary winding would have a
magnitude that depends on the TURNS RATIO of the transformer. i.e. If the secondary winding has
half the number of turns of the primary winding, then the secondary voltage will be half the voltage
across the primary winding. Likewise, if the secondary winding has twice the number of turns of the
primary winding, the secondary voltage will be double the primary voltage.
Power ratio.
Because the transformer is a passive component, (it has no external power supply) it cannot produce
more power out from its secondary than is applied to its primary. Therefore if the secondary voltage
is greater than the primary voltage by a particular amount, the secondary current will be smaller
than the primary current by a similar amount, i.e. If the voltage is doubled the current will be
halved.

Transformation Ratio.
Basic Transformer operation can be described by two formulae relating the transformation ratio to
the turns ratio of the transformer windings.
• VP = the primary voltage.
• IP = the primary current.
• VS = the secondary voltage.
• IS = the secondary current.
• NP = the number of turns in the

primary winding.
• NS = the number of turns in the

secondary winding.
Transformer Losses.
The formulae in Fig. 11.1.1 relate to
an ideal transformer, i.e. a
transformer with no power losses, in
which, Primary volt amperes =
Secondary volt amperes.
While practical transformers can be
extremely efficient, some losses will
occur because not all of the magnetic Fig 11.1.1 Basic Transformer Operation.
flux produced by the primary winding
will link with the secondary winding. The power losses that occur in a transformer are of three
types:
1. Copper Losses.
These losses can also be called winding losses or I2R losses, because they can occur in windings
made from metals other than copper. The losses become evident as heat, generated in the (copper)
wire windings as they dissipate power due to the resistance of the wire.
The power loss in a transformer winding can be calculated by using the current in the winding and
its resistance, in formula for power, P = I2R. This formula is the reason copper losses are sometimes
called I2R losses. To minimise the losses the resistance of the winding must be kept low, using wire
of suitable cross sectional area and low resistivity.
2. Hysteresis losses.
Each time the alternating current reverses (once each cycle), tiny "magnetic domains" within the
core material are reversed. These are physical changes within the core material and take up some
energy. The amount of energy used depends on the "reluctance" of the core material; in large cores
of power transformers where hysteresis loss maybe a problem it is largely overcome by using
special low reluctance "grain oriented" steel as the core material.

3. Eddy Current losses.

Because the iron or steel core is an electrical conductor as well as a magnetic circuit, the changing
current in the primary will tend to set up an EMF within the core as well as in the secondary
winding. The currents induced into the core will oppose the changes of magnetic field taking place
in the core. For this reason these eddy currents must be kept as small as possible. This is achieved
by dividing the metal core into thin sheets or "laminations", each one insulated from the others by
an insulating coat of lacquer or oxide. Laminated cores greatly reduce the formation of eddy
currents without affecting the magnetic properties of the core.
In high frequency transformers eddy current losses are reduced by using a core made of a ceramic
material containing a large proportion of tiny metal particles, iron dust or manganese zinc. The
ceramic insulates the metal particles from each other, giving a similar effect to laminations, and
performing better at high frequencies.
Due to the ways of reducing losses described above, practical transformers closely approach the
ideal in performance. In large power transformers, efficiencies of about 98% can be achieved.
Therefore for most practical calculations, it can be assumed that a transformer is "Ideal" unless its
losses are specified. The actual secondary voltages in a practical transformer will be only slightly
less than those calculated using the theoretical transformation ratio.
Off Load Current.
Because the action of a transformer is nearly perfect, the power in both primary and secondary
windings is the same, so when no load is put on the secondary, no secondary current flows and the
power in the secondary is zero (V x I = 0). Therefore, although a voltage is applied to the primary
no current will flow, as the power in the primary must also be zero. In practical transformers the
"Off Load Current" in the primary is actually very low.
Volts per Turn.

A transformer with a primary winding of 1000 turns and a secondary winding of 100 turns has a
turns ratio of 1000:100 or 10:1. Therefore 100 volts applied to the primary will produce a secondary
voltage of 10 volts.
Another way to consider transformer voltages is by volts/turn; if the 100 volts applied to the 1000
turn primary produces 100/1000 = 0.1 volts per turn, then each single turn on the 100 turn
secondary winding will produce 0.1V so the total secondary voltage will be 100 × 0.1V = 10V.

