Assignment

Of
MMP
Abrasive Jet Machining
Abrasive jet machining (AJM), also known as abrasive micro-blasting, is
an abrasive blasting machining process that usesabrasives propelled by a high velocity gas to
erode material from the workpiece. Common uses include cutting heat-sensitive, brittle, thin, or
hard materials. Specifically it is used to cut intricate shapes or form specific edge shapes.
 Schematic diagram for Abrasive Jet Machining

Process
Material is removed by fine abrasive particles, usually about 0.001 in (0.025 mm) in diameter,
driven by a high velocity fluid stream; common gases are air or inert gases. Pressures for the gas
range from 25 to 130 psig (170–900 kPag) and speeds can be as high as 300 m/s.

Equipment
AJM machines are usually self-contained bench-top units. First it compresses the gas and then
mixes it with the abrasive in a mixing chamber. The gas passes through a convergent-
divergent nozzle before entering the mixing chamber, and then exits through a convergent
nozzle. The nozzle can be hand held or mounted in a fixture for automatic operations.

Nozzles must be highly resistant to abrasion and are typically made of tungsten
carbide or synthetic sapphire. For average material removal, tungsten carbide nozzles have a
useful life of 12 to 30 hours, and sapphire nozzles last about 300 hours. The distance of the
nozzle from the workpiece affects the size of the machined area and the rate of material removal.
Advantages:
1. The main advantages are its flexibility.

2. low heat production.

3. Ability to machine hard and brittle materials.

4. Its flexibility owes from its ability to use hoses to transport the gas and abrasive to any
part of the workpiece.

Disadvantages:

1. One of the main disadvantages is its slow material removal rate; for this reason it is
usually used as a finishing process.
 2. Another disadvantage is that the process produces a tapered cut.

Major Applications
1. Related to metal working:
 De-burning of some critical zones in the machined parts.
 Drilling and cutting of the thin and hardened metal sections.
 Removing the maching marks, flaws, chrome and anodizing marks.

2. Related to Glass working:

 Cutting of optical fibers without altering its wavelength
 Cutting, Drilling and Frosting precision optical lenses.
 Cleaning and dressing the grinding wheels used for glass.

Water Jet Machining

Water Jet Machining (WJM) is a mechanical energy based non-traditional machining
process used to cut and machine soft and non-metallic materials.
It involves the use of high velocity water jet to smoothly cut a soft workpiece. It is similar
to Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM).
In water jet machining, high velocity water jet is allowed to strike a given workpiece. During this
process, its kinetic energy is converted to pressure energy. This induces a stress on the
workpiece. When this induced stress is high enough, unwanted particles of the workpiece are
automatically removed.
 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM : WATER JET MACHINING
Construction of Water Jet Machining (WJM):
The apparatus of water jet machining consists of the following components:

1. Reservoir: It is used for storing water that is to be used in the machining operation.
2. Pump: It pumps the water from the reservoir.
3. Intensifier: It is connected to the pump. It pressurizes the water acquired from the pump to a
desired level.
4. Accumulator: It is used for temporarily storing the pressurized water. It is connected to the
flow regulator through a control valve.
5. Control Valve: It controls the direction and pressure of pressurized water that is to be
supplied to the nozzle.
6. Flow regulator: It is used to regulate the flow of water.
7. Nozzle: It renders the pressurized water as a water jet at high velocity.
Working of Water Jet Machining (WJM):

 Water from the reservoir is pumped to the intensifier using a hydraulic pump.
 The intensifier increases the pressure of the water to the required level. Usually, the water is
pressurized to 200 to 400 MPa.
 Pressurized water is then sent to the accumulator. The accumulator temporarily stores the
pressurized water.
 Pressurized water then enters the nozzle by passing through the control valve and flow
regulator.
 Control valve controls the direction of water and limits the pressure of water under
permissible limits.
 Flow regulator regulates and controls the flow rate of water.
 Pressurized water finally enters the nozzle. Here, it expands with a tremendous increase in
its kinetic energy. High velocity water jet is produced by the nozzle.
 When this water jet strikes the workpiece, stresses are induced. These stresses are used to
remove material from the workpiece.
 The water used in water jet machining may or may not be used with stabilizers. Stabilizers
are substances that improve the quality of water jet by preventing its fragmentation.
Advantages of Water Jet Machining (WJM):

1. Water jet machining is a relatively fast process.

2. It prevents the formation of heat affected zones on the workpiece.
3. It automatically cleans the surface of the workpiece.
4. WJM has excellent precision. Tolerances of the order of ±0.005″ can be obtained.
5. It does not produce any hazardous gas.
6. It is eco-friendly.

