Analogue Lab Manual AL7212 V2.1-Panduan Praktek DSR Elektronika PDF

Analogue Lab Manual
AL7212
124 Anglesey Court

Towers Business Park
Rugeley
Staffordshire
WS15 1UL
United Kingdom
Tel: +44 (0)8456 123155
Fax: +44 (0)8456 123156
Email: sales@bytronic.co.uk
Website: www.bytronic.net
Contents
Introduction to Analogue Lab 7212 Main Board
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 1
Technical Specifications ................................................................................................................... 1
Function of Various Block ................................................................................................................ 2
Operating Instructions & Panel Control Description ........................................................................ 2
Exercises for Experiment Boards
AL01 - Silicon, Zener, LED Diode Characteristics .......................................................................... 5
AL02 - Common Base NPN Transistor Characteristics .................................................................. 16
AL03 - Common Base PNP Transistor Characteristics .................................................................. 26
AL04 - Common Emitter NPN Transistor Characteristics ............................................................. 37
AL05 - Common Emitter PNP Transistor Characteristics .............................................................. 47
AL06 - Common Collector NPN Transistor Characteristics........................................................... 57
AL07 - Common Collector PNP Transistor Characteristics ........................................................... 67
AL08 - N-Channel FET Characteristics .......................................................................................... 77
AL15 - Common Emitter Amplifier ............................................................................................... 88
AL16 - Common Collector Amplifier............................................................................................. 98
AL17 - Common Base Amplifier.................................................................................................. 108
AL31 - Zener Voltage Regulator .................................................................................................. 118
AL32 - Transistor Series Voltage Regulator ................................................................................. 128
AL33 - Transistor Shunt Voltage Regulator ................................................................................. 139
AL51 - Low Pass - High Pass Active Filters ................................................................................ 149
AL52 - Active Band Pass Filter .................................................................................................... 160
AL65 - Phase Shift Oscillator ....................................................................................................... 167
AL66 - Wien Bridge Oscillator..................................................................................................... 175
AL67 - Colpitt Oscillator .............................................................................................................. 181
AL81 - Kirchoff’s Laws (KCL & KVL) ....................................................................................... 192
AL82 - Thévenin’s Theorem, Maximum Power Transfer Theorem ............................................. 199
AL83 - Reciprocity Theorem, Superposition Theorem ................................................................ 207
Exercises using solder less Breadboards and Components
(Components available from Bytronic but not supplied as standard)
EX01 - Diodes in DC Circuits ...................................................................................................... 215
EX02 - Light Emitting Diodes in DC Circuits .............................................................................. 216
EX03 - Half Wave Rectifier.......................................................................................................... 217
EX04 - Full Wave Rectifier .......................................................................................................... 218
EX05 - Zener Diode as a Voltage Regulator ................................................................................ 219
EX06 - Transistor Series Voltage Regulator ................................................................................. 220
EX07 - Transistor Shunt Voltage Regulator ................................................................................. 222
EX08 - Low Pass Filter ................................................................................................................. 224
EX09 - High Pass Filter ................................................................................................................ 225
EX10 - Band Pass Filter ................................................................................................................ 226
EX11 - CE Configuration of an NPN Transistor .......................................................................... 227
EX12 - CB Configuration of an NPN Transistor .......................................................................... 228
EX13 - CE Amplifier Circuit ........................................................................................................ 229
EX14 - Mono-stable Multi-vibrator using Transistor ................................................................... 230
EX15 - Bi-stable Multi-vibrator using Transistor ......................................................................... 231
EX16 - A-stable Multi-vibrator using Transistor .......................................................................... 232
© Bytronic Limited AL7212 i

© Bytronic Limited ii Analogue Lab Manual
Introduction
The Analogue Lab can be used to perform analogue circuit experiments; these units are useful
in environments such as Universities and Colleges. The unit can also be used for testing and
compiling projects related to Analogue Electronics.
The Analogue Lab consists of the following equipment:
DC Power Supply
AC Voltage
Function Generator
Modulation Generator
Continuity Tester
Toggle Switch
Potentiometer
23 Additional Experiment Boards
Technical Specifications:
DC Power Supplies : +5V, 1A (fixed)

+12V, 500mA (fixed)
-12V, 500mA (fixed)
+12V, 500mA (variable)
-12V, 500mA (variable)
AC Supply : 9V-0V-9V, 500mA
Breadboard : Breadboard for making various circuits and testing
them. External components can be fitted
conveniently (not supplied as standard)
Function Generator : Operating modes: Sine, Square, Triangle.
Frequency Range 1 Hz to 100 KHz
Modulation / Audio Generator : Operating modes: Sine, Square, Triangle.
Frequency Range 1 Hz to 10 KHz
Continuity Tester : For testing the continuity, provided with a beeper
sound.
Power Requirements : 230V ± 10%, 50 Hz
Power Consumption : 13VA (approximately)
© Bytronic Limited AL7212 1

Functions of Various Blocks:
DC Power Supply : Block provides fixed DC output of +4V, +12V, -

12V and variable DC output from 0V to +12V and
0V to -12V.
AC Voltage : Block provides 9V-0V-9V AC.
Function Generator : Generates Sine, Square, Triangular waveform of
frequency range 1 Hz to 100 KHz.
Modulation Generator : Generates Sine, Square, Triangular waveform of
frequency range 1 Hz to 10 KHz.
Toggle Switch : Two toggle switches are provided for switching
purpose in electronic circuits.
Potentiometer : Potentiometers of 1K and 100K are provided as
variable resistances.
Continuity Tester : Used to check continuity between test points with
beeper sound.
Operating Instruction and Panel Control Description:
The Analogue Lab is equipped with a built in DC power supply, when the ON/OFF switch of
the trainer is turned ON, the power switch will light indicating that the trainer is ON. When
the +12V and -12V potentiometers of DC power supply are in the fully clockwise position,
full voltage of +12V and -12V is obtained, the potentiometers can be varied to achieve
variable positive and negative supply from 0 to +12V and 0 to -12V. The potentiometers of
the function and modulation generator are used for the fine setting of frequency waveforms.
The amplitude potentiometer is used to vary amplitude of sine, square and triangular wave.
The wave switch is used to vary frequency from 10 Hz to 100 KHz and 10 Hz to 10 KHz in
variable steps of function and modulation generator. The Var potentiometer can be used to
obtain frequencies below 10 Hz, the function switch is used to select sine, square and
triangular waveforms. Potentiometers of 1K and 100K are provided to vary resistance from
zero to respective values.

Exercises for Experiment Boards

AL7212-AL01 (Si, Zener, LED) Diode Characteristics
Introduction:
AL01 is a Diode Characteristics experiment board. This is useful for students to plot V-I
characteristics of Si Diode, Zener Diode, and light Emitting Diode in forward as well as in
reverse bias region of operation. It can be used as a stand-alone unit with external DC power
supply or can be used with Analogue Lab 7212 that has built in DC power supply, AC power
supply, function generator, modulation generator, continuity tester, toggle switches and
potentiometer.
Theory:
A diode is an electrical device allowing current to move through it in one direction with far
greater ease than in the other. The most common type of diode in modern circuit design is the
semiconductor diode, although other diode technologies exist. Semiconductor diodes are
symbolized in schematic diagrams as shown below
When placed in a simple battery-lamp circuit, the diode will either allow or prevent current
through the lamp, depending on the polarity of the applied voltage:
When the polarity of the battery is such that electrons are allowed to flow through the diode,
the diode is said to be forward-biased. Conversely, when the battery is "backward" and the
diode blocks current, the diode is said to be reverse-biased. A diode may be thought of as a
kind of switch: "closed" when forward-biased and "open" when reverse-biased.

V/I Characteristic:
The static voltage-current characteristics for a P-N Junction diode are shown in Fig 3.
Fig 3
Forward characteristic: When the diode is in forward-biased and the applied voltage is
increased from zero, hardly any current flows through the device initially. This is so because
the external voltage is being opposed by the internal barrier voltage VB whose value is 0.7 V
for Si and 0.3 V for Ge. As soon as VB is neutralized, current through the diode increases
rapidly with the increasing applied supply voltage. It is found that as little a voltage as 1.0 V
produces a forward current of about 50mA.
Reverse Characteristic: When the diode is reverse-biased, majority carrier are blocked and
only a small current (due to minority carrier) flows through the diode. As the reverse voltage
is increased from zero, the reverse current very quickly reaches its maximum or saturation
value Io that is also known as leakage current. It is of the order of nano amperes (nA) and
microamperes (μA) for Ge. As seen from Fig.3, when reverse voltage exceeds a certain value
called breakdown voltage VBR, the leakage current suddenly and sharply increases, the curve
indicating zero resistance at this point.
Zener Diode:
The Zener Diode is the reverse-biased heavily doped silicon (or germanium) P-N Junction
diode that is operated in the breakdown region where current is limited by both external
resistance and power dissipation of the diode. Silicon is preferred to diode because of its
higher temperature and current capability. Zener breakdown occurs due to breaking of
covalent bonds by the strong electric field set up in the depletion region by the reverse
voltage. It produces an extremely large number of electrons and holes, which constitute the
reverse saturation current (called Zener current Iz) whose value is limited only by the external
resistance in the circuit.

V / I characteristic:
Fig 4 shows typical characteristics in the negative quadrant. The forward characteristic is
simply that of an ordinary forward-biased junction diode. The important points of the reverse
characteristic are Vz = Zener breakdown voltage. Iz min = Minimum current to sustain
breakdown Izmax = Maximum Zener current limited by, maximum power dissipation. Since
its reverse characteristic is not exactly vertical, the diode possesses some resistance called
Zener dynamic impedance. Its value is given by Zz = ΔVz / Δiz. Zener diodes are available
with Zener voltages of 2.4V to 200V. This voltage is temperature dependent. The product Vz,
Iz, gives their power dissipation. Maximum rating varies from 150mV to 50W.
Fig 4
For correct operation of a Zener diode in any circuit, it is essential that it must (a) be reverse-
biased, (b) have voltage across it greater than Vz, and (c) be in a circuit where current is less
than Izmax.
Light-emitting diodes:
Diodes, like all semiconductor devices, are governed by the principles described in quantum
physics. One of these principles is the emission of specific-frequency radiant energy
whenever electrons fall from a higher energy level to a lower energy level. A diode
intentionally designed to glow like a lamp is called a light-emitting diode, or LED. Diodes
made from a combination of the elements gallium, arsenic and phosphorus (called gallium-
arsenide-phosphide) glow bright red, and are some of the most common LEDs manufactured.
By altering the chemical constituency of the PN junction, different colours may be obtained.
Some of the currently available colours other than red are green, blue, and infrared (invisible
light at a frequency lower than red). Other colours may be obtained by combining two or
more primary-colour (red, green and blue).

The schematic symbol for an LED is a regular diode shape inside of a circle, with two small
arrows pointing away (indicating emitted light):
Fig 5
This notation of having two small arrows pointing away from the device is common to the
schematic symbols of all light-emitting semiconductor devices. Conversely, if a device is light
activated (meaning that incoming light stimulates it), then the symbol will have two small
arrows pointing toward it. It is interesting to note, though, that LEDs are capable of acting as
light-sensing devices: they will generate a small voltage when exposed to light, much like a
solar cell on a small scale. This property can be gainfully applied in a variety of light-sensing
circuits.
Because LEDs are made of different chemical substances than normal rectifying diodes, their
forward voltage drops will be different. Typically, LEDs have much larger forward voltage
drops than rectifying diodes, anywhere from about 1.6 volts to over 3 volts, depending on the
colour. Typical operating current for a standard-sized LED is around 20 mA. When operating
an LED from a DC voltage source greater than the LED's forward voltage, a series-connected
"dropping" resistor must be included to prevent full source voltage from damaging the LED.
An LED starts emitting light as its forward voltage reaches a particular level and its intensity
will increase further with the increase in applied forward voltage. LEDs emit no light when
reverse biased. In fact, operating LEDs in reverse direction will quickly destroy them if the
applied voltage is quite large. LEDs V-I characteristic curve is shown in Fig 5.
Characteristics of LED
Fig 6

Experiment 1:
Object: To study the characteristics of Silicon diode in:
1. Forward bias
2. Reverse bias
Apparatus required:
1. Analogue board AL01.

2. DC power supplies +12V from external source or 7212 Analogue Lab
3. Digital multimeter (2 off).
Circuit diagram: Circuit used to plot different characteristics of Si diode as shown in Fig 6.
Fig 6
Procedure:
1. Connect +12V dc power supply to the indicated terminals from external source or
7212 Analogue Lab.
2. To plot forward characteristics proceed as follows:
• Rotate potentiometer P1 fully anti clockwise
• Connect ammeter between test points 2 and 8 to measure diode current
ID(mA).
• Connect voltmeter between test points 1 and 9 to measure voltage VD diode
• Switch ON the power supply.
• Vary the potentiometer P1 to increase the value of diode voltage VD from zero
to 1V in steps and record the corresponding values of diode current ID in
observation table 1.
• Plot a curve between diode voltage VD and diode current ID as shown in Fig3
(First quadrant) using a suitable scale with the help of observation table 1.
This curve is the required forward characteristics of Si diode.

Observation Table 1
Step Diode
Diode current ID(mA)
Number Voltage(VD
1 0.0V
2 0.1V
3 0.2V
4 0.3V
5 0.4V
6 0.5V
7 0.6V
8 0.7V
9 0.8V
10 0.9V
11 1.0V
1. To plot Reverse characteristics of a Si diode proceed as follows

• Rotate potentiometer P1 fully in anti-clockwise.
ID(nA).
to 10V in steps and record the corresponding values of diode current ID in
observation table 2
• Plot a curve between diode voltage VD and diode current ID as shown in Fig3
(third quadrant) using a suitable scale with the help of observation table 2.
This curve is the required reverse characteristics of the Si diode.
Observation Table 2
Step
Diode Voltage (VD) Diode current ID (nA)
Number
1 0.0V
2 1.0V
3 2.0V
4 3.0V
5 4.0V
6 5.0V
7 6.0V
8 7.0V
9 8.0V
10 9.0V
11 10.0V

Experiment 2:
Object: To study the characteristics of Zener diode in:
1. Forward bias
2. Reverse bias
Apparatus required:

2. DC power supply +12V from external source or 7212 Analogue Lab.
Circuit diagram:
Circuit used to plot different characteristics of Zener diode is shown in Fig 6.
Procedure:
7212 Analogue Lab.
2. To plot Forward characteristics proceed as follows:
Iz(mA).
• Connect voltmeter between test points 1 and 9 to measure voltage VZ diode
• Vary the potentiometer P1 to increase the value of Zener voltage Vz from
zero to 0.8 in steps and record the corresponding values of diode current Iz in
• Plot a curve between diode voltage Vz and diode current Iz as shown in Fig4
(first quadrant) using a suitable scale with the help of observation table 1.
This curve is the required forward characteristics of Zener diode.

Observation Table 1:
Step Diode
Diode current Iz(mA)
Number Voltage(Vz)
1 0.0V
2 0.1V
3 0.2V
4 0.3V
5 0.4V
6 0.5V
7 0.6V
8 0.7V
9 0.8V
1. To plot Reverse characteristics of a Zener diode proceed as follows

Iz(mA).
• Connect voltmeter between test points 1 and 9 to measure voltage Vz diode
to 12V in steps and record the corresponding values of diode current Iz in
observation table 2
• Plot a curve between diode voltage Vz and diode current Iz as shown in Fig 4
(third quadrant) using a suitable scale with the help of observation table 2.
This curve is the required reverse characteristics of Zener diode.
Step Diode
Diode current Iz(mA)
Number Voltage(Vz)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Experiment 3:
Object: To study the characteristics of Light emitting diode (LED) in

1. Forward bias
2. Reverse bias
Apparatus required:
2. DC power supply +12V from external source or 7212 Analogue Lab.
Circuit diagram:
Circuit used to plot different characteristics of Light Emitting Diode (LED) is shown in Fig 6.
Procedure:
7212 Analogue Lab.
2. To plot forward characteristics proceed as follows:
ID(mA).
to maximum in steps and record the corresponding values of diode current ID
in observation table 1.
• Also, consider the effect on light intensity with the change in diode voltage
and diode current.
• Plot a curve between diode voltage VD and diode current ID as shown in Fig 5
using a suitable scale with the help of observation table 1. This curve is the
required forward characteristics of Light emitting diode.

Step Diode
Number Voltage(VD)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1. To plot Reverse characteristics proceed as follows:

ID(uA)
to maximum in steps and record the corresponding values of diode current ID
in observation table 2.
• Plot a curve between diode voltage VD and diode current ID as shown in Fig 5
(Third quadrant) using a suitable scale with the help of observation table 2.
This curve is the required reverse characteristics of light emitting diode.
Step Diode
Number Voltage(VD)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Notes:

AL7212-AL02 Common Base NPN Transistor Characteristics
Introduction:
AL02 is a Transistor Characteristics experiment board. This is useful for students to plot
different characteristics of an NPN transistor in common base configuration and to understand
various regions of operation of an NPN transistor. It can be used as a stand-alone unit with
external DC power supply or can be used with Analogue Lab 7212 that has built in DC power
supply, AC power supply, function generator, modulation generator, continuity tester, toggle
switches and potentiometer.
Theory:
Transistor characteristics are the curves, which represent the relationship between the
different dc currents and voltages of a transistor. These are helpful in studying the operation
of a transistor when connected in a circuit. The three important characteristics of a transistor
are:
• Input characteristic.
• Output characteristic.
• Constant current transfer characteristic.
Input characteristic:
In common base configuration, this is the curve plotted between the input current (IE) versus
input voltage (VBE) for various constant values of output voltage (VCB).
The approximated plot for the input characteristic is shown in Fig 1. This characteristic
reveals that for fixed values of output voltage VCB, as the base to emitter voltage increases, the
emitter current increases in a manner that closely resembles the diode characteristics.
Fig 1

Output characteristic:
This is the curve plotted between the output current IC versus output voltage VCB for various
constant values of input current IE.
The output characteristic has three basic regions of interest as indicated in Fig 2: the active
region, the cut-off region and the saturation region. In the active region, the collector-base
junction is reverse biased while the base-emitter junction is forward biased. This region is
normally employed in a linear (undistorted) amplifier. In the cut-off region the collector-base
junction and base-emitter junction of the transistor are both reverse biased. In this region, the
transistor acts as an OFF switch. In the saturation region, the collector-base junction and base-
emitter junction of the transistor are both forward biased. In this region transistor acts as an
ON switch.
Fig 2
Constant current transfer characteristic:
This is the curve plotted between output collector current IC versus input emitter current IE for
constant values of output voltage VCB.
The approximated plot for this characteristic is shown in Fig 3.
Fig 3

Experiment:
Object: To study the characteristics of an NPN transistor in common base configuration and
to evaluate:
• Input resistance
• Output resistance
• Current gain
Apparatus required:
• Analogue board AL02.