Module 11.2 Magnetic Circuits and Transformer Cores.

• Magnetic Flux
• Permeability: Relative and absolute.
• Reluctance.
• The Magnetic Circuit.
• Magneto-motive force, m.m.f.
• Common types of transformer cores.
Magnetic Flux and Ampere Turns

The strength of the magnetic field (or amount of flux measured in Webers) in a transformer core is
directly proportional to the number of TURNS around the coil that is producing the magnetic flux
within the core, and to the amount of CURRENT flowing in the coil. Therefore the amount of flux,
Φ (The Greek letter Phi) is proportional to the product of N (number of turns) x I (the current in
amperes) or the 'AMPERE TURNS' of the coil. Increasing either the number of turns or the current
in the coil produces an increase in flux.
Φ ∝NI
Reluctance.
There is a third way to increase the flux. That is to improve the magnetic properties of the core by
using a material that has a low Reluctance (Rm), this is the property of a material that is the
magnetic equivalent of the electrical property of Resistance. The lower the reluctance, the easier it
is for magnetic flux to flow through the core material.
Materials that are easily magnetised have a low reluctance and a high permeability, and none
magnetic materials have a high reluctance and a low permeability. The opposite of Reluctance is
Permeability, the magnetic equivalent of electrical Conductance.

Fig 11.2.1 Electrical and Magnetic Circuits compared.

Electrical and magnetic circuits are
similar in many respects. Fig. 11.2.1
compares a simple electrical and
simple magnetic circuit.
In the electrical circuit an e.m.f.
produced by a cell or battery drives
a current around the circuit, which
consists of a length of wire having
some resistance R.
The magnetic circuit also has a
source of power in the form of a
coil, supplied by an AC current. Just
as the external electrical source is
called an electro motive force, the
external magnetic source is called a
magneto motive force (m.m.f.), and
is measured in ampere turns.
An e.m.f. produces a current (I),
which has a strength measured in
amperes in the electrical circuit; in
the magnetic circuit, the m.m.f.
produces a magnetic flux, Φ and is
measured in units of webers (Wb). Fig 11.2.1
The resistance to the flow of magnetic flux in the core is called Reluctance ( Rm )
Fig 11.2.2 Magnetic Flux linking primary and secondary windings.
Figure 11.2.2 shows a magnetic

circuit made from a rectangular
shaped iron loop or core. A coil (the
primary) supplied with an AC
current is wound around one side of
the core to provide a source of
m.m.f. On the other side of the core,
a separate coil (the secondary) is
wound which supplies a measuring
instrument to measure the amount
of current in the coil. The current in
this coil will be proportional to the
amount of flux flowing in the core.
This arrangement therefore provides Fig 11.2.2
a means of measuring magnetic flux.

Fig 11.2.3 Flux is proportional to current and number of turns.
Fig 11.2.3
Figure 11.2.3 shows that by changing the number of turns on the primary coil, or the current
through it, a different amount of current will flow in the secondary coil showing that the flux (Φ) is
proportional to both the current and the number of turns. Φ ∝NI.
Fig 11.2.4 Flux is also affected by the dimensions of the core.
Fig 11.2.4
Figure 11.2.4 shows that if the m.m.f. is kept constant, but the dimensions of the core are altered by
changing either the length of the flux path or its cross sectional area, the amount of flux flowing
around the core will also change.
Therefore the measured flux (Φ) in the core (and therefore the secondary current) is proportional to
the cross sectional area of the core, and inversely proportional to the length of the flux path:

Where:
A is the cross sectional area of the core and
L is the mean length of the flux path around the core.
The magnetic circuit also has some Reluctance Rm (a type of resistance to flux);
Reluctance is measured in Amperes per Weber (A/Wb).

