Taxonomy and Biology of Insect

Pathogens Read Ch 6
Insect Pathogens
ƒ Bacteria
ƒ Viruses
ƒ Fungi
ƒ Nematodes
ƒ Protozoa

Vertebrate viruses
 Bacteria

ƒ Bacillus thuringiensis isolates

ƒ Bacillus sphaericus
ƒ Paenibacillus popilliae
ƒ Serratia entomophila
 Bacillus thuringiensis isolates

ƒ kurstaki- against caterpillars

ƒ tenebrionis- against scarab and chrysomelid larvae

ƒ israelensis- against mosquito and blackfly larvae

Here we see a caterpillar killed by Bacillus thuringiensis (top),
compared to a healthy caterpillar (bottom).

P. rapae
feeding and
frass
Bacillus thuringiensis cells contain a toxin crystal, a spore for
passing unfavorable conditions, and the genome.

P. rapae
feeding and
frass
Scarabeid larvae infected (on right) with Paenibacillus popilliae vs. a
normal grub (right), the cause of milky spore disease in scarabs

P. rapae
feeding and
frass
 Fungi

ƒ Fungi Imperfecti- such as species of

Beauveria, Metarhizium, Verticillium,
Hirsutella, Ashersonia
ƒ Entomophthorales, such as
Entomophaga maimaiga
In a petri dish with high relative humidity, fungi such a Beauveria
bassiana are highly infective to many insects
Mycelia extending from a thrips killed by Beauveria bassiana
Spores of Beauveria bassiana are the applied stage
Some Aschersonia fungi turn their whitefly hosts red
 Viruses

ƒ Baculoviruses– are specialized

viruses that only attack Arthropods

ƒ No other insect virus group is

manipulated for biological control
 Gypsy moth virus is a typical baculovirus (NPV)

Virus-killed
caterpillars show
typical head down
position, allowing
virus to drip from
cadaver onto foliage
Virus
bodies Codling moth virus
is a granulosis type
virus

Here, we see a cell

with viral bodies
inside the nucleus
Young codling moth larva killed by granulosis virus
 Protozoa

ƒ Microsporidia– are are

debilitating protozoa that attack
many Arthropods

ƒ Important contaminants in
importation projects
Microsporidia (Nosema sp.) spores in midgut
of cabbage looper (Trichoplusia ni)
 Nematodes

ƒ Many families of truly parasitic nematodes

(e.g., Mermithidae and others) exist and are
part of natural control
ƒ Nematodes in two families–
Steinernematidae and Heterorhabditidae–
are massed reared as biopesticides
Infective juvenile nematode
Japanese beetle larvae killed by heterorhabditid
nematodes (note red color of cadaver)

stylet
Viral pathogens of vertebrates

ƒ few vertebrates have been targeted

for classical biological control
ƒ examples are rabbits, mice, cats
ƒ pathogens employed have been
viruses or internal metazoan parasites
Feral cats on uninhabited sea islands with seabird colonies
are severe ecological pests. Feline leukemia was released
on Marian Island, South Africa, to reduce cat density
stylet
 Night hunting of feral
cats on uninhabited sea
islands complements use
of pathogens
Myxomatosis virus was released in Australia and Europe
in the 1950s for rabbit suppression. In the 1990, another
virus (calicivirus) was released to combat resistance.

rabbit index
Biology of Insect Pathogens

ƒ Contact with new hosts

ƒ Host penetration
ƒ Reproduction in host
ƒ Escape from old hosts
ƒ Complex vs. simple life cycles
 Host Contact

ƒ At the end of one generation,

pathogen propagules will be
released back into the environment
ƒ The new pathogen generation
begins when these propagules
contact a new host
Host contact- gypsy moth larvae congregating under
burlap spread virus from larva to larva.
Called horizontal transmission
Horizontal transmission
Japanese beetle larvae transmission
Vertical killed by heterorhabditid
nematodes (note red color of cadaver)

stylet
Musca domestica female on left is infected with nematode;
note swollen abdomen (nematodes in ovaries).
Fly on right is uninfected.
stylet

Normal fly
Infected fly

Swollen
abdomen
Effect of nematode (Paraiotonchium muscadomesticae)
on ovaries of house flies