• DC power supplies +12V, -5V from external source or 7212 Analogue Lab.
• Digital multimeter (3 off).
• 2mm patch cords.
Circuit diagram:
Circuit used to plot different characteristics of transistor is shown in Fig 4.
Fig 4

Procedure:
1. Connect -5V and +12V dc power supplies to the indicated terminals from external
source or 7212 Analogue Lab.
2. To plot input characteristics proceed as follows:
• Rotate potentiometers P1 and P2 fully anti clockwise
• Connect ammeter between test points 2 and 3 to measure input emitter
current IE(mA).
• Connect a 2mm patch cord between test points 4 and 5
• Connect voltmeter between test points 1 and ground to measure input voltage
VBE and another voltmeter between test points 6 and ground to measure
output voltage VCB.
• Vary potentiometer P2 and set a value of output voltage VCB at some constant
values (1V, 2V,..)
• Vary the potentiometer P1 to increase the value of input voltage VBE from
zero to 0.9V in steps and record the corresponding values of input current IE
for different constant values of output voltage VCB in observation table 1.
• Rotate potentiometer P1 fully in CCW direction.
• Repeat the procedure from step 6 for different sets of output voltage VCB.
• Plot a curve between input voltage VBE and input current IE as shown in Fig 1
required input characteristic.
Input Input current IE(mA) at constant values of

Step output voltage
voltage
Number
VBE VCB =1V VCB =3V VCB =5V
1 0.0V
2 0.1V
3 0.2V
4 0.3V
5 0.4V
6 0.5V
7 0.6V
8 0.7V
9 0.8V
10 0.9V
To plot output characteristics proceed as follows:

• Switch OFF the power supply.
• Connect voltmeter between test points 6 and ground to measure output
voltage VCB.
• Connect ammeter between test points 2 and 3 to measure input current
IE(mA) and another ammeter between test points 4 and 5 to measure output
current IC(mA).
• Vary potentiometer P1 and set a value of input current IE at some constant
values (0mA, 1mA…)
• Vary the potentiometer P2 to increase the value of output voltage VCB from
zero to maximum value in steps and record the corresponding values of

output current IC for different constant values of input current IE in
• Repeat the procedure from step 6 for different sets of input current IE.
• Plot a curve between output voltage VCB and output current IC as shown in Fig
2 using a suitable scale with the help of observation table 2. This curve is the
required output characteristic.
Output current IC (mA) at constant values of

Output
Step input current
voltage
Number
VCB IE=0mA IE=1mA IE=2mA IE=3mA IE=4mA
1 -0.1V
2 0.0V
3 0.5V
4 1.0V
5 2.0V
6 3.0V
7 4.0V
8 5.0V
9 6.0V
10 7.0V
To plot constant current transfer characteristics proceed as follows:

• Connect voltmeter between test points 6 and ground to measure output voltage
VCB.
• Connect ammeter between test points 2 and 3 to measure input current IE (mA)
and another ammeter between test points 4 and 5 to measure output current IC
(mA).
• Vary potentiometer P2 and set a value of output voltage VCB at maximum value.
• Vary the potentiometer P1 to increase the value of input current IE from zero to
10 mA in steps and record the corresponding values of output current IC in
• Plot a curve between output current IC and input current IE as shown in Fig 3
required Transfer characteristic.

Step Input current Output current IC(mA) at constant output

Number IE (mA) voltage VCB=10V
1 0.0mA
2 1.0mA
3 2.0mA
4 3.0mA
5 4.0mA
6 5.0mA
7 6.0mA
8 7.0mA
9 8.0mA
10 9.0mA
Calculations:
Input resistance:
This is the ratio of change in the input voltage VBE to change in the input current IE at constant
values of output voltage VCB or it is the reciprocal of the slope obtained from the input
characteristic.
Mathematically
Rin = 1 = 1 = ΔVBE
Slope from input ΔIE /ΔVBE ΔIE at const VCB
characteristic
To calculate input resistance determine the slope from the input characteristic curve obtained
from observation table 1. The reciprocal of this slope will give the required input resistance.
Output resistance:
This is the ratio of change in the output voltage VCB to change in the output current IC at
constant values of input current IE or it is the reciprocal of the slope obtained from the output
characteristic.
Mathematically
Rout = 1 = 1 = ΔVCB
Slope from output ΔIC /ΔVCB ΔIC at constant IE
characteristic
To calculate output resistance determine the slope from the output characteristic curve
obtained from observation table 2. The reciprocal of this slope will give the required output
resistance.

Current gain:
This is the ratio of change in the output current IC to change in the input current IE at constant
values of output voltage VCB or it is the slope obtained from the constant current transfer
characteristic.
It is denoted by αac
Mathematically
αac = Slope of constant current transfer characteristic = ΔIC
ΔIE
To calculate the current gain, determine the slope from the constant current transfer
characteristic curve obtained from observation table 3. This slope is the required current gain.
Results:
Input resistance Rin = ______________

Output resistance Rout = ______________
Current Gain αac = ______________

Datasheet:

Notes:

AL7212-AL03 Common Base PNP Transistor Characteristics
Introduction:
different characteristics of a PNP transistor in common base configuration and to understand
various regions of operation of a PNP transistor. It can be used as a stand-alone unit with
Theory:
are:
In common base configuration, this is the curve plotted between the input current (IE) versus
input voltage (VEB) for various constant values of output voltage (VBC).
reveals that for fixed values of output voltage VBC, as the base to emitter voltage increases, the
Fig 1

This is the curve plotted between the output current IC versus output voltage VBC for various
constant values of input current IE.
region, the cut-off region and the saturation region.
In the active region, the collector-base junction is reverse biased while the base-emitter
junction is forward biased. This region is normally employed in a linear (undistorted)
amplifier.
In the cut-off region the collector-base junction and base-emitter junction of the transistor are
both reverse biased. In this region transistor acts as an OFF switch.
In the saturation region, the collector-base junction and base-emitter junction of the transistor
are both forward biased. In this region transistor acts as an ON switch.
Fig 2
This is the curve plotted between output collector current IC versus input emitter current IE for
constant values of output voltage VBC.

Fig 3

Experiment:
Object: To study the characteristics of a PNP transistor in common base configuration and to
evaluate:
• Current gain
Apparatus required:

• DC power supplies -12V, +5V from external source or 7212 Analogue Lab.
Circuit diagram:
Fig 4

Procedure:
1. Connect +5V and -12V dc power supplies to the indicated terminals from external
• Connect ammeter between test points 2 and 3 to measure input emitter current
IE(mA).
VEB and another voltmeter between test points 6 and ground to measure output
voltage VBC.
• Vary potentiometer P2 and set a value of output voltage VBC at some constant
values (1V, 2V,..)
• Vary the potentiometer P1 to increase the value of input voltage VEB from zero to
0.9V in steps and record the corresponding values of input current IE for different
constant values of output voltage VBC in observation table 1.
• Repeat the procedure from step 6 for different sets of output voltage VBC.
• Plot a curve between input voltage VEB and input current IE as shown in Fig 1
Input Input current IE(mA) at constant values of output

Step
voltage voltage
Number
VEB VBC =1V VBC =3V VBC =5V
1 0.0V
2 0.1V
3 0.2V
4 0.3V
5 0.4V
6 0.5V
7 0.6V
8 0.7V
9 0.8V
10 0.9V
1. To plot output characteristics proceed as follows:

VBC.
• Connect ammeter between test points 2 and 3 to measure input current IE(mA)
and another ammeter between test points 4 and 5 to measure output current
IC(mA).
• Vary potentiometer P1 and set a value of input current IE at some constant values
(0mA, 1mA…)

• Vary the potentiometer P2 to increase the value of output voltage VBC from zero
to maximum value in steps and record the corresponding values of output current
IC for different constant values of input current IE in observation table 2.
• Plot a curve between output voltage VBC and output current IC as shown in Fig 2

Output
Step input current
voltage
Number
VCB IE=0mA IE=1mA IE=2mA IE=3mA IE=4mA
1 -0.1V
2 0.0V
3 0.5V
4 1.0V
5 2.0V
6 3.0V
7 4.0V
8 5.0V
9 6.0V
10 7.0V
1. To plot constant current transfer characteristics proceed as follows:

VBC.
(mA).
• Vary potentiometer P2 and set a value of output voltage VBC at maximum value.
• Vary the potentiometer P1 to increase the value of input current IE from zero to
10 mA in steps and record the corresponding values of output current IC in
• Plot a curve between output current IC and input current IE as shown in Fig 3

Step Input current Output current IC(mA) at constant output

Number IE (mA) voltage =10V
1 0.0mA
2 1.0mA
3 2.0mA
4 3.0mA
5 4.0mA
6 5.0mA
7 6.0mA
8 7.0mA
9 8.0mA
10 9.0mA
Calculations:
Input resistance:
This is the ratio of change in the input voltage VEB to change in the input current IE at constant
values of output voltage VBC or it is the reciprocal of the slope obtained from the input
characteristic.
Mathematically
Rin = 1 = 1 = ΔVEB
Slope from input ΔIE /ΔVEB ΔIE at const VBC
characteristic
Output resistance:
This is the ratio of change in the output voltage VBC to change in the output current IC at
characteristic.
Mathematically
Rout = 1 = 1 = ΔVBC
Slope from output ΔIC /ΔVBC ΔIC at constant IE
characteristic
resistance.

Current gain:
This is the ratio of change in the output current IC to change in the input current IE at constant
values of output voltage VBC or it is the slope obtained from the constant current transfer
characteristic.
It is denoted by γac
Mathematically
αac = Slope of constant current transfer characteristic = ΔIC
ΔIE
Results:


Datasheet:

Notes:

AL7212-AL04 Common Emitter NPN Transistor Characteristics
Introduction:
AL04 is a compact, ready to use Transistor Characteristics experiment board. This is useful
for students to plot different characteristics of an NPN transistor in common base
configuration and to understand various regions of operation of a PNP transistor. It can be
used as a stand-alone unit with external DC power supply or can be used with Analogue Lab
7212 that has built in DC power supply, AC power supply, function generator, modulation
generator, continuity tester, toggle switches and potentiometer.
Theory:
are:
In common emitter configuration, this is the curve plotted between the input current (IB)
versus input voltage (VBE) for various constant values of output voltage (VCE).
reveals that for a fixed value of output voltage VCE, as the base to emitter voltage increases,
the emitter current increases in a manner that closely resembles the diode characteristics.
Fig 1

This is the curve plotted between the output current IC versus output voltage VCE for various
constant values of input current IB.
amplifier.
Fig 2
This is the curve plotted between output collector current IC versus input base current IB for
constant values of output voltage VCE.
Fig 3

Experiment:
Object: To study the characteristics of an NPN transistor in common emitter configuration

and to evaluate:
• Current gain
Apparatus required:

• DC power supplies +12V, +5V from external source or 7212 Analogue Lab.
Circuit diagram:
Fig 4

Procedure:
1. Connect +5V and +12V dc power supplies to the indicated terminals from external
• Connect ammeter between test points 2 and 3 to measure input base current
IB(uA).
VBE and another voltmeter between test points 6 and ground to measure output
voltage VCE.
• Vary potentiometer P2 and set a value of output voltage VCE at some constant
values (1V, 3V,..)
• Vary the potentiometer P1 to increase the value of input voltage VBE from zero to
0.8V in steps and record the corresponding values of input current IB for different
constant values of output voltage VCE in observation table 1.
• Repeat the procedure from step 6 for different sets of output voltage VCE.
• Plot a curve between input voltage VBE and input current IB as shown in Fig 1
Input Input current IB(µA) at constant value of

Step
voltage output voltage
Number
VBE VCE = 1V VCE = 3V VCE =5V
1 0.0V
2 0.1V
3 0.2V
4 0.3V
5 0.4V
6 0.5V
7 0.6V
8 0.7V
9 0.8V

VCE.
• Connect ammeter between test points 2 and 3 to measure input current IB(uA)
IC(mA).
• Vary potentiometer P1 and set a value of input current IB at some constant values
(0uA, 10uA……100uA)
• Vary the potentiometer P2 to increase the value of output voltage VCE from zero
IC for different constant values of input current IB in observation table 2

• Plot a curve between output voltage VCE and output current IC as shown in Fig 2
Output Output current IC (mA) at constant value of

Step input current
voltage
Number
VCE IB = 0µA IB=10µA IB=20µA IB=30µA IB=40µA
1 0.0V
2 0.5V
3 1.0V
4 2.0V
5 3.0V
6 4.0V
7 5.0V
8 6.0V
9 7.0V
10 8.0V
1. To plot constant current transfer characteristics proceed as follows:

• Connect voltmeter between test points 6 and ground to measure output voltage VCB.
• Connect ammeter between test points 2 and 3 to measure input current IE (mA) and
another ammeter between test points 4 and 5 to measure output current IC (mA).
• Vary potentiometer P2 and set a value of output voltage VCB at maximum value.
• Vary the potentiometer P1 to increase the value of input current IE from zero to 10 mA
in steps and record the corresponding values of output current IC in observation table
3.
• Plot a curve between output current IC and input current IE as shown in Fig 3 using a
suitable scale with the help of observation table 3. This curve is the required Transfer
characteristic.

Step Input current Output Current Ic (Ma) At Constant

Number IB (µA) Output Voltage Vce = Maximum
1 00.0µA
2 10.0µA
3 20.0µA
4 30.0µA
5 40.0µA
6 50.0µA
7 60.0µA
8 70.0µA
9 80.0µA
10 90.0µA
11 100.0µA
Calculations:
Input resistance:
This is the ratio of change in the input voltage VBE to change in the input current IE at constant
values of output voltage VCB or it is the reciprocal of the slope obtained from the input
characteristic.
Mathematically
Rin = 1 = 1 = ΔVBE
Slope from input ΔIE /ΔVBE ΔIE at constant VCB
characteristic
Output resistance:
This is the ratio of change in the output voltage VCB to change in the output current IC at
characteristic.
Mathematically
Rout = 1 = 1 = ΔVCB
Slope from output ΔIC /ΔVCB ΔIC at constant IE
characteristic
resistance.

Current gain:
This is the ratio of change in the output current IC to change in the input current IE at
constant values of output voltage VCB or it is the slope obtained from the constant
current transfer characteristic. It is denoted by βac
Mathematically
βac = Slope of constant current transfer characteristic = ΔIC
ΔIE
Results:

Current Gain βac = ______________

Datasheet:

Notes:

AL7212-AL05 Common Emitter PNP Transistor Characteristics
Introduction:
different characteristics of a PNP transistor in common emitter configuration and to
understand various regions of operation of a PNP transistor. It can be used as a stand-alone
unit with external DC power supply or can be used with Analogue Lab 7212 that has built in
DC power supply, AC power supply, function generator, modulation generator, continuity
tester, toggle switches and potentiometer.
Theory:
are:
In common emitter configuration, this is the curve plotted between the input current (IB)
versus input voltage (VEB) for various constant values of output voltage (VEC).
reveals that for fixed values of output voltage VEC, as the base to emitter voltage increases, the
Fig 1

This is the curve plotted between the output current IC versus output voltage VEC for various
amplifier.
Fig 2
This is the curve plotted between output collector current IC versus input base current IB for
constant values of output voltage VEC.
Fig 3

Experiment:
Object: To study the characteristics of a PNP transistor in common emitter configuration and
to evaluate:
• Current gain
Apparatus required:

• DC power supplies -12V, -5V from external source or 7212 Analogue Lab.
• 2mm patch cords
Circuit diagram:
Fig 4

Procedure:
1. Connect -5V and -12V dc power supplies to the indicated terminals from external
IB(uA).
• Connect a 2mm patch cord between test points 4 and 5.
VEB and another voltmeter between test points 6 and ground to measure output
voltage VEC.
• Vary potentiometer P2 and set a value of output voltage VEC at some constant
values (1V, 3V,..)
• Vary the potentiometer P1 to increase the value of input voltage VEB from zero to
0.8V in steps and record the corresponding values of input current IB for different
constant values of output voltage VEC in observation table 1.
• Repeat the procedure from step 6 for different sets of output voltage VEC.
• Plot a curve between input voltage VEB and input current IB as shown in Fig 1
Input Input current IB(µA) at constant value of

Step output voltage
voltage
Number VEC = 1V VEC = 3V VEC =5V
VEB
1 0.0V
2 0.1V
3 0.2V
4 0.3V
5 0.4V
6 0.5V
7 0.6V
8 0.7V
9 0.8V

• Connect voltmeter between test points 6 and ground to measure output voltage VEC.
• Connect ammeter between test points 2 and 3 to measure input current IB(uA) and
another ammeter between test points 4 and 5 to measure output current IC(mA).
(0uA, 10uA……100uA)
• Vary the potentiometer P2 to increase the value of output voltage VEC from zero to
maximum value in steps and record the corresponding values of output current IC for
different constant values of input current IB in observation table 2.

• Plot a curve between output voltage VEC and output current IC as shown in Fig 2
using a suitable scale with the help of observation table 2. This curve is the required
output characteristic.
Output current IC (mA) at constant value of

Output
Step input voltage
voltage
Number VEC IB = 0µA IB =10 µA IB =20 mA IB =30 µA IB =40 µA
1 0.0V
2 0.5V
3 1.0V
4 2.0V
5 3.0V
6 4.0V
7 5.0V
8 6.0V
9 7.0V
10 8.0V
1. Plot constant current transfer characteristic proceed as follows:

• Connect voltmeter between test points 6 and ground to measure output voltage VEC.
• Connect ammeter between test points 2 and 3 to measure input current IB (uA) and
another ammeter between test points 4 and 5 to measure output current IC (mA).
• Vary potentiometer P2 and set a value of output voltage VEC at maximum value.
• Vary the potentiometer P1 to increase the value of input current IB from zero to 100
(uA) in steps and record the corresponding values of output current IC (mA) in
• Plot a curve between output current IC and input current IB as shown in Fig 3 using a
suitable scale with the help of observation table 3. This curve is the required transfer
characteristic.

Step Input current Output current IC (mA) at constant output voltage

Number IB (µA) VEC = Max
1 00.0µA
2 10.0µA
3 20.0µA
4 30.0µA
5 40.0µA
6 50.0µA
7 60.0µA
8 70.0µA
9 80.0µA
10 90.0µA
11 100.0µA
Calculations:
Input resistance:
This is the ratio of change in the input voltage VEB to change in the input current IB at constant
values of output voltage VEC or it is the reciprocal of the slope obtained from the input
characteristic.
Mathematically
Rin = 1 = 1 = ΔVEB
Slope from input ΔIB /ΔVEB ΔIB at constant VEC
characteristics
Output resistance:
This is the ratio of change in the output voltage VEC to change in the output current IC at
constant values of input current IB or it is the reciprocal of the slope obtained from the output
characteristic.
Mathematically
Rout = 1 = 1 = ΔVEC
Slope from output ΔIC /ΔVEC ΔIC at constant IB
characteristics
resistance.

Current gain:
Current Gain is the ratio of change in the output current IC to change in the input current IB at
constant values of output voltage VEC or it is the slope obtained from the constant current
transfer characteristic.
It is denoted by βac
Mathematically
βac = Slope of constant current transfer characteristic. = ΔIC
ΔIB
Results:

Current Gain βac = ______________

Datasheet:

Notes:

AL7212-AL06 Common Collector NPN Transistor Characteristics
Introduction:
different characteristics of an NPN transistor in common collector configuration and to
understand various regions of operation of an NPN transistor. It can be used as a stand-alone
Theory:
Transistor characteristics are the curves, which represent the relationship between the different
dc currents and voltages of a transistor. These are helpful in studying the operation of a
transistor when connected in a circuit.
The three important characteristics of a transistor are:
In common collector configuration, this is the curve plotted between the input current (IB)
versus input voltage (VCB) for various constant values of output voltage (VCE).
This characteristic reveals that for fixed values of output voltage VCE, it is quite different from
CB and CE configuration. This difference is because input voltage VCB is largely determined
by the value of VCE. As the collector to base voltage increases, VBE is reduced thereby
reducing IB. The approximated plot for the input characteristic is shown in Fig 1.
Fig 1

This is the curve plotted between the output current IE versus output voltage VCE for various
amplifier.
Fig 2
This is the curve plotted between output emitter current IE versus input base current IB for
Fig 3

Experiment:
Object: To study the characteristics of an NPN transistor in common collector configuration

and to evaluate:
• Current gain
Apparatus required:

• 2mm patch cords
Circuit diagram:
Fig 4

Procedure:
IB(uA).
VCB and another voltmeter between test points 6 and ground to measure output
voltage VCE.
values (4.5V, 5V, 5.5V..)
• Vary the potentiometer P1 to decrease the value of input voltage VCB in steps and
record the corresponding values of input current IB for different constant values
of output voltage VCE in observation table 1.
• Repeat the procedure from step 6 for different sets of output voltage VCE.
• Plot a curve between input voltage VCB and input current IB as shown in Fig 1
Input Input current IB(uA) at constant value of

Step
voltage output voltage
Number
VCB VCE = 4.5V VCE = 5V VCE =5.5V
1 0.0V
2 0.1V
3 0.2V
4 0.3V
5 0.4V
6 0.5V
7 0.6V
8 0.7V
9 0.8V
10 0.9V

VCE.
IE(mA).
(0uA i.e. open input circuit/remove ammeter between test points 2 and 3,10 uA,
20 uA..)