Permeability.
Electrical resistance also depends not only on the dimensions of the conductor but also on the
material of the conductor and its resistivity. Likewise, in magnetic circuits reluctance depends not
only on the length and cross sectional area, but also on the Permeability (µ) of the material.
The higher the value for µ the more flux will flow and the more flux that flows, the lower must be
the value of reluctance Rm
Therefore:
So Reluctance increases with the length of the magnetic path (l) and decreases as either the cross
sectional area (A) of the core or the Permeability (µ) of the material is increased.
Relative and Absolute Permeability
Permeability is often expressed as:
µ = µ0 µr
It is normal to find a core material described by its relative permeability (µr ), i.e. by how many times the absolute
permeability (µ) of the material is greater than the absolute permeability of free space (µ0 ). The absolute
-7 -6
permeability of free space µ0 has a value of 4 π x 10 H/m = 1.256637061 x 10 H/m where H is in henrys and m
is in metres. Quoting the absolute permeability of materials used in cores would involve similarly awkward
numbers. If a more convenient figure, the relative permeability of free space (or air), which will be 1 is used, the
absolute permeability of a material (µ) will be its relative permeability (µr ) multiplied by the absolute permeability of
free space (µ0 ).
Therefore µ is a simple ratio that does not have any units, e.g. if the µ of a material is given as 1000,
its permeability is one thousand times greater than the absolute permeability of free space (or air).
The permeability of iron can be many hundreds, so having a magnetic circuit path of iron rather
than air greatly increases the flux, which is why iron is a common choice of material for inductor
and transformer cores.

Fig. 11.2.5. Common Types of Transformer Cores.
Fig 11.2.5 illustrates some commonly used

types of core. The Shell Core is an
improvement of the Core type; its magnetic
circuit encloses the windings more fully.
Notice the centre limb has twice the cross
sectional area of the outer limbs, allowing
for double the flux within the primary and
secondary windings.
The Toroidal core gives an even more
efficient coupling, and radiates less
electromagnetic energy outside the
transformer.
The magnetic circuit of the two part Pot
Core, used for smaller high frequency
transformers and inductors, totally encloses the windings.
Fig 11.2.5

Module 11.3 Power Transformers.

• Tappings.
• Toroidal Power Transformers.
• Isolation.
• Autotransformers.
• Switch Mode Power Supply Transformers.
• Transformer Faults.
Fig. 11.3.1 Laminated Core Power Transformer.
The job of a Power Transformer in an electronic

system is to provide that system with a number of
AC supplies of various voltages and suitable values
of current, from the high voltage public electricity
supply. In addition it may be required to provide
electrical isolation between the electronic circuitry
and the external public power supply. A typical
power transformer construction using a laminated
core is shown in Fig 11.3.1
A core of thin steel ‘E’ and ‘I’ shaped laminations is
used to reduce the effects of eddy currents. These are
clamped together and the primary and secondary
windings wound on a former placed around the
central limb of the core. The windings may be
separate as shown, or often, for greater efficiency,
wound concentrically in layers (primary, secondary,
primary, secondary, etc). Transformers are often
made specific to a particular application or
equipment in which they are used. Correct
identification of windings may therefore require
reference to manufacturers data. Fig 11.3.1

Tappings.
To enable transformers to supply a range of secondary voltages to different parts of a circuit it is
common for power transformers to have "Tapped windings". That is, windings split into various
sections by using a number of connections brought out from a single winding, each one at a
particular number of turns along the winding, as shown in the schematic symbol diagram Fig
11.3.2.
Fig. 11.3.2 Schematic Diagram of a Tapped Power Transformer.
This provides a selection of different turns ratios between primary and
secondary allowing different input voltages to be used and a range of
different output voltages to be obtained.
By using a winding with a central tapping, e.g. 9V 0V 9V, a balanced
supply can be provided giving two equal voltages (9V) of opposite
polarity, or a single 18V supply.
Fig. 11.3.3 Toroidal Power Transformers. Fig 11.3.2
A popular design for power transformers

is based on the toroidal core shown in Fig
11.3.3. This design gives excellent
linkage between primary and secondary
as both coils are wound on the same
‘donut’ shaped core. Core losses are kept
low by the use of high permeability
ferrite core material. The toroidal
construction, although generally more
expensive than laminated core types
provides a smaller and lighter transformer
than for a given power rating.
Fig 11.3.3
Isolation.
One advantage of transformers is that there is no electrical connection between the input circuit
connected to the primary and the output circuit connected to the secondary; they can therefore be
used to electrically isolate two circuits.
Fig. 11.3.4 Mains Isolation