Disadvantages of Water Jet Machining:

1. Only soft materials can be machined.

2. Very thick materials cannot be easily machined.
3. Initial investment is high.

Applications of Water Jet Machining:

1. Water jet machining is used to cut thin non-metallic sheets.

2. It is used to cut rubber, wood, ceramics and many other soft materials.
3. It is used for machining circuit boards.
4. It is used in food industry.
 Electro-Chemical Grinding
Electrochemical grinding is a process that removes electrically conductive material
by grinding with a abrasive grinding wheel, an electrolyte fluid, and a positively charged
workpiece. Materials removed from the workpiece stay in the electrolyte fluid. Electrochemical
grinding is similar to electrochemical machining but uses a wheel instead of a tool shaped like
the contour of the workpiece.
Process Characteristics:

 The wheels and workpiece are electrically conductive.

 Wheels used last for many grindings - typically 90% of the metal is removed
by electrolysis and 10% from the abrasive grinding wheel.
 Capable of producing smooth edges without the burrs caused by mechanical grinding.
 Does not produce appreciable heat that would distort workpiece.
 Decomposes the workpiece and deposits them into the electrolyte solution. The most
common electrolytes are sodium chloride and sodium nitrate at concentrations of 2 lbs per
gallon.

Process:

The electrochemical grinding process combines traditional electrochemical machining and

grinding processes to remove material from a workpiece. A grinding wheel is used as a cutting
tool and a cathode and the workpiece is an anode. During the process, electrolytic fluid, typically
sodium nitrate, is pumped into the space between the workpiece and the grinding wheel. Other
electrolytes used include sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate, and sodium chlorate.This
electrolytic fluid will cause electrochemical reactions to occur at the workpiece surface which
oxidize the surface, thereby removing material. As a consequence of the oxidation which occurs,
layers of oxide films will form on the workpiece surface, and these need to be removed by the
grinding wheel.

Most material removal is by the electrochemical reactions which occur at the workpiece surface.
Five percent or less of the material removal is carried out by the abrasive action of the grinding
wheel. The fact that most material is not removed by abrasive action helps increase the life of
the grinding wheel, that is, the tool will take a long time to wear down. The electrolytic fluid
serves another useful purpose - it flushes out leftover material in between the grinding wheel and
work piece. The Abrasive particles bonded to the grinding wheel will help to electrically insulate
the space between the grinding wheel and workpiece.

Advantages:

1. One of the key advantages of electrochemical grinding is the minimal wear that
the grinding wheel tool experiences. This is because the majority of the material
is removed by the electrochemical reaction that occurs between the cathode and
anode.
2. Another advantage of electrochemical grinding is that it can be used to machine
hard materials. Hard materials pose a difficulty to other types of machining due to
the tool wear that is associated with machining hard materials

Disadvantages:

1. The system consists of the anode workpiece and the cathode grinding wheel so both the
workpiece and the grinding wheel must be conductive.
2. Electrochemical grinding is only applicable to surface grinding
Applications:

 Grinding turbine blades

 Grinding honeycomb metals for aerospace application
 Sharpening hypodermic needles
 Machining carbide cutting-tool inserts
 ECG is used to remove surface defects from parts where excessive material removal and
residual stresses are undesired, such as re-profiling locomotive gears
 Removal of fatigue cracks from underwater steel structures. In this case, seawater itself acts
as the electrolyte. Diamond particles in the grinding wheel remove any non-conducting
organic matter, such as algae, before electrochemical grinding begins.