• Vary the potentiometer P2 to increase the value of output voltage VCE from zero
to maximum value in steps and measure the corresponding values of output
current IE for different constant values of input current IB in observation table 2.
• Repeat the procedure from step 6 for different sets of input current IB.
• Plot a curve between output voltage VCE and output current IE as shown in Fig 2
Output current IE (mA) at constant value of

Output
Step input voltage
voltage
Number
VCE IB=10µA IB=10µA IB=20µA IB=30µA IB=40µA
1 0.0V
2 0.5V
3 1.0V
4 2.0V
5 3.0V
6 4.0V
7 5.0V
8 6.0V
9 7.0V
1. To plot constant current transfer characteristic proceed as follows:

• Switch off the power supply.
VCE.
(mA).
• Vary potentiometer P2 and set a value of output voltage VCB at constant values of
3V.
• Vary the potentiometer P1 to increase the value of input current IB in steps and
record the corresponding values of output current IE in observation table 3.
• Plot a curve between output current IE and input current IB as shown in Fig 3

Step Input current Output current IE (mA) at constant

Number IB (µA) output voltage VCE = 3V
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Calculations:
Input resistance:
This is the ratio of change in the input voltage VCB to change in the input current IB at constant
values of output voltage VCE or it is the reciprocal of the slope obtained from the input
characteristic.
Mathematically
Rin = 1 = 1 = ΔVCB
from input ΔIB /ΔVCB ΔIB at constant VCE
Output resistance:
This is the ratio of change in the output voltage VCE to change in the output current IC at
characteristic.
Mathematically
Rout = 1 = 1 = ΔVCE
Slope from output ΔIE/ΔVCE ΔIE at constant IB
Characteristics
resistance.

Current gain:
This is the ratio of change in the output current IE to change in the input current IB at constant
values of output voltage VCE or it is the slope obtained from the constant current transfer
characteristic.
Mathematically
γac = Slope of constant current transfer characteristic = ΔIE

ΔIB
Results:

Current Gain γac = ______________

Datasheet:

Notes:

AL7212-AL07 Common Collector PNP Transistor Characteristics
Introduction:
AL07 is a compact, ready to use Transistor Characteristics experiment board. This is useful
for students to plot different characteristics of a PNP transistor in common collector
configuration and to understand various regions of operation of a PNP transistor. It can be
used as a stand-alone unit with external DC power supply or can be used with Analogue Lab
7212 that has built in DC power supply, AC power supply, function generator, modulation
generator, continuity tester, toggle switches and potentiometer.
Theory:
of a transistor when connected in a circuit.
The three important characteristics of a transistor are:
In common collector configuration, this is the curve plotted between the input current (IB)
versus input voltage (VBC) for various constant values of output voltage (VEC).
This characteristic reveals that for fixed values of output voltage VEC, it is quite different from
CB and CE configuration. This difference is because input voltage VBC is largely determined
by the value of VEC. As the base to collector voltage increases, VBE is reduced thereby
reducing IB. The approximated plot for the input characteristic is shown in Fig 1.
Fig 1

This is the curve plotted between the output current IE versus output voltage VCE for various
amplifier.
Fig 2
This is the curve plotted between output emitter current IE versus input base current IB for
Fig 3

Experiment:
Object: To study the characteristics of a PNP transistor in common collector configuration

and to evaluate:
• Current gain
Apparatus required:

Circuit diagram:
Circuit used to plot different characteristics of transistor is shown in Fig 4
Fig 4

Procedure:
1. Connect -5V and +12V dc power supplies to the indicated terminals from external
IB(uA).
VCB and another voltmeter between test points 6 and ground to measure output
voltage VCE.
values (4.5V, 5V, 5.5V.)
• Vary the potentiometer P1 to decrease the value of input voltage VCB in steps and
record the corresponding values of input current IB for different constant values
of output voltage VCE in observation table 1.
• Repeat the procedure from step 6 for different sets of output voltage VEC.
• Plot a curve between input voltage VBC and input current IB as shown in Fig 1
Input Input current IB(µA) at constant values of output

Step
voltage voltage
Number
VEC VEC =4.5V VEC =5V VEC =5.5V
1 0.0V
2 0.1V
3 0.2V
4 0.3V
5 0.4V
6 0.5V
7 0.6V
8 0.7V
9 0.8V
10 0.9V

VEC.
IE(mA).
(0uA i.e. open input circuit/remove ammeter between test points 2 and 3, 1uA,
2uA.)

• Vary the potentiometer P2 to increase the value of output voltage VEC from zero
IE for different constant values of input current IB in observation table 2.
• Repeat the procedure from step 6 for different sets of input current IB.
• Plot a curve between output voltage VEC and output current IE as shown in Fig 2

Output
Step input current
voltage
Number IB=0µA
VCE IB=10µA IB=20µA IB=30µA IB=40µA
(open)
1 0.0V
2 0.5V
3 1.0V
4 2.0V
5 3.0V
6 4.0V
7 5.0V
8 6.0V
9 7.0V
1. To plot constant current transfer characteristic proceed as follows:

• Switch off the power supply.
VCE.
(mA).
• Vary potentiometer P2 and set a value of output voltage VCB at constant values.
• Vary the potentiometer P1 to increase the value of input current IE in steps and
record the corresponding values of output current IC in observation table 3.
• Plot a curve between output current IE and input current IB as shown in Fig 3

Step Input current Output Current IE (mA) at constant output

Number IB (µA) voltage Vce = 3V
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Calculations:
Input resistance:
This is the ratio of change in the input voltage VBC to change in the input current IB at
constant values of output voltage VEC or it is the reciprocal of the slope obtained from the
input characteristic.
Mathematically
Rin = 1 = 1 = ΔVBC
Slope from input ΔIB /ΔVBC ΔIB at constant VEC
characteristic
Output resistance:
This is the ratio of change in the output voltage VEC to change in the output current IE at
characteristic.
Mathematically
Rout = 1 = 1 = ΔVEC
Slope from output ΔIE/ΔVEC ΔIE at constant IB
Characteristic
resistance.

Current gain:
This is the ratio of change in the output current IE to change in the input current IB at constant
values of output voltage VEC or it is the slope obtained from the constant current transfer
characteristic.
Mathematically
αac = Slope of constant current transfer characteristic = ΔIE

ΔIB
Results:


Datasheet:

Notes:

AL7212-AL08 N Channel FET Characteristics
Introduction:
AL08 is a compact, ready to use FET Characteristics experiment board. This is useful for
students to plot different characteristics of an N channel Field Effect Transistor and to
understand the operation of a FET in different regions. It can be used as a stand-alone unit
with external DC power supply or can be used with Analogue Lab 7212 that has built in DC
power supply, AC power supply, function generator, modulation generator, continuity tester,
toggle switches and potentiometer.
Theory:
FET is a voltage controlled, current device so its characteristics are the curves, which
represent the relationship between the different dc currents and voltages. These are helpful in
studying different regions of operation of a Field effect transistor when connected in a circuit.
The two important characteristics of a Field Effect Transistor are:
• Output/Drain characteristic.
• Transfer characteristic.
Output / Drain characteristics:
This is the curve plotted between output drain current ID versus output drain to source voltage
VDS for constant values of input Gate to source voltage VGS as shown in Fig 1.
Fig 1
This can be subdivided into following four regions:

Ohmic region OA:
This part of the characteristic is linear indicating that for low values of VDS, current varies
directly with voltage following Ohm’s Law. It means that a JFET behaves like an ordinary
resistor until point A (called knee) is reached.
Curve AB:
In this region, ID increases at inverse square law rate up to point B, which is called Pinch-off
point. This progressive fall in the rate of increase of Id is caused by the square law increase in
the depletion region at each gate up to point B, where the two regions are closest without
touching each other. The drain to source voltage VDS corresponding to point B is called pinch-
off voltage VPO.
Pinch-off region BC:
This is also known as the saturation region or ‘amplifier’ region. Here, a JFET operates as a
constant-current device because ID is relatively independent of VDS. It is because as VDS
increases the channel resistance also increases proportionally thereby keeping ID practically
constant at IDSS.
Drain current in this region is given by Shockley’s equation; this is the normal operating
region of a JFET when used as an amplifier.
ID = IDSS [ 1 – (VGS/VPO)2] = IDSS[ 1 – (VGS/VGS(off))2 ]
Breakdown region:
If VDS is increased beyond its value corresponding to point C (called avalanche breakdown
voltage), the JFET enters the breakdown region when ID increases to an extensive value. This
happens because the reversed biased gate channel PN junction undergoes avalanche
breakdown when small change in VDS produce very large change in ID.
JFET characteristics with External Bias:
Fig 2 shows a family of ID versus VDS curves for different values of VGS. It is seen that as the
negative gate bias voltage is increased:
Pinch-off voltage VP is reached at a lower value of VDS than VGS = 0.
Value of VDS for breakdown is decreased.
Fig 2

Transfer characteristic:
This is the curve plotted between output drain current versus input Gate to source voltage for
constant values of output drain to source voltage as shown in Fig 3.
Fig 3
This is similar to the Tran conductance characteristics of a vacuum tube or a transistor. It is

shows that when VGS = 0, ID = IDSS and when ID = 0, VGS = VPO, the transfer characteristic
approximately follows the equation
ID = IDSS [ 1 – (VGS/VPO)2] = IDSS[ 1 – (VGS/VGS(off))2 ]
The above equation can be written as VGS = VGS(off)[ 1 – (ID/IDSS)1/2]

These characteristics can also be obtained from the drain/output characteristics by reading
VGS and IDSS values for different values of VDS. The various parameters of a JFET can be
obtained from its two characteristics.

The main parameters of a JFET when connected in common source mode are:
AC Drain Resistance, rd:

This is the ac resistance between drain and source terminals when JFET is operating in the
pinch-off region. This is given by:
change in VDS
rd = at VGS constant or rd = VDS / ID | VGS
change in ID
An alternative name is dynamic drain resistance. This is given by the slope of the drain
characteristics in the pinch off region. It can also be written as rds emphasizing the fact that
this is the resistance from drain to source. Since rd is usually the output resistance of a JFET,
it may also be expressed as an output admittance yos. Obviously, yos = 1/rd. It has a very high
value.
Tran conductance, gm:

This is simply the slope of transfer characteristics
change in ID
gm = at VDS constant or rd = ID / VGS | VDS
change in VGS
Its unit is siemens (S) / mho. This is also called forward Tran conductance (gfs) or forward
Tran admittance Yfs. The Tran conductance measured at IDSS is written as gmo.
Mathematically
gm = gmo [ 1- (VGS / VP)]
Amplification factor, μ:
This is given by
μ= change in VDS at ID constant or μ = VDS / VGS | IDS

change in VGS
It can be proved from above that μ = gm * rd = gfs * rd
DC drain resistance, RDS:

This is also called the static or ohmic resistance of the channel. This is given by RDS = VDS /
ID

Experiment:
Object: To study the characteristics of JFET (Junction field effect transistor) in common
source configuration and to evaluate:
• AC drain resistance
• Tran conductance
• Amplification factor
• Drain Resistance
Apparatus required:

Circuit diagram:
Fig 4

Procedure:
1. Connect –5V and +12V dc power supplies at there indicated position from external
2. To plot Drain characteristics proceed as follows:
• Connect ammeter between test points 3 and 4 to measure output drain current
ID(mA).
VGS and another voltmeter between test points 2 and ground to measure output
voltage VDS.
• Vary the potentiometer P2 to increase the value of output voltage VDS from zero
to 10V in steps and record the corresponding values of output drain current ID for
different constant values of output voltage VDS in observation table 1.
• Rotate potentiometer P1 and set the value of input gate to source voltage at some
constant values (-1V, -2V, -3V …)
• Repeat the procedure from step 6 for different sets of input voltage VGS.
• Plot a curve between output voltage VDS and output current ID at different
constant values of input gate to source voltage as shown in Fig 2 using a suitable
scale with the help of observation table 1. This curve is the required output/Drain
characteristic.
Output Output Drain current ID (mA) at constant Value of input

Step
voltage voltage
Number
VDS (volt) VGC = 0V VGC = -1V VGS = -2V VGC = -3V
1 0.0V
2 0.1V
3 0.2V
4 0.3V
5 0.4V
6 0.5V
7 0.6V
8 0.7V
9 0.8V
10 0.9V
1. To plot Transfer characteristics proceed as follows:

VDS.
• Connect ammeter between test points 3 and 4 to measure output current ID(mA)
• Vary potentiometer P2 and set a value of output voltage VDS at some constant
values (1V, 2V, 3V)
• Vary the potentiometer P1 to increase the value of input voltage VGS from zero to
maximum value in steps and record the corresponding values of output current ID
in observation table 2
• Repeat the procedure from step 5 for different sets of output voltage VDS.

• Plot a curve between input voltage VGS and output current ID as shown in Fig 3
Output Drain current ID (mA) at constant value of input

Input
Step voltage
voltage
Number
VGS (volt) VDS = 1V VDS = 2V VDS = 3V VDS = 4V VDS = 5V
1 0.0V
2 -0.5V
3 -1.0V
4 -1.5V
5 -2.0V
6 -2.5V
7 -3.0V
8 -3.5V
9 -4.0V
Calculations:
AC Drain Resistance, rd:
This is the ac resistance between drain and source terminals when JFET is operating in the
pinch-off region. To calculate AC drain resistance calculate the slope of the drain
characteristics in the pinch off region obtained from observation table 1.
rd = change in VDS at VGS constant or rd = VDS / ID | VGS

change in ID
It has a very high value.
Tran conductance, gm:
To calculate Tran conductance determine slope of the transfer characteristics obtained from
Observation table 2
change in ID
gm = at VDS constant or rd = ID / VGS | VDS
change in VGS
Its unit is siemens (S) / mho.

Amplification factor, μ:
This is given by
change in VDS
μ= at ID constant or μ = VDS / VGS | IDS
change in VGS
or μ = gm * rd
DC drain resistance, RDS:

This is also called the static or ohmic resistance of the channel. This is given by RDS = VDS /
ID
Results:
AC Drain Resistance, rd = ______________
Tran conductance, gm = ______________
Amplification factor, μ = ______________
DC drain resistance, RDS = ______________

Datasheet:

Notes:

A7212-AL15 Common Emitter Amplifier
Introduction:
AL15 is a compact, ready to use Common Emitter Amplifier experiment board. This is useful
for students to understand the functionality of a common emitter amplifier and to study
various operational parameters of a transistor amplifier. It can be used as a stand-alone unit
with external DC power supply or can be used with Analogue Lab 7212 that has built in DC
power supply, AC power supply, function generator, modulation generator, continuity tester,
toggle switches and potentiometer.
Theory:
Amplification is the process of increasing the strength of a signal. An Amplifier is a device

that provides amplification (the increase in current, voltage or power of signal) without
appreciably altering the original signal.
Bipolar transistors are frequently used as amplifiers. A bipolar transistor is a current

amplifier, having three terminals Emitter, Base and Collector. A small current into the base
controls a large current flow from the collector to emitter. The large current flow is
independent of voltage across the transistor from collector to emitter; this makes it possible to
obtain a large amplification of voltage by taking the output voltage from a resistor in series
with the collector.
Transistor can be used as an Amplifier in three configurations:
• Common Base
• Common Emitter
• Common Collector
Common Emitter Configuration:
In this arrangement, the input signal is applied between base and emitter and the output is
taken from the collector to emitter shown in Fig 1.
Fig 1

Transistor as an Amplifier in CE configuration:
The conditions for which the transistor works as an amplifier are:
• Emitter base junction is always forward biased.

• Collector – Base junction is always reverse biased.
To achieve this, a DC voltage VBB is applied to the input circuit in addition to the signal
shown in Fig 1. This voltage is known as bias voltage and it’s magnitude is such that it always
keeps the input circuit forward biased regardless the polarity of signal.
An input circuit has low resistance, therefore a small change in signal voltage causes an
appreciable change in emitter current. This causes almost same change in collector current
due to transistor action. The collector current flowing through the high load resistance Rc
produces a large voltage across it, thus a weak signal applied to the input circuit appears in an
amplified form in the collector circuit.
Current relations in CE configurations
IE=IC+IB
IC = α IE +ICEO
IC= βIB
Where
IC= Collector current
IB= Base current
ICEO=current through collector to emitter when base is open.
β= common emitter DC current gain. β ranges between 20 – 300.
Voltage Gain.
The ratio of Output Voltage (Vo) to the input voltage (Vi) is known as voltage amplification or
voltage gain of amplifier.
Voltage Gain(Av)=Vo/Vi
Operation of Common Emitter amplifier:
In order to achieve faithful amplification, the transistor is properly DC biased. The purpose of
DC biasing is to obtain a certain DC collector current(IC) at a certain DC collector
voltage(VCE). These values of current and voltage are called operating point (Quiescent
point). To obtain DC operating point some biasing methods are used called biasing circuits,
these biasing arrangements should be such as to operate the transistor In the active region.
The most commonly used biasing circuits use voltage dividers. In this method, two resistances
R1 and R2 are connected across the supply voltage VCC and provide correct biasing. A voltage
divider formed by R1 and R2, and the voltage drop across R2 forward biases the base-emitter
junction. This causes the base current and hence collector current flows in zero signal
condition. Resistance RE provides stabilisation.

Fig 2
Rth : = R1 × R2
R1 + R2
Vth : = VCC + R2
R1 + R2
VTH = VBE + VE
VTH = VBE + IERE
IE = (VTH - VBE) / RE
IE is approx. equal to IC.
IC = (V2 - VBE) /RE
VCE = VCC - IC (RC + RE)
This method is widely used because the operating point of the transistor can be made almost
independent of beta and provides good stabilisation of operating point.
If this circuit is used to amplify AC voltages, some more components must be added to it.
Coupling Capacitors (C1)

These are used to pass the AC input signal, and block the DC voltage from the preceding
circuit, this prevents DC in the circuitry on the left of the coupling capacitor from affecting the
bias on the transistor. The coupling capacitor also blocks the bias of the transistor from
reaching the input signal source. It is also known as the blocking capacitor.
Bypass Capacitors (C3)

These bypass all the AC current from the emitter to ground. If the capacitor CE is not put in
the circuit, the AC voltage developed across RE will affect the input AC voltage. Such
feedback is reduced by using the capacitor C3.