Transformer.
Mains (Line) Isolation Transformers are used to give greater safety to users of electrical equipment
such as outdoor power tools, and to technicians servicing equipment where live conductors and
components may be touched, by providing input and output terminals that are electrically isolated
from the main circuit.
Large isolating transformers are typically capable of handling a power output of about 250-500 VA
(volt amperes) without being overloaded. Their primary is connected directly to the mains supply,
and to give a mains (or line) output voltage their turns ratio is 1:1 as illustrated in Fig. 11.3.4. They
also have an earthed metal shield between primary and secondary windings to prevent AC being
passed by electrostatic (capacitive) as well as inductive coupling between the two windings.

The use of an isolation transformer greatly reduces the risk of a shock to a person simultaneously
touching a live conductor and earth, as the secondary circuit has no earth connection and therefore
no continuous circuit for current to flow. The isolation transformer does NOT prevent shock to
anyone touching live and neutral at the same time.
Much smaller isolating transformers are used in voice and data communication equipment such as
Fax machines and modems, where their task is to safely isolate equipment that may, under fault
conditions, allow high voltages to be present at their interface with the public telephone system.
These transformers are also used to match the impedance of the equipment inputs and outputs to
those of the telephone lines.
Autotransformers.
This is a special type of transformer that has only one winding. It is often used
for conversion between different mains (line) voltages, allowing electrical
equipment to be used internationally. The single continuous winding is divided
into a number of "tappings" as shown in Fig. 11.3.5 to produce different
voltages. An appropriate number of turns are provided between each tapping to
produce the required voltage, based on the turns ratio between the complete
winding and the tapping. A useful method of calculating unknown voltages on
an autotransformer, if the number of turns on the various tappings is known, is
to use the volts per turn method described on the Basic Transformer Operation
page. Unlike a conventional transformer with primary and secondary windings,
the autotransformer does not provide any isolation between input and output.
Autotransformers are also used to provide the very high voltages need for such
applications as automobile ignition systems and cathode ray tube drives in
CRT TVs and monitors.
The "Auto" part of the name in this case does not mean Fig. 11.3.5 Schematic diagram of
automatic but has the meaning of: an Autotransformer.
"One - acting on its own" as in autonomous.
Switch Mode Power Supply Transformers
Large laminated core transformers are less common

nowadays because of the use of Switch Mode Power Supplies
(SMPS). These circuits operate at much higher frequencies
than the older 50-60Hz supplies. In addition to being more
efficient SMPS have the advantage that many of the
components in the power supply circuit can be physically
much smaller and lighter, including the transformer. SMPS
transformers, working at around 500kHz, like the example in
Fig 11.3.6 in a TV receiver, use ferrite instead of laminated
core losses in these cores are much less at high frequencies.
The waveforms handled by transformers in SMPS, in Fig. 11.3.6 Switch Mode
addition to being high frequency, generally have a square Power Supply.
wave shape. Because of this, they will contain many harmonics at event higher frequencies. This
creates a problem of skin effect; high frequency currents flowing in wires tend to flow only along
the outer skin of the wires, which means that the normal calculations of wire cross sectional area are
made more complex. Because the effective cross sectional area changes with frequency, then so will
the effective inductance of the winding. Also, the layout of components in relation to SMPS
transformers needs careful design, as electromagnetic interference at high frequencies is greater.