Ovary of
Ovary of healthy fly
infected fly
Nematodes (Paraiotonchium muscadomesticae)
emerging from infected house fly ovary
 Host Pentration

ƒ Once propagules have physically

contacted the host, they must cross
the integument and reach tissues
subject to infection
Mode of action of Bacillus thuringiensis
Shape of Bt toxin protein
 Fungi contact hosts when spores land on cuticle. Spores
germinate and penetration hyphae push through cuticle

spore

Germination tube
(= penetration hypha)
 Penetration hyphae use enzymes to chemically digest
cuticle and then hydrostatic pressure to break through

Cuticle being broken

Outside of insect

inside

Micrograph of cross section through integument

of Diprion similis being infected by Entomopthora
tenthredinidinis
Oospores encyst on contact as first step in host penetration

Encysted oospores-purple

Coelomomyces dodgei in cuticle of mosquito larva (Anopheles quadrimaculatus)

Germ tubes from oospore cysts penetrate host

Host integument
cyst

Germ tube
 Nematodes penetrate host integument with a stylet

stylet

Encysted oospores-purple

Coelomomyces dodgei in cuticle of mosquito larva (Anopheles quadrimaculatus)

Cross section of insect integument, showing channel
formed by nematode stylet

Channel of stylet
 Reproduction in host

ƒ After host penetration, pathogens

must reproduce to be successful
ƒ Some pathogens kill hosts and
then reproduce (nematodes)
ƒ Others reproduce in living hosts
(virus, fungi)
 Virus reproduction requires living host cells.
Baculoviruses reproduce in nuclei.

Channel of stylet

Cross section of insect tissue showing baculovirus stained

red and clearly localized inside cell nuclei
Steinernematid and heterorhabditid nematodes reproduce
in dead host tissues. Symbiotic bacteria carried in gut of
nematodes kill the host.

Symbiotic bacteria
Channel of stylet
 Exiting the host

ƒ After reproducing, most pathogens (except

vertically transmitted species) must
physically leave the host, enter the
environment, disperse and find new hosts

ƒMechanisms for exit, dispersal and

persistence outside of the host are critical in
pathogen success
Fungi exit hosts through hyphal growth and production of
special spores that become airborne

ChannelConidospores
of stylet
Hyphae on exit hyphae
growing
out of cadaver

Outline of
host cadaver
 Moldy appearance of dead caterpillar is caused by
overgrowth of outside of body by exit hyphae, produced by
the mycelium inside of the cadaver

Channel of stylet

Here, we see a spruce budworm larva killed by the fungus

Zoopthora radicans
 Cross section of insect body wall, showing fungal hyphae
growing through cuticle

Mycelia inside insect

Channel of stylet

Hyphae crossing
integument

Outside
insect

Hyphae emerged through cuticle to air

 For some fungi, exit hyphae combine to form larger
structures. Here, the “horns’ on this dead leafhopper

Channel of stylet
 The role of the exit hyphae is to provide a means of
ejecting spores (conidiospores) into the air. Here, we see a
Entomophthora sp. spore halo around a dead Plutella
larva. Halo is shaped by discharge radius of spore ejection.

Channel of stylet
 Underwater zoospore discharge by water molds

water

Discharge
tubes Channel of stylet

cadaver

Zoospore discharge tubes in fungus-killed mosquito larva

Mermithid (Romanomermis culicivora) nematodes
wiggle free of dying hosts and swim away

Emerging mermithid worm

Baculoviruses exit hosts when cadavers liquefy and drip
virus onto foliage below

Channel of stylet

Douglas fir tussock moth larvae killed by NPV

Steinernematid and heterorabditid nematodes swim away
from decomposing host cadaver in soil water

cadaver
 Before exiting the host cell baculoviruses must get
“dressed” for the weather. Viruses get coated by protein
and form occlusion bodies that provide uv protection

Channel of stylet

Douglas fir tussock moth larvae killed by NPV

 Reproduction may
be based on simple
or complex life
cycles. This
Coelomomycetes
fungus requires
Channel of stylet
two hosts, a
mosquito larva
and a copepod, to
complete its life
cycle.
The parasitic worm Romanomermis culivorax requires
only one host, but also has free living stages

Channel of stylet