Load Resistance (Ro)
This represents the load resistance connected to the output.
The input to the amplifier is a sine wave that varies a few mill volts. It is introduced into the
circuit by the coupling capacitor and is applied between the base and emitter with correct
biasing. As the input signal goes positive, the voltage across the emitter-base junction
becomes more positive. This in effect increases forward bias, which causes base current to
increase at the same rate as that of the input sine wave. Emitter and collector currents also
increase but much more than the base current. With an increase in collector current, more
voltage is developed across RC Since the voltage across RC and the voltage across transistor
(collector to emitter) must add up to VCC, an increase in voltage across RC results in an equal
decrease in voltage across transistor. Therefore, the output voltage from the amplifier, taken at
the collector of transistor with respect to the emitter, is a negative alternation of voltage that is
larger than the input, but has the same sine wave characteristics.
During the negative alternation of the input, the input signal opposes the forward bias. This
action decreases base current, which results in a decrease in both emitter and collector
currents. The decrease in current through RC decreases its voltage drop and causes the voltage
across the transistor to rise along with the output voltage. Therefore, the output for the
negative alternation of the input is a positive alternation of voltage that is larger than the input
but has the same sine wave characteristics.
By examining both input and output signals for one complete alternation of the input, we can
see that the output of the amplifier is an exact reproduction of the input except for the reversal
in polarity and the increased amplitude (a few mill volts as compared to a few volts).
Fig 3
Input and Output Waveforms of Common Emitter Amplifier with load resistance 1KΩ.

Operating Parameters of Common Emitter Amplifier:
Voltage Gain
This is the ratio of output voltage (Vout) obtained to input voltage (Vin).
Av = Vout / Vin
Fig 4
Input Impedance
This is the ratio of Input voltage(Vin) to Input Current(Ii).
Zin = Vin / Ii
To measure the input impedance a known resistor (Rs) is placed in series before the input
coupling capacitor and the impedance can be calculated using the equation
Zin = Rs / (Av/Av`-1)
Where
Av= voltage gain without the resistor(Rs)
Av`= voltage gain with the resistor (Rs)
Output Impedance
This is the ratio of Output voltage (Vout) to Output Current (Io).
Zout = Vout / Io
To measure the Output impedance a known resistor (Rs) is placed from output to ground and
the output impedance can be calculated using the equation
Zout =(Av/Av`-1) * Rs
Where
Av= voltage gain without the resistor(Rs)
Av=voltage gain with the resistor(Rs)

Current gain
This is the ratio of Output current ( Io) to Input current (Ii).
Ai = Io / Ii
The Current gain can be calculated using the equation
Ai = - Av * Zin/RL
Characteristics of Common Emitter Amplifier:
• It produces phase reversal of input signal i.e., input and output signals are 180Β out of
phase with each other.
• It has very high voltage gain.
• It has moderately low input impedance.
• It has moderately large output impedance.
• it has high current gain (β).
Type of Amplifier Circuit

Characteristic Common Common Common
Base Emitter Collector
Phase reversal No Yes No
Voltage Gain High Highest Nearly Unity
Input Impedance Lowest Moderate Highest
Output
Highest Moderate Lowest
Impedance
Current Gain Nearly unity High(β) Highest(β+1)
Experiment:
Object: To study the Common Emitter Amplifier and to evaluate
• Operating Point
• Voltage gain(AV)
• Input and output impedance
• Current gain of amplifier
Apparatus required:

• DC power supply +12V external source or 7212 Analogue Lab.
• Digital multimeter
• 2mm patch cords

Circuit diagram:
Circuit used to study common emitter amplifier is shown in Fig. 1
Fig. 5
Procedure:
1. Using 2mm patch cords connect test point 2 to test point 3, test point 4 to test point 5,
and test point 6 to test point 7.
2. Connect +12V DC power supply to the indicated terminals from external source or
7212 Analogue Lab.
3. Switch ON the power supply.
4. To measure quiescent Point measure VCE by connecting a voltmeter between test
point 4 and test point 6. Measure Collector current(IC) by connecting ammeter
between test points 4 and test point 5.
5. Connect a sinusoidal signal of 10mV(p-p) at 25KHz frequency to test point 1 (Input
of amplifier) from external source or 7212 Analogue Lab.
6. Observe the amplified output on oscilloscope by connecting test point 8 (output of
amplifier) to oscilloscope.
7. Calculate voltage gain of amplifier.
8. Connect load resistor of 1K ohms to the output and measure the voltage gain of
amplifier with load resistor.
9. Calculate input impedance, output impedance and current gain of amplifier using the
mentioned formulas with a resistance of 1K.
Result:-
Operating Point of the Common emitter amplifier

IC =___________mA VCE =___________V
Voltage gain of the amplifier AV =
Input impedance of amplifier Zin ______________ =
Output Impedance of amplifier Zout ____________ =
Current gain of amplifier Ai __________________ =
Voltage gain reduces as load resistance is connected to circuit.

Datasheet:

Notes:

AL7212-AL16 Common Collector Amplifier
Introduction:
AL16 is a Common Collector Amplifier experiment board. This is useful for students to
understand the functionality of a common collector amplifier and to study various operational
parameters of a transistor amplifier. It can be used as a stand-alone unit with external DC
power supply or can be used with Analogue Lab 7212 that has built in DC power supply, AC
power supply, function generator, modulation generator, continuity tester, toggle switches and
potentiometer.
Theory:

Bipolar transistors are frequently used as amplifiers. A bipolar transistor is a current

amplifier, having three terminals Emitter, Base and Collector. A small current into the base
controls a large current flow from the collector to emitter. The large current flow is
independent of voltage across the transistor from collector to emitter; this makes it possible to
obtain a large amplification of voltage by taking the output voltage from a resistor in series
with the collector.
Transistor can be used as an Amplifier in three configurations:

• Common Base
• Common Emitter
Common Collector Configuration:
In this arrangement, the input signal is applied between base and collector and the output is
taken from the emitter and collector. In this arrangement, the input current is base current and
the output current is emitter current.
Fig 1

Current relations in CC configurations:
IE = IC + IB
IE = γ * IB + γ * ICBO
γ = IE / IB
Where
IB = Base current (input current)
IC = Collector current
IE = Emitter current (output current)
ICEO = current through collector to emitter when base is open.
γ = current amplification in CC configuration.
Operation of Common Collector amplifier:
In order to get faithful amplification, the transistor is properly DC biased. The purpose of DC
biasing is to obtain a certain DC Emitter current(IC) at a certain DC Emitter voltage(VEC).
These values of current and voltage are called operating point (Quiescent point). To obtain
DC operating point some biasing methods are used called biasing circuits, these biasing
arrangements should be such as to operate the transistor in the active region.
The most commonly used Biasing circuit is the voltage divider method. In this method, two
resistances R1 and R2 are connected across the supply voltage VCC and provide proper biasing.
A voltage divider formed by R1 and R2, and the voltage drop across R2 forward biased the
base-emitter junction this causes the base current and hence collector current flows in zero
signal condition. Resistance RE provides stabilisation.
V2 = VCC * R2 / (R1 + R2)

V2 = VBE + VE
V2 = VBE + IER
IE = (V2 - VBE) / RE

IC = (V2 - VBE) / RE
VCE = VCC - IC (RC+RE)
Fig 2

This method is widely used because operating point of transistor can be made almost
independent of beta (β) and provides good stabilisation of operating point. If this circuit is
used to amplify AC voltages, some more components must be added to it.
Coupling Capacitors (C2 and C3): These are used to pass the AC input signal, and block the
DC voltage from the preceding circuit, this prevents DC in the circuitry on the left of the
coupling capacitor from affecting the bias on the transistor. The coupling capacitor also blocks
the bias of the transistor from reaching the input signal source. It is also known as the blocking
capacitor.
Bypass Capacitors (C2): These bypass all the AC current from the emitter to ground. If the
capacitor C2 is not put in the circuit, the AC voltage developed across RE will affect the input
AC voltage. Such feedback is reduced by using the capacitor C2.
RE : This represents the load resistance connected to the output.
In this amplifier, the input signal is injected into the base-collector circuit and the output
signal is taken out from the emitter-collector circuit. When the output is taken from the
emitter terminal of a transistor this network is referred to as Emitter Follower or common
collector amplifier. In this amplifier, output voltage is always less than the input signal and
the output voltage is in phase with the input voltage. The fact that the output voltage follows
the magnitude of input voltage with an in-phase relationship accounts for the terminology
“Emitter Follower”.
When positive half cycle of the signal is applied then;

• Forward bias is increased, since Vbe is positive w.r.t. collector i.e. Ground,
• Base current is increased,
• Emitter current is increased,
• Drop across Re is increased,
• Hence, output voltage is increased; consequently positive half-cycle of the output is
obtained .i.e. input and output are in phase with each other.
Fig. 3

Operating Parameter of Common collector amplifier:
Voltage Gain:
The ratio of Output Voltage (Vo) to the input voltage(Vi) is known as voltage amplification or
voltage gain of amplifier.
Voltage Gain(Av) = Vo / Vi
Input Impedance:
The ratio of Input voltage (Vin) to input current(Ii)
Zin = Vin / Ii
Zin = Rs / (Av/Av`-1)
Where
Av= voltage gain without the resistor (Rs)
Av` = voltage gain with the resistor (Rs)
Fig 4
Output Impedance:
This is the ratio of Output voltage (Vout) to Output Current (Io).
Zout = Vout / Io
To measure the Output impedance a known resistor (Rs) is placed from output to ground and
the output impedance can be calculated using the equation:
Zout = (Av / Av`-1) * Rs
Where
Av = voltage gain without the resistor (Rs)

Current gain:
The ratio of output current ( Io) to input current (Ii).
Ai = Io / Ii
Ai = - Av * Zin / RL
Characteristics of Common Collector Amplifier:
• It produces no phase reversal, i.e. input and output signals are in phase with each
other
• It has voltage gain of less than 1.
• It has very high input impedance.
• It has low output impedance.
• it has high current gain (∃+1).
Comparisons of Amplifiers Configurations:

Output
Impedance

Experiment:
Object: To study the Common Collector Amplifier and to evaluate:

• Operating Point
• Input and output impedance
• Current gain of amplifier.
Apparatus required:

• 2mm patch cords
Circuit diagram:
Circuit used to study Common Collector Amplifier is shown in Fig.1
Fig. 5

Procedure:
1. Using 2mm patch cords connect test point 2 to test point 3, test point 4 to test point 5
7212 Analogue Lab.
4. For the measurement of Quiescent Point measure the VEC by connecting voltmeter
between test points 4 and test point 6. Measure Emitter current(IE) by connecting
ammeter between test points 4 and test point 5.
of amplifier).
6. Observe the amplified output on an oscilloscope by connecting test point 8 (output of
amplifier) to an oscilloscope.
7. Calculate the voltage gain of the amplifier. Connect a load resistor of 1K ohms to the
output and measure the voltage gain of the amplifier with load resistor.
8. Calculate input impedance, output impedance and current gain of the amplifier using
the mentioned formulas with a resistance of 1K.
Result:-
Operating Point of the Common Collector amplifier
IC =___________mA
VEC =___________V
Voltage gain of the amplifier AV _____________ =


Datasheet:

Notes:

AL7212-AL17 Common Base Amplifier
Introduction:
AL17 is a Common Base Amplifier experiment board. This is useful for students to
understand the functionality of a common base amplifier and to study various operational
parameters of a transistor amplifier. It can be used as a stand-alone unit with external DC
potentiometer.
Theory:

Bipolar transistors are frequently used as amplifiers. Transistors can be used as an amplifier in
three configurations:
• Common Base
• Common Emitter
Common Base Configuration:
In this arrangement, the input signal is applied between the emitter and the base, and the
output is taken from the collector to base shown in Fig 1. In this arrangement, the input
current is emitter current and the output current is collector current.
Current relations in CB configurations:
IE = IC + IB
IC = α /(1-α)IE +1 / (1-α)ICBO
α=IC / IE
Where;
IC= Collector current
IB= Base current
IE= Emitter current
ICBO=current through collector to base when emitter is open.
α= Common Base DC current gain, α ranges between 0.9 – 0.99.
Fig 1

Transistor as an Amplifier in CB configuration:
The conditions for which transistor works as an amplifier are:
• Emitter base junction is always forward biased.

• Collector – Base junction is always reverse biased.
To achieve this, a DC voltage VEE is applied to the input circuit in addition to the signal
shown in Fig 1, this voltage is known as bias voltage and it’s magnitude is such that it always
keeps the input circuit forward biased regardless of the polarity of the signal.
An input circuit has low resistance, therefore a small change in signal voltage causes an
appreciable change in emitter current, this causes almost same change in collector current due
to transistor action. The collector current flowing through the high load resistance Rc
produces a large voltage across it, thus a weak signal applied to the input circuit appears in an
amplified form in collector circuit.
Operation of Common Base Amplifier:
In order to achieve faithful amplification, the transistor is properly DC biased. The purpose of
DC biasing is to obtain a certain DC collector current (IC) at a certain DC collector voltage
(VCB). These values of current and voltage are called operating point (quiescent point). To
obtain the DC operating point some biasing methods are used called biasing circuits. These
biasing arrangements should be such as to operate the transistor in the active region.
The most commonly used biasing circuit is the voltage divider. In this method, two resistances
R1 and R2 are connected across the supply voltage VCC and provide correct biasing. A voltage
divider formed by R1 and R2, and the voltage drop across R2 forward bias the base-emitter
junction. This causes the base current and hence collector current flows in zero signal
condition. Resistance RE provides stabilisation.
V2 = VCC * R2 / (R1 + R2)

V2 = VBE + VE
V2 = VBE + IERE
IE = (V2-VBE) / RE

IC = (V2-VBE) / RE
VCE = VCC - IC(RC + RE)
Fig 2

This method is widely used because the operating point of a transistor can be made almost
independent of beta (β) and provides good stabilisation of operating point.
If this circuit is used to amplify AC voltages more components must be added.
Coupling Capacitors (Cc):- These are used to pass the AC input signal, and block the DC
voltage from the preceding circuit, this prevents DC in the circuitry on the left of the coupling
capacitor from affecting the bias on the transistor. The coupling capacitor also blocks the bias
of the transistor from reaching the input signal source. It is also known as the blocking
capacitor.
Bypass Capacitors (CE):-These bypass all the AC current from the emitter to ground. If the
capacitor CE is not put in the circuit, the AC voltage developed across RE will affect the input
AC voltage. Such feedback is reduced by using the capacitor CE.
RC: This represents the load resistance connected to the output.
In this amplifier, the input signal is injected into the base-emitter circuit and the output signal
is taken out from the base-collector circuit.
When the positive half cycle of the signal is applied then;
• Forward bias is decreased, since Vbe is negative w.r.t. collector i.e. Ground,
• Base current is decreased,
• Emitter current is decreased, similarly collector current is also decreased
• Drop across Ic Rc is decreased,
• Hence, Vcb is increased, consequently the positive half-cycle of the output is
obtained, i.e. input and output are in phase with each other.
Fig 3
Input and Output Waveforms of Common Base Amplifier with load resistance 1KΩ.

Operating Parameters of Common Base Amplifier:
Voltage Gain:
The ratio of output voltage (Vout) obtained to input voltage (Vin).
Av = Vout/Vin
Fig 4
Input Impedance:
The ratio of Input voltage (Vin) to Input Current(Ii).
Zin = Vin / Ii
Zin = Rs / (Av / Av`-1)
Where
Av = voltage gain without the resistor(Rs)
Output Impedance :
The ratio of Output voltage(Vout) to Output Current(Io).
Zout = Vout / Io
To measure the output impedance a known resistor (Rs) is placed from output to ground and
the output impedance can be calculated using the equation
Zout =(Av/Av`-1) * Rs
Where
Av = voltage gain without the resistor (Rs)
Av = voltage gain with the resistor (Rs)

Current gain:
This is the ratio of Output current (Io) to Input current (Ii).
Ai = Io / Ii
Ai = - Av * Zin/RL
Characteristics of Common Base Amplifier:
• It produces no phase reversal of input signal i.e., input and output signals are in phase
with each other.
• It has high voltage gain.
• It has moderately low input impedance.
• It has large output impedance.
• it has current gain (β) less than one.
Comparisons of Amplifiers Configurations:

Output
Impedance

Experiment:
Object: To study the Common Base Amplifier and to evaluate
• Operating Point
• Input impedance and output impedance
• Current gain (Ai) of Amplifier.
Apparatus required:

• 2mm patch cords
Circuit diagram:
Circuit used to study Common Collector Amplifier is shown in Fig.5
Fig 5

Procedure:
1. Using 2mm patch cords connect test point 2 to test point 3, test point 4 to test point 5
2. Connect +12V DC power supply to the indicated terminals from external source or
7212 Analogue Lab.
4. For the measurement of Quiescent Point measure the VCE by connecting a voltmeter
between test point 4 and test point 6. Measure Collector current(IC) by connecting an
ammeter between test point 4 and test point 5.
of amplifier) from external source or 7212 Analogue Lab.
6. Observe the amplified output on an oscilloscope by connecting test point 8 (output of
amplifier) to oscilloscope.
7. Calculate the voltage gain of the amplifier. Connect a load resistor of 1K ohms at the
output and measure the voltage gain of the amplifier with a load resistor.
8. Calculate input impedance, output impedance and current gain of the amplifier using
the mentioned formulas with a resistance of 1K.
Result:
Operating Point of the Common Base amplifier
IC =___________mA
VEC =___________V
Voltage gain of the amplifier AV _____________ =


Datasheet:

Notes:

AL7212-AL31 Zener Voltage Regulator
Introduction:
AL31 is a Zener diode voltage regulator experiment board. This is useful for students to study
the operation of Zener diode as a voltage regulator with the variation in source voltage and
load resistance. It can be used as a stand-alone unit with external DC power supply or can be
used with Analogue Lab 7212 that has built in DC power supply, AC power supply, function
generator, modulation generator, continuity tester, toggle switches and potentiometer.
Theory:
Voltage regulation is a measure of a circuit’s ability to maintain a constant output voltage

even when either input voltage or load current varies. A Zener diode, when working in the
break down region, can serve as a voltage regulator. In Fig 1, Vin is the input voltage whose
variations are to be regulated. The load resistance, across which a constant voltage Vout is
required, is connected in parallel with the Zener diode. When the potential difference across
the diode is greater than VZ, it conducts and draws a relatively large current through the series
resistance R. The total current I passing through R equals the sum of diode current and load
current i.e.,
I = IZ + IL.
It will be seen that under all conditions, Vout = VZ.
Fig 1

CASE 1: Fixed input voltage Vin and variable Load resistance RL.:
In this case Vin is fixed but RL hence IL is changed. When IL increases, diode current IZ
decreases thereby keeping I and hence IR drop constant. In this way Vout remains unaffected.
When IL decreases, diode current IZ increases thereby keeping I and hence IR drop constant. In
this way again Vout remains unchanged.
Due to the offset voltage VZ, there is a specific range of resistor values (and therefore load
current) which will ensure that the Zener is in the ‘on’ state. Too small a load resistance RL
will result in a voltage VL across the load resistor less than VZ and the Zener device will be in
the ‘off’ state.
To determine the minimum load resistance that will turn the Zener diode ‘on’ is given by
RLmin = RVZ / (Vin - VZ)
Any load resistance value greater than the RL obtained from above equation will ensure that
the Zener diode is in the ‘on’ state and the diode can be replaced by its VZ source equivalent.
Similarly maximum load resistance is given by
RLmax = VZ / ILmin
Where
ILmin = IR - IZM
IR = VR / R,
VR = Vin - VZ
CASE 2: Variable input voltage Vi and fixed load resistance RL:
In this case, when input voltage Vin is increased slightly keeping load resistance RL constant, it
will increase I. This increase in I will be absorbed by the Zener diode without affecting IL.
This increase in Vin will be dropped across R thereby keeping Vout constant.
Conversely, if supply voltage Vin falls, the diode takes a smaller current and voltage drop
across R is reduced, thus again keeping Vout constant.
Hence, when Vin changes, I and IR drop change in such a way as to keep Vout (= VZ) constant.
Fixed values of RL, the voltage Vin must be sufficiently large to turn the Zener diode “on”.
The minimum turn-on voltage Vi(min) is determined by
Vi(min) = (RL + R)VZ / RL
The maximum value of Vi is limited by the maximum Zener current IZM. Since
IZM = IR - IL, IRmax = IZM + IL
Since IL if fixed at VZ / RL and IZM is the maximum value of IZ, the maximum Vin is defined
by
Vi(max) = IRmaxR + VZ

Note:
• Regulated output voltage might be slightly higher than the expected voltage due to
tolerance of Zener diode.
• A series resistor of 33 ohms is connected internally with potentiometer P1, for over current
protection thus the maximum voltage that you can get at test point 1 is about 9.5V

Experiment 1:
Object: To study Zener diode as a voltage regulator, when input voltage Vin is fixed while
Load resistance RL is variable.
Apparatus required:

• DC power supply +12V from external source or 7212 Analogue Lab.
• 2mm patch cords
Circuit diagram:
Circuit used to study Zener diode as a voltage regulator is shown in Fig 2
Fig 2
Procedure:
7212 Analogue Lab.
2. Connect voltmeter between test points1and ground to measure input voltage Vin
3. Connect ohmmeter between test points 4 and ground and set the value of load
resistance RL at some fixed value (500Ω, 600Ω, ……1K, 1.1K )
4. Connect a 2mm patch cord between test points 2 and 3.
5. Connect voltmeter between test points 4 and ground to measure output voltage Vout.
7. Vary the potentiometer P1 to set fixed value of input voltage Vin = 10V and record the
corresponding value of output voltage Vout.
8. Disconnect the 2mm patch cord between test points 2 and 3.
9. Repeat the procedure from step3 for different sets of load resistance RL and note the
results in observation table 1.