Transformer Faults
Transformers are generally highly reliable; their very high efficiency means that under normal
conditions little power is dissipated as heat (in many components the biggest killer!). As with any
electronic device, it is those that handle the greatest power that are the least reliable, so power
transformers, especially those operating with high voltages that are more susceptible than other
transformer types, to breakdown.
Overheating, whether caused by an internal fault, or by overloading can lead to dangerous, even
complete "meltdown" situations. For this reason many power transformers may be fitted with a
temperature operated fuse or cut–out. In the unlikely advent of this device failing it is usual that the
primary winding will appear to be open circuit. It is often difficult or impossible to remove and or
repair the fuse, which will be buried deep switching the windings. It is also very possibly unwise to
do so, as the transformer will have overheated for one of two probable reasons:
1. The transformer has been seriously overloaded for some considerable time; in which case internal
damage to the insulation may have occurred. The safest option is to replace the transformer.
2. The transformer has suffered an internal shorted turn. This means that the insulation between two
turns of a winding has broken down. The effect of this is to create a winding of a single turn. The
transformation ratio is now enormous! Imagine a transformer with a 1000 turns on its primary and
100 turns on it secondary, suffering a shorted turn on the secondary winding. The turns ratio has
just changed from 10:1 to 1000:1! The result is very little secondary voltage but enormous current.
In this case again the only solution is replacement.
Another problem that can happen, especially on high voltage transformers (some transformers may
generate several thousand volts) working or stored for long periods in humid conditions is damp
penetrating between the transformer windings. In such cases when high voltage is applied, arcing
can occur between the layers of a winding and punch a tiny carbonised hole in the insulation and the
transformer immediately suffers a shorted turn.
With any fault where a transformer (whatever type) is suspected, the likelihood of it being the
culprit is very low down the list of probabilities.

Module 11.4 Audio Transformers.

• AF Transformers
• Microphone Transformers.
• Impedance Matching.
• 100V Line Transformers.

AF Transformers.
Audio Frequency (AF) Transformers work at
frequencies between about 20Hz to 20kHz and are
used in audio amplifier circuits, they were
essential in valve (tube) designs for matching the
high impedance outputs of theses amplifiers to
low impedance loudspeakers, but transistor
amplifiers have much less need for output
transformers. AF transformers are still produced
however for a range of audio functions; many are
similar in construction to the power transformers Fig 11.4.1 Small audio transformer.
described in Module 11.3, but are often much
smaller, see Fig.11.4.1.
Some common arrangements of audio transformer
windings are shown in Fig 11.4.2.
Example a.) shows a centre tapped secondary winding
that can be used to provide a selection of different turns
ratios. Some transformers may also have tapped
primaries for an even wider range of ratios. In audio
amplifiers, the phase/anti phase of signals can be
important and phase splitting transformers with centre
tapped secondary windings can be used to provide two
anti phase signals. The dots near the windings on
schematic diagrams indicate the relative polarity of the
signals on different windings, and in this example show Fig 11.4.2 AF transformer schematic
that the signal from the upper secondary winding (A) diagrams showing phase indicators.
will be in phase with the primary signal, while the
lower secondary winding (B) will provide a signal in anti phase with the primary signal.
Example b.) shows two output transformers, used to couple the power output stage of an audio
amplifier to the loudspeaker. Audio transformers often perform several functions at once:
• Where used, they allow the AC audio signal to reach the loudspeaker whilst preventing any DC from the
amplifier affecting the operation of the loudspeaker.
• They provide an isolated external connection for the loudspeakers, improving safety.
• They can match the low input impedance of the loudspeaker (typically a few ohms) to the much higher
output impedance of an amplifier, allowing maximum power to be transferred from the amplifier to the
speaker

Microphone Transformers.
Audio transformers can also be used for matching microphones to amplifier inputs. The main
purpose of a transformer at the amplifier input is matching impedance between microphones,
connecting cables and the amplifier input. This is important to ensure that there is no signal
reduction due to impedance mismatching.
To prevent electromagnetic interference, often in the form
of a low frequency hum, long microphone cables usually
use a balanced cable similar to that shown in Fig. 11.4.3.
This consists of two conductors twisted together
surrounded by a conducting shield made from metal foil or
braid. Because the conductors are twisted together,
effectively rotating their relative positions to each other,
magnetic fields generated by each conductor into the
other, tend to cancel out. The surrounding earthed Fig. 11.4.3 Balanced Microphone
conducting foil helps prevent external magnetic fields Cable.
from affecting the conductors.
A transformer with a single primary and a centre-tapped secondary is used to connect the
microphone (a two wire unbalanced device) to the balanced cable. Because the cable is fed from a
centre-tapped transformer, the signals on the two conductors are in anti-phase.
The amplifier input uses the difference between these two signals to produce a signal that is doubled
in amplitude. Any noise that has been externally induced into the cable after the transformer will be
identical in phase on both conductors, so the subtraction (difference) combination occurring at the
amplifier input cancels out these noise signals.
The combination of signals at the amplifier can be carried