Electrical Discharge Machining

Electrical discharge machining (EDM), is a manufacturing process whereby a
desired shape is obtained using electrical discharges (sparks). Material is removed from the
workpiece by a series of rapidly recurring current discharges between two electrodes, separated
by a dielectric liquid and subject to an electric voltage. One of the electrodes is called the tool-
electrode, while the other is called the workpiece-electrode, or "workpiece". The process
depends upon the tool and workpiece not making actual contact.
Schematic diagram of Electrical Discharge Machining
Process:

The basic EDM process is really quite simple. An electrical spark is created between an
electrode and a workpiece The spark is visible evidence of the flow of electricity. This electric
spark produces intense heat with temperatures reaching 8000 to 12000 degrees Celsius, melting
almost anything. The spark is very carefully controlled and localized so that it only affects the
surface of the material. The EDM process usually does not affect the heat treat below the
surface. With wire EDM the spark always takes place in the dielectric of deionized water. The
conductivity of the water is carefully controlled making an excellent environment for the EDM
process. The water acts as a coolant and flushes away the eroded metal particles.

Wire Cutting

EDM wire cutting uses a metallic wire to cut a programmed contour in a workpiece. Extrusion
dies and blanking punches are very often machined by wire cutting. Cutting is always through the
entire workpiece. To start machining it is first necessary to drill a hole in the workpiece or start
from the edge. On the machining area, each discharge creates a crater in the workpiece and an
impact on the tool. The wire can be inclined, thus making it possible to make parts with taper or
with different profiles at the top and bottom. There is never any mechanical contact between the
electrode and workpiece (see above). The wire is usually made of brass or stratified copper, and
is between 0.1 and 0.3 mm diameter.
Depending on the accuracy and surface finish needed, a part will either be one cut or it will be
roughed and skimmed. On a one cut the wire ideally passes through a solid part and drops a
slug or scrap piece when it is done. This will give adequate accuracy for some jobs, but most of
the time, skimming is necessary. A skim cut is where the wire is passed back over the roughed
surface again with a lower power setting and low pressure flush. There can be from one to nine
skim passes depending on the accuracy and surface finish required. Usually there are just two
skim passes. A skim pass can remove as much as 0.002" of material or a as little as 0.0001".
During roughing ( i.e. the first cut) the water is forced into the cut at high pressure in order to
provide plenty of cooling and eliminate eroded particles as fast as possible. During skimming
(accuracy / finish cuts) the water is gently flowed over the burn so as not to deflect the wire.

Applications:
1. Prototype production:
The EDM process is most widely used by the mold-making tool and die industries, but is
becoming a common method of making prototype and production parts, especially in the
aerospace, automobile and electronics industries in which production quantities are relatively
low.
2. Coinage die making:
For the creation of dies for producing jewelry and badges, or blanking and piercing by the
coinage (stamping) process, the positive master may be made from sterling silver. The resultant
negative die is then hardened and used in a drop hammer to produce stamped flats from cutout
sheet blanks of bronze, silver, or low proof gold alloy. For badges these flats may be further
shaped to a curved surface by another die. This type of EDM is usually performed submerged in
an oil-based dielectric.
3. Small hole drilling:
On wire-cut EDM machines, small hole drilling EDM is used to make a through hole in a
workpiece in through which to thread the wire for the wire-cut EDM operation.
 Electron Beam

Electron beam processing or Electron irradiation is a process which

involves using electrons, usually of high energy, to treat an object for a variety of purposes. This
may take place under elevated temperatures and nitrogen atmosphere. Possible uses for
electron irradiation include sterilization and to cross-link polymers.

Electron energies typically varies from the keV to MeV range, depending on the depth of
penetration required. The irradiation dose is usually measured in Gray but also in Mrads.
Where 1 Gy is equivalent to 100 rad.