Step Output voltage Vout(volt) at constant Input

Load Resistance RL
Number voltage Vin = 9 volt
1 100 Ω
2 200 Ω
3 300 Ω
4 400 Ω
5 500 Ω
6 600 Ω
7 700 Ω
8 800 Ω
9 900 Ω
10 1.0K
11 2.0K
12 3.0K
Calculations:
Determine the range of load resistance for a second case i.e. when input voltage is fixed while
the load resistance is variable, by using the formula. Minimum load resistance
RLmin = RVZ / (Vin - VZ)
Where
R is the resistance in series, VZ is the Zener breakdown voltage Vin is the fixed input voltage
applied
In the circuits used VZ = 5.6V, R = 51Ω, Vin = 10V
Maximum load resistance
RLmax = VZ / ILmin
Where
ILmin = IR - IZM, IR = VR / R, VR = Vin - VZ
In the circuit used VZ = 5.6V, R = 51Ω, IZM = 65mA
Results:
Theoretical the range of Load resistance obtained is

RLmin = _____________
RLmax = _____________
The result of Experiment 2 reveal that for the network of Fig 2 with a fixed input voltage Vin
the output voltage will remain fixed at 5.6 V for a range of load resistance that extends from
_______ to _______.

Experiment 2:
Object: To study Zener diode as a voltage regulator, when input voltage Vin is variable while
Load resistance RL is fixed.
Apparatus required:

• DC power supply +12V from external source or 7212 Analogue Lab
• 2mm patch cord
Circuit diagram:
Circuit used to study Zener diode as a voltage regulator is shown in Fig 3.
Fig 3

Procedure:
7212 Analogue Lab.
2. Connect voltmeter between test points 1 and ground to measure input voltage Vin
resistance RL at a fixed value of 1K.
7. Vary the potentiometer P1 to some fixed value of input voltage Vin (6V, 7V…..) and
record the corresponding value of output voltage Vout.
8. Repeat the above step and note the results in observation table 2.
Step Output voltage Vout (volt) at constant Load

Input voltage Vin
Number resistance = 1 K
1 6.0 V
2 6.5 V
3 7.0 V
4 7.5 V
5 8.0 V
6 8.5 V
7 9.0 V
8 9.5 V
Calculations:
Determine the range of input voltage for case third i.e. when load resistance is fixed while the
input voltage is variable, by using formula. Minimum turn-on voltage Vi(min) is
Vi(min ) = (RL + R)VZ / RL
Where
RL is the fixed value of load resistance,
R is the series resistance;
VZ is the Zener breakdown voltage.
In the circuit used RL = 1K, R = 51Ω, VZ = 5.6 V
Maximum value of input voltage Vi(max) is given by
Vi(max) = IRmaxR + VZ
Where
IRmax = IZM + IL,
IZM = IR - IL,
IL = VZ / RL.
In the circuit used VZ = 5.6V, R = 51Ω, IZM = 65mA, RL = 1K

Results:
Theoretical the range of input voltage obtained is

Vi(min) = _____________
Vi(max) = _____________
The results of experiment 3 reveal that for the network of Fig 2 with a fixed load resistance
RL, the output voltage will remain fixed at 5.6 V for a range of input voltage that extends from
_______ to _______.

Datasheet

Notes:

AL7212-AL32 Transistor Series Voltage Regulator
Introduction:
AL32 is a compact, ready to use Transistor series voltage regulator experiment board. This is
useful for students to study the operation of a transistor as a voltage regulator when it is
connected in series. It can be used as a stand-alone unit with external DC power supply or can
be used with Analogue Lab 7212 that has built in DC power supply, AC power supply,
function generator, modulation generator, continuity tester, toggle switches and
potentiometer.
Theory:
Circuits that maintain power supply voltages or current output within specified limits, or
tolerances are called REGULATORS. They are designated as dc voltage or dc current
regulators, depending on their specific application.
Voltage regulator circuits are additions to basic power supply circuits, which are made up of
rectifier and filter sections (Fig 1). The purpose of the voltage regulator is to provide an
output voltage with little or no variation. Regulator circuits sense changes in output voltages
and compensate for the changes.
Fig1
There are two types of voltage regulators. Basic voltage regulators are classified as either
SERIES or SHUNT, depending on the location or position of the regulating element(s) in
relation to the circuit load resistance. Fig 2 illustrates these two basic types of voltage
regulators. Broken lines have been used in the figure to highlight the difference between the
series and shunt regulators.

Fig 2
The schematic drawing in view B is that of a series regulator. It is called series regulator
because the regulating device is connected in series with the load resistance. Fig 2 illustrates
the principle of series voltage regulation. From the figure it is clear that the regulator is in
series with the load resistance (RL) and that the fixed resistor (RS) is in series with the load
resistance. You already know the voltage drop across affixed resistor remains constant unless
the current flowing through it varies (increases or decreases).
The schematic for a typical series voltage regulator is shown in Figure 3. Notice that this
regulator has an NPN transistor 2N3904 in place of the variable resistor found in Fig 2.
Because the total load current passes through this transistor, it is sometimes called a “pass
transistor”. Other components, which make up the circuit, are the current limiting resistor of
200Ω and the Zener diode of 5.6V

Fig 3
Recall that a Zener diode is a diode that block current until a specified voltage is applied.
Remember also that the applied voltage is called breakdown, or Zener voltage. When the
Zener voltage is reached, the Zener diode conducts from its anode to its cathode (with the
direction of the arrow). In this voltage regulator, the transistor has a constant voltage applied
to its base. This voltage is often called the reference voltage. As changes in the circuit output
voltage occurs, they are sensed at the emitter of the transistor producing a corresponding
change in the forward bias of the transistor. In other words, the transistor compensates by
increasing or decreasing its resistance in order to change the circuit voltage division.
Circuit Operation:
CASE 1: when input voltage is constant while Load varies

Here an NPN Transistor used in series controls the amount of the input voltage that reaches
the output and a Zener diode provides the reference voltage. The Zener establishes the value
of the base voltage for the transistor. Keep in mind the polarities of different voltages, they
are related by the equation
VL + VBE – VZ = 0 Kirchoff’s voltage law
Therefore VBE = VZ - VL Here VZ is fixed
The output voltage across load will equal the Zener voltage minus a 0.7-volt drop across the
forward biased base-emitter junction of the transistor, or 4.9V (5.6 – 0.7). When current
demand is increased by decreasing RL, VL tends to decrease. It will increase VBE because VZ
is fixed. This will increase the forward bias of the transistor thereby increasing its level of
conduction. This will lead to a decrease in the collector-emitter resistance of the transistor,
which will slightly increase the input current to compensate for the decrease in RL so that VL
= ILRL will remain at a constant value.

CASE 2: when input voltage varies while Load remains constant
When the input voltage increases, the output voltage increases momentarily. This momentary
deviation or variation, from the required regulated output voltage of 4.9 volts is a result of a
rise in the input voltage. Since the base voltage of the transistor is held at 5.6V by the Zener,
this is why the forward bias of transistor decreases. Because this bias voltage is less than the
normal 0.7 volts, the resistance of the transistor increases, thereby increasing the voltage drop
across the transistor. This voltage drop restores the output voltage to the required regulated
voltage of 4.9V.
Note: Regulated output voltage might be slightly higher than the expected voltage due to

Experiment 1:
Object: To study Transistor series voltage regulator, when input voltage Vin is fixed while
Apparatus required:

• 2mm patch cords
Circuit diagram:
Fig 4
Circuit used to study Transistor series voltage regulator is shown in Fig 3.
Procedure:
7212 Analogue Lab.
2. Connect voltmeter between test points1 and ground to measure input voltage Vin
resistance RL at some fixed value [full load (1.1K), 1K, 500Ω… ]
7. Vary the potentiometer P1 to set fixed value of input voltage
8. Vin = 9V and record the corresponding values of Output voltage Vout between test
points 4 and ground.
9. Zener voltage VZ between test point 5 and ground.
10. Forward bias voltage VBE of transistor between test points 5 and 4.
12. Repeat the procedure from step 3 for different sets of load resistance RL and note the

Output voltage
Load Forward bias
Step Voltage Across Vout at constant
Resistance Voltage VBE
Number Zener VZ Input voltage
RL
Vin = 9 volt
1 Full Load
2 1K Ω
3 800 Ω
4 600 Ω
5 400 Ω
6 200 Ω
7 No Load
Note: To measure Voltage at No Load, disconnect 2mm patch cord between test points 2 and
3, measure voltage between test points 2 and ground.
Calculations:
Percentage regulation is given by formula
% Regulation = [(VNL- VFL) / VFL] * 100

Where;
R is the resistance in series
VNL = no-load or open-circuit terminal voltage.
VFL = full-load terminal voltage.
Results:
the output voltage will remain close to 4.9 V for a range of load resistance that extends from
_______ to _______.
Percentage regulation = _________ %.

Experiment 2:
Object: To study transistor series voltage regulator, when input voltage Vin is variable while
load resistance RL is fixed.
Apparatus required:

• 2mm patch cords
Circuit diagram:
Circuit used to study transistor series voltage regulator is shown in Fig 3.
Fig 5
Procedure:
7212 Analogue Lab.
resistance RL at maximum value.
8. Vin = 7V, 8V, 9V…. and record the corresponding values of Output voltage Vout
between test points 4 and ground.
9. Zener voltage VZ between test points 5 and ground.
10. Forward bias voltage VBE of transistor between test points 5 and 4.
11. Repeat the procedure from step 7 for different sets of input voltage Vin and note the

Load Forward bias Output voltage

Step Voltage Across
Resistance Voltage VBE Vout at fixed load
Number Zener VZ
Vin resistance RL = Max
1 7V
2 8V
3 9V
4 10 V
5 11 V
Results:
The result of Experiment 2 reveals that for the network of Fig 3 with a fixed Load resistance,
the output voltage will remain close to 4.9 V for a range of input voltage Vin that extends from
_______ to _______.
Datasheet

Notes:

AL7212-AL33 Transistor Shunt Voltage Regulator
Introduction:
AL33 is a compact, ready to use Transistor shunt voltage regulator experiment board. This is
useful for students to study the operation of Transistor as a voltage regulator when it is
connected in shunt or parallel with load. It can be used as a stand-alone unit with external DC
potentiometer.
Theory:
Circuits that maintain power supply voltages or current output within specified limits, or
tolerances are called REGULATORS. They are designated as dc voltage or dc current
regulators, depending on their specific application.
Voltage regulator circuits are additions to basic power supply circuits, which are made up of
rectifier and filter sections (Fig 1). The purpose of the voltage regulator is to provide an
output voltage with little or no variation. Regulator circuits sense changes in output voltages
and compensate for the changes.
Fig 1
There are two types of voltage regulators. Basic voltage regulators are classified as either
SERIES or SHUNT, depending on the location or position of the regulating element(s) in
relation to the circuit load resistance. Fig 2 illustrates these two basic types of voltage
regulators. Broken lines have been used in the figure to highlight the difference between the
series and shunt regulators.

Fig 2
The schematic drawing in view A is that of a shunt regulator. It is called shunt regulator
because the regulating device is connected in shunt or in parallel with the load resistance.
Fig 2 illustrates the principle of shunt voltage regulation. From the figure it is clear that the
regulator is in shunt with the load resistance (RL). In a shunt voltage regulator, as shown in
Fig 2, output voltage regulation is determined by the parallel resistance of the regulating
device, the load resistance (RL), and the series resistor R. If the load resistance RL
increases/decreases, the regulating device decreases/increases its resistance to compensate for
the change.
The schematic for a typical series voltage regulator is shown in Figure 3. It employs the NPN
transistor 2N3904 in shunt configuration in place of the variable resistor found in Fig 2.
Since AB is in parallel across VL, we have;
VL –VZ –VBE = 0 or VBE = VL –VZ (Kirchoff’s Voltage Law)
Also VL = VZ + VBE
i.e. The output voltage is close to the sum of the voltage across Zener and the voltage at the
base-emitter junction of transistor.
Fig 3

Note: Regulated output voltage might be slightly higher than the expected voltage due to
Circuit Operation:
CASE1: when input voltage is constant while Load varies

Since VZ is fixed, any decrease or increase in VL will have a corresponding effect on VBE.
Suppose, VL decreases, then as seen from the above relation VBE also decreases. As a result, IB
decreases, hence IC (=βIB) decreases, thereby decreasing I and hence VR (=IR). Consequently,
VL increases because at all times
Vin = VR + VL or VL = Vin - VR.
From the above description it is concluded that when by any reason VL decreases VR also
decreases thereby keeping VL constant.
Similarly, when by any reason VL increases VR also increases thereby keeping VL constant.
CASE2: when input voltage varies while Load remains constant

When the input voltage increases, the output voltage also increases momentarily. This
momentary deviation or variation, from the required regulated output voltage of 6.3 volts is a
result of a rise in the input voltage. This increases the forward bias of the transistor. Recall
that the voltage drop across Zener remains constant at 5.6V. Since the output voltage is
composed of the Zener voltage and the base-emitter voltage, the output voltage momentarily
increases. At this time, the increase in the forward bias of the transistor lowers the resistance
of the transistor allowing more current to flow through it. Since this current must also pass
through R, there is also an increase in the voltage drop across this resistor. Due to the increase
in this voltage drop across R, the voltage across VL remains close to the required regulated
value of output voltage.
Similarly, when the input voltage decreases, the forward bias of the transistor also decreases.
This decrease in bias voltage increases the resistance of the transistor allowing less current to
flow through it. Since this current must pass through resistor R, there is also a decrease in the
voltage drop across this resistor. This drop in voltage across R maintains output voltage close
to the required regulated value.

Experiment 1:
Object: To study Transistor shunt voltage regulator, when input voltage Vin is fixed while
Apparatus required:

• 2mm patch cords
Circuit diagram:
Circuit used to study transistor shunt voltage regulator is shown in Fig 4.
Fig 4
Procedure:
7212 Analogue Lab.
resistance RL at some fixed value [full load (1.1K), 1K, 500Ω… ]
7. Vary the potentiometer P1 to set fixed value of input voltage Vin = 9V and record the
corresponding value of
• Output voltage Vout between test points 5 and ground.
• Zener voltage VZ between test points 2 and 6.
• Forward bias voltage VBE of transistor between test points 6 and ground.
9. Repeat the procedure from step3 for different sets of load resistance RL and note the

Output voltage
Load Forward bias
Step Voltage Across Vout at constant
Resistance Voltage VBE
Number Zener VZ Input voltage
RL
Vin = 9 volt
1 Full Load (1.1K)
2 1K Ω
3 800 Ω
4 600 Ω
5 400 Ω
6 200 Ω
7 No Load
Note: To measure Voltage at No Load, disconnect 2mm patch cord between test points 3 and
4, measure voltage between test points 3 and ground.
Calculations:
Percentage regulation is given by formula
% Regulation = [(VNL- VFL) / VFL] * 100
VNL = no-load or open-circuit terminal voltage.

VFL = full-load terminal voltage.
Results:
the output voltage will remain close to 6.3 V for a range of load resistance that extends from
_______ to _______.
Percentage regulation = _________ %.

Experiment 2:
Object: To study Transistor shunt voltage regulator, when input voltage Vin is variable while
Load resistance RL is fixed.
Apparatus required:

• 2mm patch cords
Circuit diagram:
Circuit used to study transistor shunt voltage regulator is shown in Fig 5.
Fig 5
Procedure:
7212 Analogue Lab.
resistance RL at maximum value.
8. Vin = 7V, 8V, 9V…. and record the corresponding value of
• Output voltage Vout between test points 5 and ground.
• Zener voltage VZ between test points 2 and 6.
• Forward bias voltage VBE of transistor between test points 6 and ground.
9. Repeat the procedure from step 7 for different sets of input voltage Vin and note the

Observation table 2:
Load Forward bias Output voltage

Step Voltage Across
Resistance Voltage VBE Vout at fixed load
Number Zener VZ
Vin resistance RL = Max
1 7V
2 8V
3 9V
4 10 V
5 11 V
Results:
The result of Experiment 2 reveals that for the network of Fig 3 with a fixed Load resistance,
the output voltage will remain close to 6.3 V for a range of input voltage Vin that extends from
_______ to _______.

Datasheet:

Notes:

AL7212-AL51 Low Pass & High Pass Active Filters
Introduction:
The AL51 is an Active filters experiment board. It incorporates a Low pass filter and a High
pass filter on a single board and illustrates the functionality of Active filters at adjustable cut-
off frequencies. It can be used as a stand-alone unit with external power supply or can be used
with Analogue lab 7212 that has built–in DC power supply, AC power supply, function
generator, modulation generator, continuity tester, toggle switches and potentiometers.
Theory:
An electric filter is a frequency selective circuit that passes electric signals of a specific band
of frequencies and attenuates signals of frequencies outside this band. Depending on the type
of elements used in their construction filters may be classified as passive or active filters.
Elements used in passive filters are resistors, capacitors and inductors. An Active filter
consists of active components such as Op-amps and transistors along with passive elements.
Most commonly used filters are:
• Low pass Filter

• High pass filter
• Band pass filter
Low Pass Filter:
It is a frequency selective circuit, which passes signals of frequency below its high cut off
frequency (fh) and attenuates signals of frequency above fh.
Fig 1

Equation of low pass filter is
Vout AE
Vin = 1 + j(f/f-h) 1
Vout AE
Vin = {1 + (f/fh2}½ 2
Vin = Input signal Voltage

Vout = Output signal Voltage
Vout
Vin = Gain of filter as a function of frequency
AF = 1+ RF/ R1 = pass band gain of filter

f = frequency of input signal
fH = 1/2πRC= high cut off frequency,3-db frequency, corner frequency
Operation of low pass filter using equation 2
a. at low frequencies f<fh Vout = AF

Vin
b. at f= fH Vout
Vin = 0.707 *AF(approx.)
c. at f>fH Vout
Vin < AF
The ideal low pass filter has a constant gain AF from 0 to high cut off frequency (fH) at fH the
gain is 0.707 * Af. Moreover, after fH it decreases at a constant rate with an increase in
frequency i.e. when input frequency is increased tenfold (one decade), the voltage gain is
divided by 10.
Gain (db)= 20log |Vout/Vin|
I.e. Gain Roll off rate is –20db/decade.