out either by using a differential amplifier (an amplifier with
two anti-phase inputs), or by using a balun (BALanced to
UNbalanced) device. This is a type of transformer for
matching balanced transmission lines or cables to, or from
an unbalanced input or output, (the device is reversible). A
simplified Schematic of a balun is shown in Fig. 11.4.4.
Fig. 11.4.4 A Balun.

Fig. 11.4.5 shows a typical microphone transformer that

plugs directly into an unbalanced high impedance amplifier
input. The XLR socket at the other end of the device allows
a low impedance microphone to be connected via a long
lead. The transformer within the metal screening case acts
as a balun, an impedance matching device and an input
isolator for the microphone.
Fig. 11.4.5 A Microphone

Impedance Matching. Matching Transformer.
When the output of one circuit or device is feeding an AC
signal to the input of another circuit or device, it is important that the input and output impedances
are properly matched. In most case impedance matching requires that the maximum VOLTAGE is
transferred from one circuit or device to the next and for the transfer of maximum voltage this is
achieved using simple resistance networks.
Where it is required to transfer the maximum amount of AC POWER between the circuits,
transformers may be used. This is because a transformer has the ability to "transform" or change the
apparent impedance of a circuit input or output. It can make a low impedance appear much higher,
or a high impedance much lower.
Suppose a transformer has a primary to secondary ratio of 10:1 and a load impedance ZL of 8Ω is
connected across the secondary winding. If 20 volts is applied to the primary winding the voltage
across the load impedance will be:
20 × NS / NP = 20 (1/10) = 2volts
Therefore the current in the load impedance ZL will be:
IL = VL / ZL = 2/8 = 0.25 = 250mA
So the current in the primary must be 1/10 of this amount:
IP = 250mA × 0.1 = 25mA
Thus the apparent resistance of the primary winding must be:
RP = VP / IP = 20v / 25mA =800 ohms
Therefore the 10:1 transformer "magnifies" the impedance ZL of the load so that it appears to the
amplifier as though it is feeding a load impedance of 800 ohms instead of the actual impedance of
8Ω. The apparent load on the amplifier has been increased in value by a factor of 100 times by the
presence of the transformer. Notice the amount of the apparent increase; 100 times. As the turns
ratio of the transformer is 10:1 the increase in apparent resistance (or impedance) is the square of
the turns ratio. This relationship is described by the formula;
ZP = ZS (NP/NS)2
Ensuring that the output stage of an amplifier is correctly matched to its load.

100V Line Transformer.
Another Audio transformer, used for multi loudspeaker public address systems is the 100V line
transformer used for connecting multiple speakers in
public address systems to a single amplifier. The word
"Line" in the title should not be confused with the
United States public electricity supply. In the 100V
line speaker system, a transformer steps up the audio
output signal voltage to 100V so that the output
current for a given power is low. The resistance on
long cables between the amplifier and loudspeakers
will attenuate this low current signal much less than if
the current were left at its normally high level. An
impedance matching step down transformer (shown in
Fig. 11.4.6) is used at each speaker to reduce the
voltage and increase the current again, and to match
the line to the low impedance of the loudspeaker. The
multiple connections on the primary allow suitable
level of power (and therefore sound volume) to be
chosen for each loudspeaker, and the secondary has a Fig. 11.4.6 100V Line
choice of impedances to match a range of
loudspeakers.

Module 11.5 RF Transformers.