The basic components of a typical electron beam processing device are illustrated in the
figure. An electron gun (consisting of a cathode, grid, and anode) is used to generate and
accelerate the primary beam. A magnetic optical (focusing and deflection) system is used for
controlling the way in which the electron beam impinges on the material being processed (the
"workpiece"). In operation, the gun cathode is the source of thermally-emitted electrons that are
both accelerated and shaped into a collimated beam by the electrostatic field geometry
established by the gun electrode (grid and anode) configuration used. The electron beam then
emerges from the gun assembly through an exit hole in the ground-plane anode with an energy
equal to the value of the negative high voltage (gun operating voltage) being applied to the
cathode. This use of a direct high voltage to produce a high energy electron beam allows the
conversion of input ac power to beam power at greater than 95% efficiency, making electron
beam material processing a highly energy-efficient technique. After exiting the gun, the beam
passes through an electromagnetic lens and deflection coil system. The lens is used for
producing either a focused or defocused beam spot on the workpiece, while the deflection coil is
used to either position the beam spot on a stationary location or provide some form of oscillatory
motion.

In polymers, an electron beam may be used on the material to induce effects such as chain
scission (which makes the polymer chain shorter) and cross linking. The result is a change in the
properties of the polymer which is intended to extend the range of applications for the material.
The effects of irradiation may also include changes in crystallinity as well as microstructure.
Usually, the irradiation processdegrades the polymer. The irradiated polymers may sometimes
be characterized using DSC, XRD, FTIR, or SEM.

In poly(vinylidene fluoride-trifluoroethylene) copolymers, high-energy electron irradiation lowers

the energy barrier for the ferroelectric-paraelectric phase transition and reduces polarization
hysteresis losses in the material.
Schematic diagram: showing basic components and operation of
electron beam materials processing
Electron Beam Machining (EBM) is a process where high-velocity electrons
concentrated into a narrow beam are directed toward the work piece, creating heat and
vaporizing the material. EBM can be used for very accurate cutting or boring of a wide variety of
metals. Surface finish is better and kerf width is narrower than those for other thermal cutting
processes.
Process:

The EBM beam is operated in pulse mode. This is achieved by appropriately biasing the biased
grid located just after the cathode. Switching pulses are given to the bias grid so as to achieve
pulse duration of as low as 50 μs to as long as 15 ms. Beam current is directly related to the
number of electrons emitted by the cathode or available in the beam. Beam current once again
can be as low as 200 μamp to 1 amp. Increasing the beam current directly increases the energy
per pulse. Similarly increase in pulse duration also enhances energy per pulse. High-energy
pulses (in excess of 100 J/pulse) can machine larger holes on thicker plates. The energy density
and power density is governed by energy per pulse duration and spot size. Spot size, on the
other hand is controlled by the degree of focusing achieved by the electromagnetic lenses. A
higher energy density, i.e., for a lower spot size, the material removal would be faster though the
size of the hole would be smaller. The plane of focusing would be on the surface of the work
piece or just below the surface of the work piece.the electron beam is generated by the potential
difference between the cathode and anode .cathode is negatively charged and anode is positive
charged.

Equipments:

EBM equipment in construction is similar to electron beam welding machines (see electron beam
welding). EBM machines usually utilize voltages in the range of 150 to 200 kV to accelerate
electrons to about 200,000 km/s. Magnetic lenses are used to focus the electron beam to the
surface of the work-piece. By means of electromagnetic deflection system the beam is positioned
as needed, usually by means of a computer.

Reason for performing EBM Process in Vacuum Chamber:

Vacuums must be used to reduce contamination, and minimize electron collisions with air
molecules. Because work must be done in a vacuum, EBM is best suited for small parts. The
interaction of the electron beam with the work piece produces hazardous x-rays, and only highly
trained personnel should use EBM equipment.
 Plasma Arc Machining

Plasma Arc Machining is a nontraditional thermal process. Plasma is defined as a gas

that has been heated to a sufficiently high temperature to become partially ionized and therefore
electrically conductive. The term plasma, as employed in physics, means ionized particles. The
temperature of plasma may reach as high as 28000 C. Various devices utilizing an electric arc
to heat gas to the Plasma State have been in existence since the early 1900’s. However, the
development of such apparatus into commercial plasma arcs equipment for metalcutting
applications dates back to only about 1955.