High Pass Filter:
This is a frequency selective circuit, which passes signals of frequencies above its low cut off
requency (fL) and attenuates signals of frequencies below fL.
Fig 2
Equation of High pass filter is
Vout AF
Vin = 1 + j(f/fL) 3
Vout = AF
Vin 1 + j(f/fL)2}½ 4
Vin = Input signal Voltage

Vout = Output signal Voltage
Vout
= Gain of filter as a function of frequency
Vin
AF = 1+ RF/ R1 = pass band gain of filter

f =frequency of input signal
fL= 1/2πRC= Low cut off frequency,3-db frequency, corner frequency
Operation of high pass filters using equation.
a. at low frequencies f<fL Vout AF

Vin <
b. at f= fL Vout 0.707 * AF (Approx.)

Vin =
Vout
c. at f>fL = AF
Vin

In an ideal high pass filter, when f<fL gain is increased at a constant rate has a constant rate
with an increase in frequency, At fL the gain is 0.707 * AF. Moreover, above fL it has constant
gain of AF. Below fL when input frequency is increased tenfold (one decade), the voltage gain
is multiplied by 10.
Gain(db)= 20log |Vout/Vin|, i.e. Gain Roll off rate is -20db/decade.

Experiment 1:
Object: To study the Active Low pass filter and to evaluate:

• High cut-off frequency of Low pass filter
• Pass band gain of Low pass filter
• Plot the frequency response of Low pass filter
Apparatus required:

• DC power supply +12V, -12V from external source or 7212 Analogue Lab.
• Function generator or 7212 Analogue Lab.
• Oscilloscope
• Digital multi-meter
• 2mm patch cords
Circuit diagram:
Circuit used to study Active Low pass filter shown in Fig 3.
Fig. 3
Procedure:
1. Connect an ohmmeter between test point Vin and test point 1. Adjust resistance value
to 1.59K by varying the potentiometer 22K of Low pass filter to set the high cut-off
frequency (fH) at 10K.
2. Connect +12V and -12V DC power supplies to the indicated terminals from external
4. Connect a sinusoidal signal of amplitude 1V(p-p) of frequency 1 KHz to the test point
Vin of Low pass filter from external source or 7212 Analogue Lab.
5. Observe output on an oscilloscope by connecting test point Vout to oscilloscope.
6. Increase the frequency of input signal step by step and observe the effect on the
output from Vout on the oscilloscope.
7. Tabulate values of Vout, gain, gain(db) at different values of input frequency shown
in observation table.

Observation Table:
Input
Step Gain(db) = 20 Log
frequency Vout [Vout / Vin] = gain
Number [Vout / Vin]
(Hz)
1 500
2 1K
3 5K
4 10 K (fH)
5 15 K
6 20 K
7 30 K
1. Plot the frequency response of low pass filter using the data obtained at different
input frequencies.
2. Perform the same procedure at different Cut-off frequencies as shown below
fH high cutoff
Resistance (Ω) Capacitance (µF)
frequency (Hz)
500
1K
5K
10 K (fH)
15 K
20 K
30 K
Theoretical Calculations:
Calculate all the following values:
• Pass band gain of Low pass filter AF = 1 + RF / R1

• Pass band gain (db) = 20 log |Vout/Vin|
• 3 db frequency fH = 1/2πRC
• Gain at 3 db frequency fH = 0.707 * AF
• Gain (db) at 3 db frequency fH = 20 log |Vout/Vin| where Vout = (2)1/2 * Vin
• Roll off rate = -20db/decade
Results:
Theoretical Practical
Pass band gain(Af)
Pass band gain(Af) in db
3db frequency fH
Gain at 3db frequency (fH) in db

Experiment 2:
Object: To study the Active High pass filter and to evaluate:

• Low cut-off frequency of High pass filter
• Pass band gain of High pass filter
• Plot the frequency response of High pass filter
Apparatus required:

• Oscilloscope
• 2mm patch cords
Circuit diagram:
Circuit used to study Active High pass filter is shown in Fig 4.
Fig 4
Procedure:
1. Connect ohmmeter between test points Vin and test point 1 Adjust resistance value to
15.9K by varying the potentiometer 22K of High pass filter to set the Low cut-off
frequency (fL) at 1K.
4. Connect a sinusoidal signal of amplitude 1V(p-p) of frequency 100Hz to the test point
Vin of high pass filter from external source or 7212 Analogue Lab.
5. Observe output on oscilloscope by connecting test point Vout to oscilloscope.
6. Increase the frequency of input signal step by step and observe the effect on output
Vout on oscilloscope.
7. Tabulate different values of Vout, gain, gain (db) at different values of input
frequency shown in observation table.

Observation Table:
Input
Number [Vout / Vin]
(Hz)
1 100
2 200
3 500
4 1K (fH)
5 5K
6 10 K
7 15 K
8 20 K
1. Plot the frequency response of low pass filter using the data obtained at different
input frequencies.
2. Perform the same procedure at different Cut-off frequencies as shown below
Resistance (Ω) Capacitance (µF) 3 db frequency (Hz)
800 0.01 20 K
1.59 k 0.01 10 K
15.9 k 0.01 1K
Calculate all the following values:
• Pass band gain of high pass filter Af = 1 + RF/R1

• Pass band gain (db) 20 log |Vout/Vin|
• Low cut-off frequency fL = 1/2πRC
• Gain at Low cut-off frequency fL = 0.707 * AF
• Gain(db) at Low cut-off frequency fL=20 log |Vout/Vin| Where Vout = (2)1/2 * Vin
• Roll off rate = -20db/decade
Results:
Pass band gain(Af)
Pass band gain(Af) in db
3db frequency fL
Gain at 3db frequency (fL) in db

Datasheet:

Notes:

AL7212-AL52 Active Band Pass Filter
Introduction:
The AL52 is an Active Band pass filter experiment board, and illustrates the functionality of
Active Band-pass filter at adjustable High cut-off frequency (fH) and Low cut-off frequency
(fL). It can be used as a stand-alone unit with external power supply or can be used with
Analogue lab 7212 that has built-in DC power supply, AC power supply, function generator,
modulation generator, continuity tester, toggle switches and potentiometers.
Theory:
An electric filter is a frequency selective circuit that passes electric signals of specific band of
frequencies and attenuates signal of frequencies outside this band. Depending on the type of
elements used in their construction filters may be classified as passive or active filters.
Elements used in passive filters are resistors, capacitors and inductors. Active filters consist of
active components such as op-amps and transistors along with passive elements.
Most commonly used filters are:

• Low pass Filter
• High pass filter
• Band-pass filter
Band-Pass filter:
This is a frequency selective circuit, which passes signals of particular band of frequencies
lies between it’s low cut off frequency (fL) and high cut off frequency (fh) and attenuates
signals of frequencies above and below it’s cut-off frequencies, i.e. the Band-pass filter has a
pass band between two cut-off frequencies fH and fL where fH > fL and two stop bands: 0<f<fL
and f>fH. The 3-db bandwidth of filter is fH-fL.
Rf Rf`
R R`
C1 R2
R1 C2
Fig 1

Fig 2
A Wide Band-pass filter is formed by cascading a High pass filter and Low pass filter.
If the High-pass filter and Low-pass filter are of the first order then the Band-pass filter will
have a roll off rate of –20db/decade.
For the high pass section the magnitude of gain is given by
A01 *j(f / fL) A01(f / fL)

GHP = GHP =
1 + j(f / fL) {1 + (f / fL)2}1/2
A01 = 1+ RF/ R = Pass band gain of High pass section

f=frequency of input signal
fL= 1/2πR1C1= Low cut off frequency
For the Low pass section the magnitude of gain is given by
A02 A02
GLP = GLP =
1 + j(f / fH) {1 + (f / fH)2}1/2
A02= 1+ RF`/ R` = pass band gain of Low pass section

f=frequency of input signal
fH= 1/2πR2C2= High cut-off frequency
The voltage gain magnitude of wide band pass filters is the product of the gains of low pass
sections (GLP) and the high pass section (GHP)
Vout A0(f / fL)

=
Vin [{1 + (f / fL)2} {1 + (f / fH)2}]1/2
Where the total pass band gain A0 = A01*A02

Experiment 1:
Object: To study the Active Band pass filter and to evaluate:
• Low cut off frequency fL.

• High cut-off frequency fH.
• 3db Bandwidth
• Plot the frequency response of Band-pass filter
Apparatus required:

• Oscilloscope
• 2mm patch cords
Circuit diagram:
Circuit used to study Active Band Pass filter shown in Fig 3.
Fig 3
Procedure:
1. Connect ohmmeter between test points 1 and GND. Adjust resistance value to approx.
17K by varying the potentiometer P1 to set the Low cut-off frequency (fL) at 200Hz.
2. Connect ohmmeter between test points 4 and test point 5. Adjust resistance value to
approx. 800 ohms by varying the potentiometer P2 to set the High cut-off frequency
(fH) at 20 KHz.
3. Connect +12V and -12V DC power supplies at there indicated position from external
5. Connect a sinusoidal signal of amplitude 1V(p-p) of frequency 1KHz to the test point
Vin of Band-pass filter from external source or 7212 Analogue Lab.
6. Observe output on oscilloscope by connecting test point Vout to oscilloscope.

7. Increase the frequency of input signal step by step and observe the effect on output
8. Decrease the frequency of input signal step by step and observe the effect on output
9. Tabulate values of Vout, gain, gain (db) at different values of input frequency shown
in Observation table.
10. Plot the frequency response of Band-pass filter using the data obtained at different
input frequencies.
11. Perform the same procedure at different Cut-off frequencies shown below.
Capacitance
Resistance fL Resistance Capacitance
C1(uF) fH (Hz)
P1(Ω) (Hz) P2(Ω) C2(uF)
17K 0.047 200 800 0.01 20 K
6.7K 0.047 500 3184 0.01 5K
3.38K 0.047 1K 1.59 K 0.01 10 K
Observation Table:
Input
Number [Vout / Vin]
(Hz)
1 50
2 100
3 200 (fL)
4 500
5 1K
6 2K
7 5K
8 10 K (fH)
9 15 K
10 20 K
11 30 K
Calculate all the following values and write the results

• Pass band gain of Band pass filter A0 = A01*A02
• Pass band gain (db) 20 log |Vout/Vin|
• High cut-off frequency fH= 1/2πR2C2
• Low cut-off frequency fL= 1/2πR1C1
• 3 db Bandwidth = fH - fL
Results:
Pass band gain(A0)
Pass band gain db
High cutoff frequency fH
Low cutoff frequency fL
3db Bandwidth

Datasheet:

Notes:

AL7212-AL65 Phase Shift Oscillator
Introduction:
AL65 is a Phase Shift Oscillator experiment board that assists students to understand
functionality of phase shift oscillators. Students can also see phase shifts introduced by
different RC stages of a phase shift oscillator. It can be used as a stand-alone unit with
Theory:
Oscillators are circuits that produce specific, periodic waveforms such as square, triangular,
saw tooth, and sinusoidal. They generally use some form of active device, lamp or crystal,
surrounded by passive devices such as resistors, capacitors and inductors, to generate the
output.
There are two main classes of oscillator: relaxation and sinusoidal. Relaxation oscillators
generate the triangular, saw tooth and other non-sinusoidal waveforms. Sinusoidal oscillators
consist of amplifiers with external components used to generate oscillation, or crystals that
internally generate the oscillation. The focus here is on sine wave oscillators, created using
operational amplifiers. Sine wave oscillators are used as references or test waveforms by many
circuits.
An oscillator is a type of feedback amplifier in which part of the output is fed back to the input
via a feedback circuit. If the signal fed back is of proper magnitude and phase, the circuit
produces alternating currents or voltages.
Two requirements for oscillation are:
• The magnitude of the loop gain AvB must be at least 1.

• The total phase shift of the loop gain AvB must be equal to 0o or 360o.
If the amplifier causes a phase shift of 180o, the feedback circuit must provide an additional
phase shift of 180o so that the total phase shift around the loop is 360o. Figure 1 shows a phase
shift oscillator, which consists of an op-amp as the amplifying stage and three RC cascaded
networks as the feedback voltage from the output back to the input of the amplifier. The op-
amp is used in the inverting mode; therefore, any signal that appears at the inverting terminal
is shifted by 180o at the output. An additional 180o phase shift required for oscillation is
provided by the cascaded RC networks. Thus the total phase shift around the loop is 360o (or
0o). At some specific frequency when the phase shift of the cascaded RC networks is exactly
180o and the gain of the amplifier is sufficiently large, the circuit will oscillate at that
frequency. This frequency is called the frequency of oscillation, f0, and it is given by
fo= 1.732/2πRC

Fig 1
A phase-shift oscillator built with one op-amp is shown above. The normal assumption is that
the phase shift sections are independent of each other. Then Equation 3 is written:
AB = A[1/ RCs + 1]3
The loop phase is -180o when the phase shift of each section is -60o, and this occurs when ω =
1.732/2πRC because the tangent of 60o = 1.732. The oscillation frequency with the component
values shown in Fig 1 is slightly different from the calculated oscillation frequency. These
discrepancies are partially due to the component variations, but the biggest contributing factor
is the incorrect assumption that the RC sections do not load each other. This circuit
configuration was very popular when active components were large and expensive, but now
op-amps are inexpensive and small and come four in a package, so the single op amp phase-
shift oscillator is losing popularity.

Buffered phase-shift oscillator:
The buffered phase shift oscillator shown in Figure 2 oscillates very close to the calculated
frequency.
Fig 2
The buffer prevent the RC sections from loading each other, hence the buffered phase shift
oscillator performs closer to the calculated frequency and gain. The gain-setting resistor, R1,
loads the third RC section, and if the fourth op amp in a quad op amp buffers this RC section,
the performance becomes idle. Low-distortion sine waves can be obtained from either phase-
shift oscillator, but the purest sine wave is taken from the output of the last RC section. This is
a high-impedance node, so a high-impedance input is mandated to prevent loading and
frequency shifting with load variations.

Experiment:
Object: To study Phase shift Oscillator with and without buffer between RC sections
Apparatus required:

• DC power supplies -12V, +12V from external source or 7212 Analogue Lab
• 2mm Patch cords
Circuit diagram:
Fig 3
Procedure:
1. To study phase shift oscillator without buffer between RC sections proceed as

follows:-
• Connect +12V,-12V dc power supplies to the indicated terminals from external
• Connect a 2mm patch cord between test points B & C, D & E, F & A
• Measure frequency at any test points T1, T2, T3, T4 using CRO.
• Compare measured frequency with the theoretically calculated value.
• Measure phase difference between test points T1 & T2, T2 & T3, T3 & T4, T4 &
T1 with the help of dual channel CRO.
• Vary gain Pot of 470K to adjust gain of the amplifier in case of clipped
waveform.

Results:
Theoretical value of output frequency = ___________

Practical value of output frequency = ___________
Phase shift between test points T1&T2 = ___________
Phase shift between test points T2 & T3 = ___________
1. To study phase shift oscillator with buffer between RC sections proceed as follows:-
• Connect +12V,-12V DC power supplies to the indicated terminals from external
• Connect a 2mm patch cord between test points B & G, C & H, D & I, E & J, F & K, L
& A.
• Measure frequency at any test points T1, T2, T3, T4 using CRO.
• Measure phase difference between test points T1 & T2, T2 & T3, T3 & T4, T4 & T1
with the help of dual channel CRO.
• Vary gain Pot of 470K to adjust gain of the amplifier in case of clipped waveform.
.
Results:
Theoretical value of output frequency = __________

Practical value of output frequency = __________
Phase shift between test points T1&T2 = __________

Data sheet:

Notes:

AL7212-AL66 Wien Bridge Oscillator
Introduction:
AL66 is a compact, ready to use Wien Bridge Oscillator experiment board. This is useful for
students to understand functionality of Wien bridge oscillator and the effect of RC
combination on the output frequency. It can be used as a stand-alone unit with external DC
potentiometer.
Theory:
saw tooth, and sinusoidal. They generally use some form of active device, lamp or crystal,
surrounded by passive devices such as resistors, capacitors and inductors to generate the
output.
internally generate the oscillation. The focus here is on sine wave oscillators, created using
operational amplifiers op amps. Sine wave oscillators are used as references or test
waveforms by many circuits.
An oscillator is a type of feedback amplifier in which part of the output is fed back to the
input via a feedback circuit. If the signal fed back is of proper magnitude and phase, the
circuit produces alternating currents or voltages.
Two requirements for oscillation are;
• The magnitude of the loop gain AvB must be at least 1.

phase shift of 180o so that the total phase shift around the loop is 360o.
Wien Bridge Oscillator:
The Wien Bridge is one of the simplest and best-known oscillators and is used extensively in
circuits for audio applications. Figure 1 shows the basic Wien bridge circuit configuration. On
the positive side, this circuit has only a few components and good frequency stability. Due to
its simplicity and stability, this is the most commonly used audio-frequency oscillator. In the
Fig shown the Wien bridge circuit is connected between the amplifier input terminals and the
output terminal. The bridge has a series RC network in one arm and a parallel RC network in
the adjoining arm. In the remaining two arms of the bridge, resistor R1 and Rf are connected.

The phase angle criterion for oscillation is that the total phase shift around the circuit must be
0o. This condition occurs only when the bridge is balanced, that is at resonance. The
frequency of oscillation Fo is exactly the resonant frequency of the balanced Wien bridge and
is given by
Fo = 1/2πRC = 0.159/RC
Assuming that the resistors are equal in the value, and the capacitors are equal in the value in
the reactive leg of the Wien Bridge. At this frequency the gain required for sustained
oscillation is given by:
Av = 1/B = 3
That is, 1 + Rf/R1 = 3
or Rf = 2R1
Fig 1 Wien Bridge Circuit Schematic

Experiment:
Object: To study Wien Bridge Oscillator and effect on output frequency with variation in RC
combination.
Apparatus required:

• 2mm Patch cords
Circuit diagram:
Fig 4
Procedure:
1. To study Wien Bridge oscillator, proceed as follows:-

• Connect +12V,-12V dc power supplies to the indicated terminals from external
• Connect a 2mm patch cord between test points I and H.
• Vary Rf Pot to make gain (Rf/R1) greater than 2.
• Record the value of output frequency at test points G.
• Vary gain Pot of 470K to adjust gain of the amplifier in case of clipped
waveform.
• Switch OFF the power supply
• Connect a 2mm patch cord between test points A and B, D and E.
• Repeat the above steps from step 3 to 8.
• Switch OFF the power supply
• Connect a 2mm patch cord between test points B and C, E and F.
• Repeat the above steps from step 3 to 8.

Datasheet:

Notes:

AL7212-AL67 Colpitt Oscillator
Introduction:
AL67 is a Colpitt Oscillator experiment board. This is useful for students to understand
functionality of a Colpitt oscillator. It can be used as a stand-alone unit with external DC
potentiometer.
Theory:
saw tooth, and sinusoidal. They can be made from some form of active or passive device like
transistor, FETs and op-amp in association with devices such as resistors, capacitors and
inductors to generate the output.
internally generate the oscillation. The focus here is on sine wave oscillators. Sine wave
oscillators are used as references or test waveforms by many circuits.
An oscillator is a type of feedback amplifier in which part of the output is fed back to the input
via a feedback circuit. If the signal fed back is of proper magnitude and phase, the circuit
produces alternating currents or voltages. Two requirements for oscillation are
• The magnitude of the loop gain AvB must be at least 1, and

phase shift of 180o so that the total phase shift around the loop is 360o.
Colpitt Oscillator:
The Colpitt oscillator is one of the simplest and best-known oscillators and is used extensively
in circuits which work at radio frequencies. Fig.1 shows the basic Colpitt oscillator circuit
configuration. The transistor is in voltage divider bias, which sets up Q-point of the circuit. In
the circuit, note that Vout is actually the ac voltage across C2. This voltage is fed back to the
base and sustains oscillations developed across the tank circuit, provided there is enough
voltage gain at the oscillation frequency.