• RF Transformers
• VHF Transformers.
• UHF Line Transformers.
• Screening.
Radio Frequency Transformers.
Radio Frequency transformers describe those used at frequencies including RF VHF and UHF. At
each of these frequencies, construction varies considerably.
RF Transformers
RF is considered to be the lowest band of frequencies in this group,

and transformers working at frequencies between 30kHz to 30MHz
may often have their windings "tuned" to a particular frequency by the
addition of a small capacitor to one winding as shown in Fig. 11.5.1.
This forms a parallel LC resonant circuit with the transformer
primary, and therefore have high impedance at one particular
frequency. The inductance of such transformers is often made
adjustable and the whole assembly housed inside a metal screening
can. The resonant frequency of the circuit can then be fine tuned after
assembly. Once adjusted during manufacture, it is normally intended
that further adjustment should not be needed.
Fig 11.5.1 RF
Transformer.
VHF Transformers.
At Very High Frequencies of 30MHz to 300MHz the inductance
needed in the windings of transformers is very small and can be
achieved by just a few turns of wire. The surface mount transformer
shown in Fig. 11.5.2 is wound on a ferrite core only a few
millimetres wide.
Fig 11.5.2 Surface Mount

VHF Transformer.

UHF Transformers
At Ultra High Frequencies of 300MHz to 3GHz the losses
in iron or ferrite cores are too great for these conventional
cores to be used, also the amount of inductance needed can
be provided by just a few turns of wire or less, as can be
seen in the view of a UHF TV tuner (with the outer
screening plate removed) in Fig. 11.5.3. Even small coils
printed on the circuit board may be used as inductors and
transformers. Because signals at UHF and above,
predominately flow on the surface of the conductor it is
common for inductors working at these frequencies to be
plated with a very low resistivity material such as silver.
Fig 11.5.3 Inductors and
It is essential, when working on circuits operating at VHF
and above, that no component or wire is moved from its Transformers in a UHF
original position during servicing, as the tiny amounts of Tuner.
inductance and capacitance involved can be greatly
influenced by nearby components.
Screening.
Transformers are electromagnetic devices and both produce, and are affected by electromagnetic
fields. The problem of electromagnetic interference increases considerably as signal frequencies
increase from audio frequencies upwards, becoming most troublesome at radio frequencies where
electromagnetic fields radiate particularly well, this makes efficient magnetic screening essential.
Electrostatic interference can also be a problem due to the capacitance between the transformer
coils and any nearby components of wiring. Only a tiny amount of capacitance is needed at RF and
higher frequencies for electrostatic fields to transfer voltages to or from the transformer.
Fig 11.5.4 How a Screening Can Works.
To reduce interference caused by electromagnetism, especially at high frequencies, transformers
working at RF and above are normally completely surrounded by a metal screening can, which
provides a preferred low magnetic reluctance path for any external magnetic fields to flow through,
rather than flowing through the transformer itself.
To reduce electrostatic effects, screening cans must also have

a very low electrical resistivity and are connected to either the
equipment ground potential, or to true earth. Any electrostatic
fields are then effectively conducted away from the
transformer. Metals normally used for conductors or for
transformer cores possess one, but not both of these
properties, therefore special metal alloys are used for
screening cans that combine low resistivity and low
reluctance. Two commonly used alloys go under the
commercial names of "Mu-metal" and "Permalloy"
Fig 11.5.4

Module 11.6 Transformers Quiz

• After studying Module 11, you should:
Try our quiz, based on the information you
• Be able to describe basic transformer operation.
can find in Module 11. Check your answers
• Be able to describe the operation of transformer cores. on line at
http://www.learnabout-
• Be able to carry out calculations transformers, involving electronics.org/ac_theory/transformers06.p
turns ratio, reluctance, permeability, transformation ratio, hp
impedance matching and volts per turn.
• Be able to describe practical applications for transformers,

involving power, audio and RF transformers.
1.
What is the primary voltage applied to the transformer illustrated in
Fig 11.6.1?
a) 90V b) 18V c) 62.5V d) 0.4V
2.
What is the value of current flowing through the resistor R in Fig 11.6.2?
a) 240mA b) 6.7mA c) 18mA d) 125mA
3.
Which solution from the following may be used to overcome hysteresis losses in
power transformers?
a) Low resistivity copper windings.

b) Low reluctance steel cores.
c) Laminated steel cores.
d) Soft Iron cores.
4.
Flux linkage between primary and secondary windings of a transformer is proportional to which of the following?
a) Cross sectional area of the core and the length of the flux path.
b) Cross sectional area and Permeability of the core.
c) Cross sectional area and Reluctance of the core.
d) Permeability of the core and the length of the flux path.