The plasma arc produced by modern equipment is generated by a plasma torch that is
constructed in such a manner as to provide an electric arc between an electrode and workpiece,
as shown in Fig. 1. A typical plasma torch consists of an electrode holder, an electrode, a device
to swirl the gas, and a water-cooled nozzle. The geometry of the torch nozzle is such that the hot
gases are constricted in a narrow column.

Primary gasses, such as nitrogen, argon-hydrogen, or air, are forced through the nozzle and arc
and become heated and ionized. Secondary gases or water flow are often used to help clean the
kerf of molten metal during cutting.

The stream of ionized particles from the nozzle can be used to perform a variety of industrial
jobs. The plasma arc, as an industrial tool, is a most heavy employed in sheet and plate cutting
operations as an alternative to more conventional oxy-fuel torches or other cutting tools. Plasma
arc is routinely used as an integral component of some modern punching machines. Plasma arc
methods are also employed in special applications to replace conventional machining operations
such as lathe turning, milling and planing, heat treatment and metal deposition operations, and
plasma arc welding.
Schematic diagram: Plasma Arc Machining
Principles of operation
In PAM, constricting an electric arc through a nozzle, as shown in Fig. 1 generates the basic
plasma jet. Instead of diverging into an open arc, the nozzle constricts the arc into a small cross
section. This action greatly increases the power of the arc so that both temperature and voltage
are raised. After passing through the nozzle, the arc exists in the form of a high-velocity, well-
columnated and intensely hot plasma jet.

The basic heating phenomenon that takes place at the workpiece is a combination of heating due
to energy transfer of electrons, recombination of dissociated molecules on the workpieces, and
connective heating from the high-temperature plasma that accompanies the arc. In some cases,
it is desirable to achieve a third source of heating by injecting oxygen into the work area and
taking advantage of the exothermic oxidation reaction. Once the material has been raised to the
molten point, the high-velocity gas stream effectively blows the material away.

For an optimized PAM cutting or machining operation, up to 45% of the electrical power delivered
to the torch is used to remove metal from the workpiece. Of the remaining power, approximately
10% go into the cooling water in the plasma generator and the rest is wasted in the hot gas and
in heating the workpiece.

The jet stream of ionized gases exits at sonic speed and tends to maintain a slightly diverging
columnar shape until deflected by solid material. This ionized jet serves as a conductor for the
arc; it provides directional stability. The ionized gas may be further shielded from dispersion and
heat loss, which result from impacting air molecules, as it exits from the nozzle by means of
another annular stream of gas that surrounds the plasma as it leaves the orifice nozzle.

The ionized plasma gas is usually inactive to protect the electrode from combustion and ensure
long life. When oxygen is added as either the plasma ionized gas or the secondary enveloping
gas, the speed of cutting steel is increased. Use of a secondary envelope of gas improves the
kerf wall appearance on certain metals. This envelope also acts as a protective shield for the
nozzle during extensive piercing operations.

A major improvement in mechanized plasma arc cutting occurred in recent years with the
development of so-called “water injection”. When the water injection technique is employed, the
arc is constricted by a flow of water around the arc. This injection of water has many advantages,
including:

1. A square cut can be made.

2. Arc stability is increased.

3. Cutting speed can be increased.

4. Workpieces are heated less.

5. Less smoke and fumes are generated.

Process fundamentals
The plasma arc cutting process is illustrated in Fig. 1. The basic principle is that the arc formed
between the electrode and the workpiece is constricted by a fine bore, copper nozzle. This
increases the temperature and velocity of the plasma emanating from the nozzle. The
temperature of the plasma is in excess of 20 000°C and the velocity can approach the speed of
sound. When used for cutting, the plasma gas flow is increased so that the deeply penetrating
plasma jet cuts through the material and molten material is removed in the efflux plasma.