Fig 1
The resonant frequency of the Colpitt oscillator can be calculated from the tank circuit used.
We can calculate the approx. resonant frequency as
Resonant 1
Frequency (Fr) = (1)
2π√ LC)
Here, the capacitance used is the equivalent capacitance the circulating current passes through.
In Colpitt oscillator the circulating current passes through the series combination of C1 and C2,
therefore equivalent capacitance is,
Cequ =C1 * C2
C1 + C2
Starting condition for oscillations is
AB>1
Where,
B is approximately equal to C1 / C2.
The feedback should be enough to start oscillations under all conditions as different
transistors, are used at varying, temperatures, voltages, etc. But the feedback should not
be so large that you lose the required output. The resonant frequency can be changed
by either changing the value of inductor or changing the value of capacitor but the
combination of the three components should satisfy the above given two
conditions for oscillation.

Experiment:
Object: To study the operation of Colpitt Oscillator.
Apparatus required:

• Oscilloscope.
• 2mm Patch cords.
Circuit diagram:
Circuit used to study the operation of Colpitt Oscillator is as shown in Fig.2.
Fig 2
Procedure:
1. To study Colpitt oscillator proceed as follows:-

• Connect +12V dc power supply to the indicated terminals from external source or
7212 Analogue Lab.
• Connect a patch cord between points (a) and (b) and another patch Cord between
points (d) and (g1).
• Connect oscilloscope between points (f) and (g2) on AB–67 board.
• Record the value of output frequency on oscilloscope.
• Calculate the resonant frequency using equation 1.
• Switch off the supply.
• Remove the patch Cord connected between points (a) and (b) and connect it
between points (a) and (c).
• Remove the patch Cord connected between points d and g1 and connect it
between points (e) and (g2).
• Follow the procedure from point 4 to 8.
• Connect +5V supply instead of +12V supply and follow the procedure from point
2 to point 11.

Result:
When patch Cord connected across C1 and C2
Practically calculated Output frequency (on CRO): …………………….
Theoretically calculated values

Cequ: ……………………………………... (use eq.2 )
Resonant frequency (fr): ………………….. (use eq.1 )
Output voltage amplitude: …………………… Vp-p
When patch Cord connected across C3 and C4

Practically calculated Output frequency (on CRO): …………………….
Theoretically calculated values

Cequ : ……………………………………... (use eq.2 )
Resonant frequency (fr): ………………….. (use eq.1 )
Output voltage amplitude: …………………… Vp-p
Record above results separately for +12V input voltage and +5V input voltage.

Datasheet:

Notes:

AL7212-AL81 Kirchoff’s Laws (KCL and KVL)
Introduction:
AL81 is a Kirchoff’s Laws experiment board; this is useful for students to study Kirchoff’s
current Law and Kirchoff’s voltage Law. It can be used as a stand-alone unit with external
DC power supply or can be used with Analogue Lab 7212 that has built in DC power supply,
AC power supply, function generator, modulation generator, continuity tester, toggle switches
and potentiometer.
Theory:
Kirchoff’s two laws reveal a unique relationship between current, voltage and resistance in
electrical circuits that is vital to performing and understanding electrical circuit analysis.
Many circuits are extremely complex and cannot be solved with Ohm’s Law. These circuits
have many branches that would make the use of Ohm’s Law impractical or impossible.
Through experimentation in 1857 the German physicist Gustav Kirchoff developed methods
to solve complex circuits. Kirchoff developed two conclusions, known today as Kirchoff’s
Laws.
Law 1: The sum of the voltage drops around a closed loop is equal to the sum of the voltage
sources of that loop (Kirchoff’s Voltage Law).
Law 2: The current arriving at any junction point in a circuit is equal to the current leaving
that junction (Kirchoff’s Current Law).
Kirchoff’s two laws may seem obvious based on what we already know about circuit theory.
Even though they may seem very simple, they are powerful tools in solving complex and
difficult circuits.
Kirchoff’s Voltage Law:
Kirchoff’s first law is also known as his "voltage law." The voltage law gives the relationship
between the "voltage drops" around any closed loop in a circuit, and the voltage sources in
that loop. The total of these two quantities is always equal. In equation form: Esource = E1 +
E2 + E3 + etc. = I1R1 + I2R2 + I3R3 + etc. ΣE source = ΣIR, where the symbol Σ (the Greek
letter sigma) means "the sum of."

Kirchoff’s voltage law can be applied only to closed loops (Fig 1).
Fig 1
A closed loop must meet two conditions:
• It must have one or more voltage sources.

• It must have a complete path for current flow from any point, around the loop, and
back to that point.
Kirchoff’s Current Law:
Kirchoff’s second law is called his current law and states: "At any junction point in a circuit,
the current arriving is equal to the current leaving. "Thus, if 15 amperes of current arrives at a
junction that has two paths leading away from it, 15 amperes will divide among the two
branches, but a total of 15 amperes must leave the junction.
We are already familiar with Kirchoff’s current law from parallel circuits, that is, the sum of
the branch currents is equal to the total current entering the branches, as well as the total
current leaving the branches.
In = Out 1 + Out 2 In 1 + In 2 + In 3 = Out
Fig 2
While applying the above two laws for circuit calculations, plenty of errors can occur unless
proper algebraic signs are given both to IR drops and battery EMFs. We will follow a very
simple sign convention, which would apply equally to IR drops and battery EMFs. A rise (or
increase) in voltage would be considered positive and given a +ve sign and a fall (or decrease)
in voltage would be considered negative and hence given a –ve sign. For Battery EMF while
going round a loop if we go from the negative to positive terminal of a battery, there is a rise
in potential, hence this EMF should be given +ve sign. For IR drops on resistor if we go
through a resistor in the same direction as its current, then there is a fall or decrease in
potential for the same reason that current always flows from a higher to a lower potential.
Hence this IR drop should be taken –ve, however, if we go around the loop in the opposite
direction to that of the current, i.e., if we go upstream, then there is a rise in voltage. Hence
this IR drop should be taken as positive. Therefore, the algebraic sign of IR drop across a
resistor depends on the direction of current in that resistor

Experiment 1:
Object: To verify Kirchoff’s current law
Apparatus required:
• Analogue board AL81

• 2mm patch cords
Circuit diagram:
Circuit used to study Kirchoff’s Current Law is shown in Fig 3
Fig 3

Procedure:
Connect +12V dc power supply to the indicated terminals from external source or 7212
Analogue Lab.
1. Connect 2mm patch cord between test points 1 & 2, 3 & 4, 5 & 6, 7 & 8, 9 & 10, 11
&12, 13 &14, 15 & 16,
2. To test KCL at node B
3. Measure incoming current Iin between test points 1 & 2 by replacing 2mm patch cord
with an ammeter.
4. Reconnect patch cord between test points 1 & 2.
5. Measure outgoing current I1 between test points 7 & 8 by replacing 2mm patch cord
with ammeter.
7. Measure outgoing current I2 between test points 3 & 4 by replacing 2mm patch cord
with an ammeter.
9. Check whether the sum of incoming current/currents is equal to the sum of outgoing
current/currents.
10. Repeat above procedure for junction point C, D, G, H, I and there corresponding
incoming and outgoing current/currents
Result :
_______ (yes/No), the sum of incoming current/currents is equal to the sum of out going
current/currents for all junction point.

Experiment 2
Object: To verify Kirchoff’s Voltage Law
Apparatus required:

Circuit diagram:
Circuit used to study Kirchoff’s Voltage Law is shown in Fig 4
Fig 4

Procedure:
Connect +12V dc power supply to the indicated terminals from external source or 7212
Analogue Lab.
1. Connect 2mm patch cord between test points 1 & 2, 3 & 4, 5 & 6, 7 & 8, 9 & 10, 11
&12, 13 &14, 15 & 16,
2. To test KVL in loop ABIJ.
3. Measure current Iin flowing through resistor of 330E with the help of ammeter by
replacing 2mm patch cord between test points 1 & 2 with an ammeter.
5. Measure current I1 flowing through resistor of 100E with the help of ammeter by
7. Measure current Iout flowing through resistor of 100E with the help of ammeter by
9. Calculate different IR drop in the selected loop (Check that the Sign of IR drop
should be given after considering direction on current)
10. Measure the sum of IR drop with there sign.
11. Equate the sum of all IR drop with there sign and sum of the source voltage of that
particular loop.
12. In case of No voltage source in loop take the sum of all voltage source equal to zero.
13. Repeat above procedure for loop BCHI, CDGH, DEFG …………by measuring
current flowing through different resistor in the loop
Result:
_______ (yes/No), the sum of IR drop in all of the loop is equal to the source voltage of that
loop coming and is equal to zero in case of loop with No voltage source.

Notes:

AL7212-AL82 Thévenin’s Theorem
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
Introduction:
AL82 is a Thévenin’s Theorem experiment board, this is useful for students to study
Thévenin’s Theorem and Maximum Power Transfer Theorem. It can be used as a stand-alone
Theory:
Thévenin’s Theorem:
Any two-terminal, linear bilateral dc network can be replaced by an equivalent circuit

consisting of a voltage source and a series resistor
The Thévenin’s equivalent circuit provides an equivalent at the terminals only – the internal
construction and characteristics of the original network and the Thévenin’s equivalent are
usually quite different.
This theorem achieves two important objectives:
• Provides a way to find any particular voltage or current in a linear network with one,
two, or any other number of sources
• We can concentration on a specific portion of a network by replacing the remaining
network with an equivalent circuit
Sequence to proper value of RTh and ETh

Preliminary :
• Remove that portion of the network across which the Thévenin equation circuit is to
be found. In the figure below, this requires that the load resistor RL be temporarily
removed from the network.
• Mark the terminals of the remaining two-terminal network. (The importance of this
step will become obvious as we progress through some complex networks)
RTh:
• Calculate RTh by first setting all sources to zero (voltage sources are replaced by short
circuits, and current sources by open circuits) and then finding the resultant resistance
between the two marked terminals. (If the internal resistance of the voltage and/or
current sources is included in the original network, it must remain when the sources
are set to zero) ETh:
• Calculate ETh by first returning all sources to their original position and finding the
open-circuit voltage between the marked terminals. (This step is invariably the one
that will lead to the most confusion and errors. In all cases, keep in mind that this is
the open-circuit potential between the two terminals marked in steps 2)
Conclusion:
• Draw the Thévenin equivalent circuit with the portion of the circuit previously
removed replaced between the terminals of the equivalent circuit. This step is
indicated by the placement of the resistor RL between the terminals of the Thévenin
equivalent circuit
Experimental Procedures:
• Two popular experimental procedures for determining the parameters of the Thévenin
equivalent network:
• Direct Measurement of ETh and RTh
• For any physical network, the value of ETh can be determined experimentally by
measuring the open-circuit voltage across the load terminals.
• The value of RTh can then be determined by completing the network with a
variable resistance RL.
Measuring VOC and ISC:

The Thévenin voltage is again determined by measuring the open-circuit voltage across the
terminals of interest; that is, ETh = VOC. To determine RTh, a short-circuit condition is
established across the terminals of interest and the current through the short circuit Isc is
measured with an ammeter
Using Ohm’s law: RTh = Voc / Isc
Fig 2

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem:
The maximum power transfer theorem states that when the load resistance is equal to the
source's internal resistance, maximum power will be developed in the load. Since most low
voltage DC power supplies have a very low internal resistance (10 ohms or less) great
difficulty would result in trying to affect this condition under actual laboratory
experimentation. If one were to connect a low value resistor across the terminals of a 10-volt
supply, high power ratings would be required, and the resulting current would probably cause
the supply's current rating to be exceeded. In this experiment, therefore, the student will
simulate a higher internal resistance by purposely connecting a high value of resistance in
series with the DC voltage supply's terminal. Refer to Figure 1 below. The terminals (a & b)
will be considered as the power supplies output voltage terminals. The student will use a
potentiometer as a variable size of load resistance. For various settings of the potentiometer
representing RL, the load current and load voltage will be measured. The power dissipated by
the load resistor can then be calculated. For the condition of RL = Ri, the student will verify
by measurement that maximum power is developed in the load resistor.
The maximum amount of power will be dissipated by a load resistance when that load
resistance is equal to the Thévenin / Norton resistance of the network supplying the power. If
the load resistance is lower or higher than the Thévenin / Norton resistance of the source
network, its dissipated power will be less than its maximum.
This is essentially what is aimed for in stereo system design, where speaker "impedance" is
matched to amplifier "impedance" for maximum sound power output. Impedance, the overall
opposition to AC and DC current, is very similar to resistance, and must be equal between
source and load for the greatest amount of power to be transferred to the load. A load
impedance that is too high will result in low power output. A load impedance that is too low
will not only result in low power output, but possibly overheating of the amplifier due to the
power dissipated in its internal (Thévenin or Norton) impedance.
Taking our Thévenin equivalent example circuit, the Maximum Power Transfer Theorem tells
us that the load resistance resulting in greatest power dissipation is equal in value to the
Thévenin resistance (in this case, 680 Ω):
With this value of load resistance, the dissipated power will be Maximum

Experiment 1:
Object: To Verify Thévenin’s Theorem
Apparatus required:

• DC power supplies +12V,+5V from external source or 7212 Analogue Lab.
• 2mm patch cords
Circuit diagram:
Circuit used to study Thévenin’s is shown in Fig 3
Fig 3

Procedure:
1. Connect +12V, +5V dc power supplies to the indicated terminals from external source
or 7212 Analogue Lab.
2. To measure practical value of Thévenin’s equivalent voltage VTH of given circuit,
proceed as follows.
• Connect a 2mm patch cord between test points 1 & 2.
• As we wants to replace left side of Load resistance by its Thévenin’s equivalent
circuit. Disconnect load resistance by removing Patch cord between test points 3
& 4.
• Measure voltage between test points 3 & 5.
• This is the required value of Thévenin’s equivalent voltage.
3. To measure Theoretical value of Thévenin’s equivalent voltage VTH of given circuit,
proceed as follows.
• Determine the value of current I flowing through 511E resistor with the help of
basic current laws.
• Product of current I and resistance value 511 is the required theoretical value of
VTH.
• Compare theoretical and practical value of Thévenin’s equivalent voltage VTH
4. To measure practical value of Thévenin’s equivalent Resistance RTH of given circuit,
proceed as follows.
• Disconnect the 2mm patch cord between test points 1 & 2.
• As we want to replace the left side of Load resistance by its Thévenin’s
equivalent circuit. Disconnect load resistance by removing Patch cord between
test points 3 & 4.
• Connect test point 2 & ground to replace source by its internal resistance
(Assuming it negligible )
• Measure resistance between test points 3 & 5.
• This is the required value of Thévenin’s equivalent resistance RTH.
5. Measure the theoretical value of Thévenin’s equivalent resistance (RTH) between test
points 3 & 5 of the given circuit, by using fundamentals of resistance in series and
parallel.
6. Compare theoretical and practical value of Thévenin’s equivalent resistance RTH.
7. To compare the given circuit with its Thévenin’s equivalent circuit proceed as follows:
• Connect a 2mm patch cord between test points 1&2,
• Set the value of Load resistance of given circuit and its equivalent circuit equals
to 500Ω, 600Ω, 700Ω, 1K.
• Connect an ammeter between test points 3 & 4 to measure current flowing
through load resistance of given circuit.
• Connect an ammeter between test points 6 & 7 to measure current flowing
through load resistance of Thévenin’s equivalent circuit.
8. Compare current flowing through both of the load resistance.
Result:
Theoretical value of Thévenin’s equivalent voltage VTH = _______.

Practical value of Thévenin’s equivalent voltage VTH = _______.
Theoretical value of Thévenin’s equivalent resistance RTH = _____.
Practical value of Thévenin’s equivalent resistance RTH = _____.
(Yes/No) ______, the value of current flowing through the load resistance in both of the cases
is approximately equal. Hence Thévenin’s theorem is verified.

Experiment 2:
Object: To verify maximum power transfer theorem.
Apparatus required:

• DC power supplies +12V,+5V from external source or 7212 Analogue Lab.
• 2mm patch cords
Circuit diagram:
Circuit used to study Maximum power transfer theorem is shown in Fig 4
Fig 4
Procedure:
1. Connect +12V, +5V dc power supplies to the indicated terminals from external source
or 7212 Analogue Lab.
2. As we already have Thévenin’s equivalent circuit of given circuit, to verify Maximum

Power Transfer Theorem proceed as follows:
• Set a value of load resistance RL at some lower value (100Ω, 200Ω, 300Ω, 600Ω,
680Ω, 700Ω) than Thévenin’s resistance by keeping ohmmeter between test
points 7 and ground.
• Connect a multimeter between test points 6&7 as an ammeter to measure current
flowing through Load resistance RL.
• Determine the product of IL*RL, the power dissipated for this value of Load
resistance.
• Record the value of Load Resistor RL, Current flowing through Load resistance
IL, Power dissipated PL in observation table.

Load
Step Load Current Power dissipated
Resistance
Number IL PL
RL
1 400Ω
2 450Ω
3 500Ω
4 550Ω
5 600Ω
6 650Ω
7 680Ω
8 700Ω
9 750Ω
Result :
_______ (yes/No), the maximum amount of power will be dissipated by a load resistance
when that load resistance is equal to the Thévenin resistance of the network supplying the
power and the value of Maximum power dissipated is found equal to _________.

Notes:

AL7212-AL83 Reciprocity Theorem
Superposition Theorem
Introduction:
AL83 is an experiment board for students to study Superposition Theorem and Reciprocity
Theorem. It can be used as a stand-alone unit with external DC power supply or can be used
with Analogue Lab 7212 that has built in DC power supply, AC power supply, function
generator, modulation generator, continuity tester, toggle switches and potentiometer.
Theory:
Superposition Theorem: The total current in any part of a linear circuit equals the algebraic
sum of the currents produced by each source separately
The Superposition Theorem is an important concept in circuit analysis. It allows you to

determine a voltage across a component or a branch current by calculating the effect of each
source individually, and then algebraically adding each contribution.
Superposition may be considered for circuit analysis when:

• There are two or more energy sources.
• The sources are either voltage or current sources.
• The circuit is not too complex.
There are five steps used in applying the Superposition theorem to a circuit.
• Select one energy source.
• Remove all other sources by replacing voltage sources with a short while retaining
any internal source resistance and replacing current sources with an open while
retaining any internal resistances.
• Calculate the desired voltage drops or branch currents paying attention to the voltage
polarities and current directions.
• Repeat steps 1 through 3 for each other source individually.
• Algebraically add the contributions of each voltage or current.

Reciprocity Theorem:
The reciprocity theorem is applicable only to single-source networks and states the following:
• The current I in any branch of a network, due to a single voltage source E anywhere
in the network, will equal the current through the branch in which the source was
originally located if the source is placed in the branch in which the current I was
originally measured
• The location of the voltage source and the resulting current may be interchanged
without a change in current
In other words, The current in any branch of a network, due to a single voltage source E
anywhere else in the network, will equal the current through the branch in which the source
was originally located if the source is placed in the branch in which the current I was
originally measured.
If VS = VS then IV = I2
IV I2
Actually exists =
VS VS

Experiment 1:
Object: To verify Superposition Theorem
Apparatus required:
• 2mm patch cords
Circuit diagram: Circuit used to Verify Superposition Theorem is shown in Fig 3
Fig 3
Procedure:
Connect +12V, +5V dc power supplies to the indicated terminals from external source or
7212 Analogue Lab.
• Connect 2mm patch cord between test points 1 & 2, 11 & 12, 5 & 6, 7 & 8, 4 & 9.
• Connect an ammeter between test points 3 & 10 to measure current flowing through
branch CD in presence of both voltage sources.
• Remove one of the supplies (say +5V) from branch AB by disconnecting patch cords
between test points 1 & 2, 11 & 12.
• Connect a 2mm patch cord between test points 2 & 11.
• Measure the value of current flowing through branch CD in presence of single
voltage source of +12V.
• Repeat above two steps for the measurement of current flowing through branch CD in
presence of other voltage source of +5V.
• Compare the amount of current flowing in presence of both of the source with the
sum of current flowing in case of individual source.
• Repeat above procedure for other branches.