5.
Refer to the diagram of an autotransformer in Fig. 11.6.3.
If the voltage across A and D is 230V, what will be the voltage across A and B?
a) 20V b) 4.6V c) 9.6V d) 11.5V
6.
What will be the approximate turns ratio of a transformer matching a microphone of 60Ω impedance to the 47kΩ
input impedance of an amplifier?
a) 1:108 b) 1:78 c) 1:35 d) 1:28
7.
Which of the following would be the most important property of the material, used for an electromagnetic shield
around a RF transformer?
a) Low reluctance.
b) Low resistivity.
c) Low conductance.
d) Low permeability.
8.
Refer to the diagram of a transformer having a continuously wound, centre tapped
secondary winding in Fig. 11.6.4: What is the relationship between voltages across AB
and BC when B is used as the common terminal?
a) AB and BC are equal and in anti phase.

b) AB is twice BC and in phase.
c) AB is half BC and in phase.
d) AB and BC are equal and in phase.
9.
Refer to Fig 11.6.4:
What is the voltage between A and C when B is connected to 0V?
a) 30V b) 15V c) 7.5V d) 0V
10.
How are eddy current losses reduced in AF and RF transformers?
a) By using air cores.

b) By using shell cores.
c) By using laminated cores.
d) By using ferrite cores.

Ac Theory

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Module

Section 1.1 AC Waves

Recognise common uses for AC

Recognise a sine wave

Section 1.2 Measuring the Sine Wave

Know measurements associated with sine waves

a. Peak to peak value.

Section 1.3 AC Waves Quiz

Recall information on AC waves.

AC THEORY MODULE 01.PDF 1 © E COATES 2007 -2010

Module 1 − Introduction to AC Waves.

Complex Signal Waveforms

These alternating currents and voltages come in very many forms,

The Sine Wave

Many signal waves tend to be repetitive, or "periodic". They repeat

Module 1.1 AC Waves

AC THEORY MODULE 01.PDF 3 © E. COATES 2007 -2010

• The Square wave:

• The Triangular wave:

• The Saw-tooth wave:

The SQUARE WAVE

The TRIANGULAR WAVE

The saw tooth wave contains a fundamental and both ODD

Fig 1.1.5 Harmonic Distortion

In practice however it is possible to

AC THEORY MODULE 01.PDF 5 © E. COATES 2007 -2010

Module 1.2 Measuring the Sine Wave.

Six of the most important characteristics of a sine wave are;

• The PEAK TO PEAK value.

• The PEAK value.

• The PERIODIC TIME.

• The AVERAGE value.

• The RMS value.

These characteristics are illustrated in Fig 1.2.1

Peak to Peak value

The AMPLITUDE of a sine wave is the maximum

The PEAK value of the wave is the highest value the

Fig 1.2.2 Defining the Peak value VPK

AC THEORY MODULE 01.PDF 6 © E. COATES 2007 -2010

Periodic Time & Frequency

Determining the Average Value of a Sine Wave

The Average Value.

Using only half a cycle, as illustrated in Fig 1.2.3 the

VAV = VPK x 0.637

IAV = IPK X 0.637

The RMS or Root Mean Squared Value

VRMS = VPK x 0.707 and IRMS = IPK x 0.707

AC THEORY MODULE 01.PDF 7 © E. COATES 2007 -2010

The Form Factor

The Mains (Line) Supply

Electrical equipment that connects to the mains supply

a. The peak voltage of the waveform, as VPK = VRMS x 1.414

b. The AVERAGE value of the waveform, as VAV = VPK x 0.637

d. The PERIODIC TIME which is given by T =1/ƒ

AC THEORY MODULE 01.PDF 8 © E. COATES 2007 -2010

Module 1.3 AC Waves Quiz

After studying Module 1, you should:

Be able to describe measurements used in AC electronics

Be able to calculate AC values from other given values,

a) 33.9V b) 8.484V c) 16.9V d) 15.3V

a) 19V b) 9.5V c) 21.2V d) 23.5V

3. Select the most accurate description of an AC signal

a) An AC signal is any complex wave