The plasma arc cutting process

The process differs from the oxy-fuel process in that the plasma process operates by using the
arc to melt the metal whereas in the oxy-fuel process, the oxygen oxidises the metal and the heat
from the exothermic reaction melts the metal. Thus, unlike the oxy-fuel process, the plasma
process can be applied to cutting metals which form refractory oxides such as stainless steel,
aluminium, cast iron and non-ferrous alloys.

Power source
The power source required for the plasma arc process must have a drooping characteristic and a
high voltage. Although the operating voltage to sustain the plasma is typically 50 to 60V, the
open circuit voltage needed to initiate the arc can be up to 400V DC.

On initiation, the pilot arc is formed within the body of the torch between the electrode and the
nozzle. For cutting, the arc must be transferred to the workpiece in the so-called 'transferred' arc
mode. The electrode has a negative polarity and the workpiece a positive polarity so that the
majority of the arc energy (approximately two thirds) is used for cutting.

Gas composition
In the conventional system using a tungsten electrode, the plasma is inert, formed using either
argon, argon-H2 or nitrogen. However, as described in Process variants, oxidising gases, such
as air or oxygen, can be used but the electrode must be copper with hafnium.
The plasma gas flow is critical and must be set according to the current level and the nozzle bore
diameter. If the gas flow is too low for the current level, or the current level too high for the nozzle
bore diameter, the arc will break down forming two arcs in series, electrode to nozzle and nozzle
to workpiece. The effect of 'double arcing' is usually catastrophic with the nozzle melting.

Cut quality
The quality of the plasma cut edge is similar to that achieved with the oxy-fuel process. However,
as the plasma process cuts by melting, a characteristic feature is the greater degree of melting
towards the top of the metal resulting in top edge rounding, poor edge squareness or a bevel on
the cut edge. As these limitations are associated with the degree of constriction of the arc,
several torch designs are available to improve arc constriction to produce more uniform heating
at the top and bottom of the cut.

Process variants
The process variants, have principally been designed to improve cut quality and arc stability,
reduce the noise and fume or to increase cutting speed.

Applications of PAM
• In tube mill application.
• Welding of cryogenic, aerospace and high temperature corrosion resistant alloys.
• Nuclear submarine pipe system.
• Welding steel Rocket motor case.
• Welding of stainless steel tubes.
• Welding titanium plates up to 8mm thickness

Advantages of PAM Process

 Small cavities can be machined with good dimensional accuracy.

 Very hard and brittle metals can be machined.
 It gives faster production rate.

Disadvantages of PAM Process

 Inert gas consumption is high.

 It is uneconomical for bigger cavities to be machined.
 Its initial cost is very high.
 Laser Beam Machining

Laser beam machining (LBM) is a non-traditional subtractive manufacturing

process, a form of machining, in which a laser is directed towards the work piece for machining.
This process uses thermal energy to remove material from metallic or nonmetallic surfaces. The
laser is focused onto the surface to be worked and the thermal energy of the laser is transferred
to the surface, heating and melting or vaporizing the material. Laser beam machining is best
suited for brittle materials with low conductivity, but can be used on most materials.
Cutting Depth:

The cutting depth of a laser is directly proportional to the quotient obtained by dividing the power
of the laser beam by the product of the cutting velocity and the diameter of the laser beam spot.

where t is the depth of cut, P is the laser beam power, v is the cutting velocity, and d is the laser
beam spot diameter.

The depth of the cut is also influenced by the workpiece material. The material's reflectivity,
density, specific heat, and melting point temperature all contribute to the lasers ability to cut the
workpiece.

Working principle of laser beam machining:

Laser beam is focused on the work piece material, to remove the unwanted material from the
work piece by heating often. In the laser beam machining the metal removal rate must depend on
the wave length used in the laser machine.
 Schematic Diagram:Laser beam melting

Advantages of laser beam machining:

 Lubricants are not utilized in the process

 The laser beam machining have an ability to cut most of the material
 The laser point moves in all directions and paths
 There is no limit for the cutting path
 In the process there is no requirement of tool holding device
 There is an absence of contact between the work piece and the tool material
 Without any support the fragile materials are stress-free to cut
 There is no tool cost involved and no tool wear cost involved in the machine
 By using the laser beam machining we can produce the cuts with high quality and without
involving extra finishing
.
Disadvantages of laser beam machining:

 Material which are not suitable for the conventional methods are made on the laser beam
machining process.
 The initial cost and the maintenance cost of the laser equipment is comparatively high.
 In the laser beam machining the tapered holes are limited to some extent only. They are
approximately in the drill depth of 1%.
 Based upon the thickness of the work piece material the drill holes are made to fixed
depth.
 Heat is released during the process from the laser, at that process the alloy and metallic
materials change the mechanical properties.
 Light rays released from the laser process leads to hazards.
 Skilled operators are required for machining process
 Never try the process on the high heat conductivity material and light reflecting materials.
 Production rate is slow
 For safety purposes cover gases are required during the process time.

Applications of laser beam machining:

 Mainly the laser beam machining is used to make a undersized hole with accuracy.
 The holes are possible at 5 microns in ceramics, composites and metals.
 Mainly the laser beam machining process is used in the cutting of the non-metallic and
metallic materials for getting an accurate drilling.
 Holes are made up to 1.5 mm diameter
 On the thin slitting of metals and plastics the laser operation is performed
 The process can be performed on the ceramics, organics, non-metals, metals, plastic
etc.
 Holes with a diameter of less than .25 mm can also be made.
 Ultrasonic Machining

Ultrasonic Machining is a subtraction manufacturing process that removes material

from the surface of a part through high frequency, low amplitude vibrations of a tool against the
material surface in the presence of fine abrasive particles. The tool travels vertically or
orthogonal to the surface of the part at amplitudes of 0.05 to 0.125 mm (0.002 to 0.005 in.). The
fine abrasive grains are mixed with water to form a slurry that is distributed across the part and
the tip of the tool. Typical grain sizes of the abrasive material range from 100 to 1000, where
smaller grains (higher grain number) produce smoother surface finishes.

Ultrasonic Machining is typically used on brittle materials as well as materials with a

high hardness due to the microcracking mechanics.

Schematic Diagram: Ultrasonic Machining

Process:
An ultrasonic mill consists of two major components, a transducer and a sonotrode. The
sonotrode is usually made of low carbon steel. The transducer converts electrical energy into
mechanical vibrations, the transducer then vibrates the sonotrode at low amplitudes and high
frequencies. A constant stream of abrasive slurry flows between the sonotrode and work piece.
This flow of slurry allows debris to flow away from the cutting area. The slurry usually consists of
water (20 to 60% by volume) and boron carbide, aluminum oxide and silicon carbide
particles. While machining, the work piece is left with a perfect negative of the sonotrode's
profile, this allows extremely complex and non-uniform shapes to be cut into the work piece with
extremely high precision. Machining time depends on the work piece's
strength, hardness, porosity and fracture toughness; the slurry's material and particle size; and
the amplitude of the sonotode's vibration. The surface finish of materials after machining
depends heavily on hardness and strength, with softer and weaker materials exhibiting smoother
surface finishes. The inclusion of microcrack and microcavity features on the materials surface
depend highly on the crystallographic orientation of the work piece's grains and the
materials fracture toughness.

Mechanism of Ultrasonic Machining:

Ultrasonic machining physically operates by the mechanism of microchipping or erosion on the
work piece's surface. Since the abrasive slurry is kept in motion by high frequency, low amplitude
vibrations the impact forces of the slurry are significant causing high contact stresses. These
high contact stresses are achieved by the small contact area between the slurry's particles and
the work piece's surface. Brittle materials fail by cracking mechanics and these high stresses are
sufficient enough to cause micro-scale chips to be removed from its surface. The material as a
whole does not fail due to the extremely localized stress regions.
Applications:
Since ultrasonic machining does not use subtractive methods that may alter the physical
properties of a workpiece, such as thermal, chemical, or electrical processes, it has many useful
applications for materials that are more brittle and sensitive than traditional machining metals.

Materials that are commonly machined using ultrasonic methods include ceramics, carbides,
glass, precious stones and hardened steels. These materials are used in optical and electrical
applications where more precise machining methods are required to ensure dimensional
accuracy and quality performance of hard and brittle materials.