Result:
_______ (Yes/No), the sum of current flowing through branches in case of individual sources
is nearly equals to the amount of current flowing through the same branch in case of both of
the sources.
Voltage across branches may be used to verify superposition theorem.
Repeat the above steps for voltage across branches 13 & 17, 14 & 17, 15 & 17, 16 & 17 in
presence of both of the supplies and in presence of individual supplies.

Experiment 2:
Object: To verify Reciprocity Theorem
Apparatus required:
Circuit diagram: Circuit used to verify Reciprocity Theorem is shown in Fig 4
Fig 4
Procedure:
• Connect +12V, +5V dc power supplies to the indicated terminals from external
• Connect 2mm patch cord between test points 1 & 2, 11 & 12, 3 & 10, 4 & 9.
branch GH in presence of +5V supply.
• Switch on the power supply.
• Measure the value of current flowing through branch GH in presence of single
voltage source of +5V in branch AB.
• Interchange the position of supply and ammeter i.e. remove 2mm patch cord between
test points 1 & 2, 11 & 12, and ammeter from test point 5 & 8 and connect 2mm
patch cord between test points 1 & 5, 8 & 12, 3 & 10, 4 & 9.
branch AB in presence of +5V supply in branch GH.
• Measure the value of current flowing through branch AB in presence of single
voltage source of +5V in branch GH.
• Repeat above steps for the measurement of current flowing through any branch in
presence of voltage source of +5V/+12V in other branch also measure the current
flow after interchanging position of supply and ammeter, as done above.

• Compare the amount of current flowing in first branch, when the source is in second
branch with the amount of current flow in second branch when the source is in first
branch.
Note: Take care of current direction and supply polarity while interchanging one by other.
Result:
_______ (yes/No), the amount of current flowing in branch one when the source is in the
second branch is equal to the current flowing in second branch when the source an ammeter
are interchanged.

Notes:

Exercises for solder less
Breadboards and Components
Please note that the experiments listed in this manual are for guidance only, students are
expected to apply their own skills to modify or correct the circuits wherever required. Use
pull up resistors if outputs are not obtained from ICs. Pin diagrams of ICs are given in the
Appendices, use them for correct connections.

Experiment 1:
Object: To study Diode in DC Circuit.
List of Components required:
Component Quantity
Potentiometer 1K 1
Diode KH4007 2
Circuit Diagram:
Procedure:
1. Make connections as shown in diagram.

2. Connect +12V supply from DC power supply block to 1 and 2.
3. Connect terminal 3 to 4.
4. Connect voltmeter across D1.
5. Connect ammeter between terminal 6 and 7.
6. Turn potentiometer to minimum resistance value.
7. Switch ON the unit.
8. Vary potentiometer and note down reading of voltmeter and ammeter.
9. Repeat above steps for Diode D2.
Observation:
Current in forward biased diode increases exponentially up to cut-in voltage (0.687V),

and linearly afterwards.

Experiment 2:
Object: To study Light Emitting Diode in DC Circuit.
List of Components Required:
Component Quantity
Potentiometer 1K 1
LED 2
Circuit Diagram:
Procedure:
1. Make Connections as shown in diagram.

2. Connect +12V supply from DC power supply block to 1 and 2.
3. Connect terminal 3 to 4.
4. Connect voltmeter across D1.
5. Connect ammeter between terminal 6 and 7.
6. Turn potentiometer to minimum resistance value.
7. Switch ON the unit
8. Vary potentiometer and note down reading of voltmeter and ammeter.
9. Repeat above steps for Diode D2.
Observation:
Current in forward biased LED increases exponentially up to cut-in voltage (1.4V)

and linearly afterwards.

Experiment 3:
Object: To study Half Wave Rectifier.
Component Quantity
Resistance 1K 1
Diode KH4007 1
Capacitor 47uF 1
Circuit Diagram:
Procedure:

2. Connect 9V AC from AC voltage block to terminals 1 and 2.
3. Disconnect capacitor C from the circuit.
4. Switch ON the unit
5. Connect terminals 3 and 4 to oscilloscope and observe output.
6. Connect Capacitor C at its place and observe output on oscilloscope.

Experiment 4:
Object: To study Full Wave Rectifier
Conventional Full Wave Rectifier

Bridge Rectifier
Component Quantity
Resistors 1K 1
Diodes KH4007 4
Capacitors 47uF 1
Circuit Diagram:
Procedure:
1. Make connections as shown in diagram 1.

2. Connect 9V-0V-9V AC from AC voltage block to terminals 1, 2 and 3.
3. Disconnect capacitor C from the circuit.
5. Connect terminals 4 and 5 to oscilloscope and observe output.
6. Now connect Capacitor C at its place and observe output on oscilloscope.
7. Repeat above steps for Bridge Rectifier as show in diagram 2.

Experiment 5:
Object: Study of Zener Diode as a Voltage Regulator
Component Quantity
Resistance 52Ohm, 1W 1
Potentiometer
1K 1
100K 1
Zener Diode 5.6V 1
Circuit Diagram:
Procedure:

2. Connect +10V supply from DC Power Supply block to 1 and 2.
3. Connect voltmeter across terminal 3 and ground to measure input voltage.
4. Connect voltmeter, 2 across terminal 5 and ground to measure output voltage.
5. Vary Potentiometer P2 and set the value of resistance between terminal 5 and ground
to 2 K.
6. Connect terminal 4 and 5.
7. Switch ON the supply.
8. Vary the Input voltage using the Potentiometer P1 in steps between 6V to 8V
and record the corresponding values of voltmeter 2.
9. Disconnect terminal 4 and 5.
10. Set the potentiometer P2 so that the value of resistance between terminal 5 and ground
is minimum.
12. Adjust input voltage V 1 equal to 9V with the Potentiometer P 1.
13. Vary the load resistance RL with the potentiometer P2 from its minimum value
to maximum value and measure the Output voltage across terminal 5 and
ground.
Observations:
In the first case when input voltage is varied keeping load resistance contact (2K),
regulated 5.6V across load is obtained.
In the second case when load resistance is varied keeping input voltage constant (9V),
regulated 5.6V across load is obtained.

Experiment 6:
Object: Study of Transistor Series Voltage Regulator
Component Quantity
Resistor
200 ohm 1
100 ohm 1
Potentiometer
1K 1
100K 1
NPN Transistors STN 3904 1
Zener Diode 5.6V 1
Circuit Diagram:
Procedure:

3. Connect voltmeter l across terminal 3 and ground to measure input voltage.
4. Connect voltmeter2 across terminal 6 and ground to measure output voltage.
5. Vary Potentiometer P2 and set the value of resistance between terminal 6 and ground
to 500 ohm.
8. Vary the Input voltage using the Potentiometer P1 in steps between 6.5V to 9.5V and
record the corresponding values of voltmeter 2.
9. Measure voltage V BE between terminals 4 and 5, terminal 4 and ground (Zener
voltage) at every step.
11. Set the potentiometer P2 so that the value of resistance between terminal 6 and
ground is 100 Ohm (minimum).
13. Adjust input voltage V 1 equal to 9V with the Potentiometer P1.
14. Vary the -load resistance RL with potentiometer PZ from its minimum value to
maximum value and measure Output voltage.
15. Measure the Zener voltage between terminals 4 and ground, Voltage V BE across
terminals 4 and 5 at every step.

Observations:
In the first case when input voltage is varied keeping load resistance constant (500 Ohm),
regulated Output voltage equal to 4.9V between the points 6 and ground is obtained.
In the second case when load resistance is varied keeping input voltage constant (9V),
regulated Voltage of 4.9V across load resistance RL is obtained.
Output voltage across load is always equal to the difference of Zener voltage and VBE of the
NPN transistor.

Experiment 7:
Object: Study of Transistor Shunt Voltage Regulator.
Component Quantity
Resistance
200 ohm 1
52 ohm (1W) 1
Potentiometer 1K 2
NPN Transistor STN 3904 1
Zener Diode 5.6V 1
Circuit Diagram:
Procedure:

3. Connect voltmeter 1 across terminal 3 and ground to measure input voltage.
4. Connect voltmeter 2 across terminal 7 and ground to measure output voltage.
5. Vary Potentiometer P2 and set the resistance between point 7 and ground to 400 ohm.
8. Vary the Input voltage with Potentiometer Pl in steps between 7V to 10V and record
the corresponding values of voltmeter 2.
9. Also measure the Zener voltage between terminals 4 and 5 and VBE between the
terminals 5 and ground at every step.
11. Set the potentiometer P2 so that the value of resistance between terminal 7 and
ground will be 200 ohm.
13. Adjust input voltage Vi equal to 9V with the Potentiometer P l.
14. Vary the load resistance RL with the potentiometer PZ from its minimum to
maximum value and record the corresponding values of Output voltage in voltmeter
2.
15. Measure Zener voltage between terminals 4 and 5 and Voltage V BE between the
terminals 5 and ground at every step.

Observations:
In the first case when input voltage is varied keeping resistance constant (400 ohm), regulated
Output voltage equal to 6.3V is obtained across terminal 7 and ground, which is equal to sum
of Zener Voltage and Voltage VBE of the NPN Transistor.
In the second instance when load resistance is varied keeping input voltage constant (9V),
regulated Voltage same as that of the first case is obtained across load resistor RL.
Output voltage across load is always equal to the sum of the Zener Voltage and VBE of the
NPN transistor.

Experiment 8:
Object: To study Low Pass Filter
Component Quantity
Resistors 10K 2
Potentiometer 100K 1
Capacitor 0.01uF 1
IC 741 1
Circuit Diagram:
Procedure:
1. Make connections as shown in diagram

2. Connect +12V to pin no 7 and -12V to pin no 4 of IC 741. IC pin diagram.
3. Set the potentiometer at 15.9K.
4. Connect a sine wave of amplitude 1Vp-p, 100 Hz from function generator block to the
Vin input of low pass filter as shown in the figure.
5. Switch ON the instrument.
6. Observe the Vout output on the oscilloscope, since the gain of low pass filter is 2.
7. Vary the frequency of Input signal and observe Vout on oscilloscope.
Observations:
At the high cut-off frequency of 1KHz output voltage (Vout) of low pass filter reduces to
0.707 time of mid band value.

Experiment 9:
Object: To study high pass filter
Component Quantity
Resistors 10K 2
Potentiometer 100K 1
Capacitor 0.01uF 1
IC 741 1
Circuit Diagram:
Procedure:

2. Connect +12V to pin no 7 and -12V to pin no 4 of IC741. See IC pin diagram.
3. Set the potentiometer at 15.9K.
4. Connect a sine wave of amplitude 1Vp-p, 10 KHz from the function generator block
to the Vin input of high pass filter as shown in the figure.
5. Switch on the unit.
6. Observe the Vout output on the oscilloscope. A sine wave of 2Vp-p of corresponding
frequency is observed on oscilloscope, since the gain of high pass filter is 2.
Observations:
At low cut-off frequency of 1 KHz Output voltage Vout of high pass filter reduced to 0.707
times of its mid-band value.

Experiment 10:
Object: To study Band Pass Filter
Component Quantity
Resistors 10K 4
Potentiometers 100K 2
Capacitor 0.01 uF 1
Capacitor 0.047uF 1
IC 741 2
Circuit Diagram:
Procedure:

2. Connect +12V to pin no 7 and -12V to pin no 4 of IC741. See IC pin diagram.
3. Set the potentiometer P 1 at
15.9K.
4. Set the potentiometer P2 at 7.9K.
5. Connect a sine wave of amplitude 1 Vp-p, 1 KHz from function generator block to
the Vin input of band pass filter as shown in the figure.
6. Switch ON the instrument.
7. Observe the Vout output on the oscilloscope. A sine wave of 2Vp-p of corresponding
frequency is observed on oscilloscope, since the gain of band pass filter is 2.
8. Increase the frequency of Input signal till the observed output on oscilloscope reduces
to 0.707 times of mid-band value.
9. Decrease the frequency of Input signal till the observed output on oscilloscope
reduces to 0.707 time of its mid-band value.
Observations:
At low cut-off frequency of 200Hz and high cut-off frequency of 2KHz, the output voltage of
band pass filter decreases to 0.707 times of mid-band value.

Experiment 11:
Object: To study Common Emitter Characteristics of an NPN Transistor
Component Quantity
Resistance
5K 1
100 ohm 1
Potentiometers 1K 2
Transistor NPN
BC548 1
Circuit Diagram:
Procedure:
1. Make connections as shown in the diagram.

2. Connect +5V DC from DC power supply block to terminal 1 and 2.
3. Connect +10V Dc from the DC power supply block to terminals 3 and 4.
5. Set both potentiometers such that VCE and VBE equal to 0V.
6. Vary P2 to get VCE equal to 3V.
7. Vary P1 to get VBE from 0V to 0.8V and record the corresponding value of IB.
8. Plot curve between VBE and IB, this plot will give the input characteristics.
9. Vary P1 to get IB equal to 0 amp.
10. Vary P2 to get VCE from 0V to 6V and record the corresponding value of IC.
11. Repeat step 11 for IB equal to 20uA, 40uA and 60uA.
12. Plot the curve between VCE and IC, this plot will give you the output characteristics.

Experiment 12:
Object: To study Common Base Characteristics of an NPN Transistor
Component Quantity
Resistance 51 ohm 1W 2
Potentiometers 1K 2
Transistor NPN
BC548 1
Circuit Diagram:
Procedure:

2. Connect -5V DC from DC power supply block to terminals 1 and 2.
3. Connection +10V DC from DC power supply block to terminals 3 and 4.
5. Set both potentiometers such that VCB and VBE are equal to 0V.
6. Vary P2 to get VCB equal to 3V.
7. Vary P1 to get VBE from 0V to 0.8V and record the corresponding value of IE.
8. Plot the curve between VBE and IE, this plot will give the input characteristics.
9. Vary P1 to get IE equal to 0 amp.
10. Vary P2 to get VCE from 0V to 10V and record the corresponding value of IC.
11. Repeat previous step for IE equal to 5mA, 7mA and 10mA.
12. Plot curve between VCE and IC, this plot will give the output characteristics.

Experiment 13:
Object: To study Common Emitter Amplifier
Component Quantity
Resistance
511 ohms 1
4.7 K ohms 1
10 K ohms 1
100 K ohms 1
Capacitor
1uF 2
22uF 1
Transistor NPN
2N2369A 1
Circuit Diagram:
Procedure:
1. Make connection as show in the diagram.

2. Connect +9V DC from DC power supply block to terminal 1.
4. Connect a sine wave of amplitude 10mVp-p, 1KHz from the function generator block
to the Vin of the Common Emitter Amplifier as shown in the figure.
5. Observe the Vout on the oscilloscope. A sine wave of 1Vp-p of corresponding
frequency is observed on the oscilloscope.
6. Repeat the previous two steps for Vin equal to 25mV.
7. Calculate the voltage gain = Vout / Vin.
8. Decrease the input frequency till the output falls to 0.707V, this is the low cut-off
frequency (FL).
9. Increase the input frequency till the output falls to 0.707, this is the high cut-off
frequency (FH).
10. Calculate the bandwidth = FH-FL.

Experiment 14:
Object: To study Mono-stable multi-vibrator
Component Quantity
Resistance
1K 2
15K 2
47.5 1
Transistor 2N3904 2
Switch 1p-2w 1
Capacitor
100 MFD 1
1MFD 1
Circuit Diagram:
Procedure:

2. Connect indicated power supply from the DC power supply block.
3. Open switch sw1.
5. Connect terminal 4 to CRO, output will be 0V.
6. Close switch to trigger multi-vibrator.
7. Output will be +5V for time period T=0.69C1R1 Sec and low afterwards.

Experiment 15:
Object: To study Bi-stable Multi-vibrator
Component Quantity
Resistance
1K 2
15K 2
47.5K 2
Transistor 2N3904 2
Switch 1p-2w 1
Capacitor
1 MFD 2
Circuit Diagram:
Procedure:

2. Connect indicated power supply from the DC power supply block.
4. Trigger terminal T1 using switch sw1.
5. Connect terminal 4 to CRO, output will be +5V.
6. Output will remain the same till next trigger is given to T2.
7. Output will be 0V.
8. Output will remain same till next trigger is given to T1.

Experiment 16:
Object: To study A-stable Multi-vibrator
Component Quantity
Resistance
1K 2
10K 2
Transistor 2N3904 2
Capacitor
22nF 2
Circuit Diagram:
Procedure:

2. Connect the indicated power supply from the DC power supply block.
4. Connect terminal 4 to CRO.
5. Output will be 5Vp-p.
6. Total time period of output wave will be 0.69 (R1C1+R2C2).

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Analogue Lab Manual

124 Anglesey Court

© Bytronic Limited AL7212 i

The Analogue Lab consists of the following equipment:

DC Power Supplies : +5V, 1A (fixed)

© Bytronic Limited AL7212 1

DC Power Supply : Block provides fixed DC output of +4V, +12V, -

Operating Instruction and Panel Control Description:

© Bytronic Limited AL7212 2

© Bytronic Limited AL7212 3

© Bytronic Limited AL7212 5

© Bytronic Limited AL7212 6

© Bytronic Limited AL7212 7

© Bytronic Limited AL7212 8

Object: To study the characteristics of Silicon diode in:

1. Analogue board AL01.

© Bytronic Limited AL7212 9

1. To plot Reverse characteristics of a Si diode proceed as follows

© Bytronic Limited AL7212 10

Object: To study the characteristics of Zener diode in:

1. Analogue board AL01.

Circuit used to plot different characteristics of Zener diode is shown in Fig 6.

© Bytronic Limited AL7212 11

1. To plot Reverse characteristics of a Zener diode proceed as follows

© Bytronic Limited AL7212 12

Object: To study the characteristics of Light emitting diode (LED) in

© Bytronic Limited AL7212 13

1. To plot Reverse characteristics proceed as follows:

© Bytronic Limited AL7212 14

© Bytronic Limited AL7212 15

© Bytronic Limited AL7212 16

The approximated plot for this characteristic is shown in Fig 3.

© Bytronic Limited AL7212 17

• Analogue board AL02.

Circuit used to plot different characteristics of transistor is shown in Fig 4.

© Bytronic Limited AL7212 18

Input Input current IE(mA) at constant values of

To plot output characteristics proceed as follows:

© Bytronic Limited AL7212 19

Output current IC (mA) at constant values of

To plot constant current transfer characteristics proceed as follows:

© Bytronic Limited AL7212 20

Step Input current Output current IC(mA) at constant output

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Input resistance Rin = ______________

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Constant current transfer characteristic:

The approximated plot for this characteristic is shown in Fig 3.

© Bytronic Limited AL7212 27

© Bytronic Limited AL7212 28

• Analogue board AL03.

Circuit used to plot different characteristics of transistor is shown in Fig 4.

© Bytronic Limited AL7212 29

Input Input current IE(mA) at constant values of output

1. To plot output characteristics proceed as follows:

© Bytronic Limited AL7212 30

Output current IC (mA) at constant values of

1. To plot constant current transfer characteristics proceed as follows:

© Bytronic Limited AL7212 31

Step Input current Output current IC(mA) at constant output