Ultrasonic machining is precise enough to be used in the creation of microelectromechanical

system components such as micro-structured glass wafers.

In addition to small-scale components, ultrasonic machining is used for structural components

because of the required precision and surface quality provided by the method. The process can
safely and effectively create shapes out of high-quality single crystal materials that are often
necessary but difficult to generate during normal crystal growth.

Advantages:
1.It can produce parts with high precision that are made of hard and brittle materials which are
often difficult to machine.

2.Ultrasonic machining is capable of manufacturing fragile materials such as glass and non
conductive metals that can not be machine by alternative methods such as electrical discharge
machining and electrochemical machining.

3. Ultrasonic machining is able to produce high tolerance parts because there is no distortion of
the worked material.

4. No burrs are created in the process, thus less operations are required to produced a finished
part.

Disadvantages:
1. Ultrasonic machining is driven by microchipping or erosion mechanisms, the material removal
rate of metals can be slow and the sonotrode tip can wear down quickly from the constant impact
of abrasive particles on the tool.

2. Drilling deep holes in parts can prove difficult as the abrasive slurry will not effectively reach
the bottom of the hole.
 Electro-Chemical Machining

Electrochemical machining (ECM) is a method of removing metal by

an electrochemical process. It is normally used for mass production and is used for working
extremely hard materials or materials that are difficult to machine using conventional methods. Its
use is limited to electrically conductive materials. ECM can cut small or odd-shaped angles,
intricate contours or cavities in hard and exotic metals, such as titanium aluminides, Inconel, W,
and high nickel, cobalt, and rhenium alloys. Both external and internal geometries can be
machined.

ECM is often characterized as "reverse electroplating", in that it removes material instead of

adding it. It is similar in concept to electrical discharge machining (EDM) in that a high current is
passed between an electrode and the part, through an electrolytic material removal process
having a negatively charged electrode (cathode), a conductive fluid (electrolyte), and a
conductive workpiece (anode); however, in ECM there is no tool wear. The ECM cutting tool is
guided along the desired path close to the work but without touching the piece. Unlike EDM,
however, no sparks are created. High metal removal rates are possible with ECM, with no
thermal or mechanical stresses being transferred to the part, and mirror surface finishes can be
achieved.

In the ECM process, a cathode (tool) is advanced into an anode (workpiece). The pressurized
electrolyte is injected at a set temperature to the area being cut. The feed rate is the same as the
rate of "liquefication" of the material. The gap between the tool and the workpiece varies within
80–800 micrometers (0.003–0.030 in.).As electrons cross the gap, material from the workpiece is
dissolved, as the tool forms the desired shape in the workpiece. The electrolytic fluid carries
away the metal hydroxide formed in the process
Setup and Equipments:
ECM machines come in both vertical and horizontal types. Depending on the work requirements,
these machines are built in many different sizes as well. The vertical machine consists of a base,
column, table, and spindle head. The spindle head has a servo-mechanism that automatically
advances the tool and controls the gap between the cathode (tool) and the workpiece.

Copper is often used as the electrode material. Brass, graphite, and copper-tungsten are also
often used because they are easily machined, they are conductive materials, and they will not
corrode.

Applications:
Some of the very basic applications of ECM include:

 Die-sinking operations
 Drilling jet engine turbine blades
 Multiple hole drilling
 Machining steam turbine blades within close limits

Advantages:
1. The tool does not contact the workpiece, there is no need to use expensive alloys or
tempering procedures to make the tool tougher than the workpiece.

2. The tools can be made from any cheap and easily machined, cast, or engraved
electrically conductive substance.

3. There is less tool wear in ECM, and less heat and no stress are produced in processing
that could damage the part.

4. This method works even on very hard and brittle workpieces.

Disadvantages:
1. The saline (or acidic) electrolyte poses the risk of corrosion to tool, workpiece and
equipment.

2. Only electrically conductive materials can be machined.

3. High Specific Energy consumption.