THE INDEPENDENT REVIEW The education of the indio elite The rise of the thinking Filipino tn the late 19th’centuty is a classic study in class formation. By Serafin D. Quiason THE Philippines under Spain was x su- ciety of symbiotic and antagonistic classes. The structure of colonial suciety in 1896 was a pyramid, with the ruling Spanish class of about 15,508 at the top, fording over a native (indio) populace than was close to 7 million, In between wert a sprinkling of Americans and other Europeans who were deeply involved in the “cash crop” cconumy and other Ii- crative enterprises, as well as che Chinese mexchanis und the principsliu or indio elite, The indios then were mostly peasants, with some providing lowly and menial services to the dominant classes. The Spanish friars were the real wielders of eotonial power and owned great estates worked by tenamtsoringutinos, Theindio peasants were linked to the principalia and the friar estates through a system of peonage. The principalia in every key own was a cluster of interrelated fami- fies among whom the ownership of land was concentrated, Intermarriages among the principslia served asa web that bound the many families together, reinforced here and there by social interactions, mutual obligations and ethnic loyalties. n Fhe Chinese, numbering sround 85,000 in and near Manila, were mostly en- lrenched in Binondo, theeconomic nerve cemtes of the cotony. Despite the gross inequities, abusive pructies, and other harsh conditions under the Spanish colonial oxder, the classes managed to live with each ocher up until the outbreak of the 1896 Revo Iution. The rhythmic flaw was eecasion- ally disrupted by atubursts of rural-based. incligenous rebellions in the urchipelago, and in the 19th centory by a flurry of urban-based Crinlla resistance. ''hecon- Aicis were generally Peninsulares against the Criollos, Spanish colonial authorities agsinst the rebciJions of the indias, the antagonism and tension between the Spanish friucs and the native ctergy, and the irreconcilable conflict between the Spanish friars and the lay cducated indiox. 11 iy against this broad backdrop ofcolonéal cute that the formutian of the indio educated cluss came about The seeds of a critical mind In Spanish Philippines, coloniat edu cation was seen as an activity for only a small sector, The colonial state (ofwhich FEBRUARY 1538‘THE INDCPENDUNT REVIEW Student boarders in Manila just before the turn af the century the church was a part) was propped up by the traditional scate of values. It en- couraged cerluin studies ata higher level fur the sens of the principalia and even for a few poor but deserving indios. A limited number of scholarships like free tuition and board was offered under the “treca system.” Kor the fow foriunate ones who received colonial education, Lhe training and knowledge were a status symbol as well as a means to advance one’s social standing. Colonial education wus chicthy handled by the Society of Jesus and the Order of Preachers. ‘These two religious orders set up paruchial schouls, digcesan seminazies for the training of native priests, secondary schools for boys aud girls, and even a higher institution of learning—the pontifical Univessity of Santo Tomas. Colonial education re- ceived a serious blow in 1767 when the Jesuits were expelled, but the Jesuits would eventually retucn after 91 yeas In the 19th century, as the Local economy Brew, more secondary schools for boys and girls as well as vacational FEBRUARY 1995 schools were put up, and professional courses began to be offered. This was brought about by a combination of fac- tors: the opening of markets in Manila und the oullying ports; the influx of En- giish, American, and European mercan- tile tins; andabove all the growth ofthe colonial pepulation The foreign mercantite houses, pas- ticularly the English and American firms, played a major role in the “cash crop” economy, which unceubtedty con- tributed to the affluence of the principaiia, allowing them cnough inoney to send their chitdren w exclu- sive schools und colleges in Manila and in certain key towns, Benefiting also from the expanding trade were the Chinese who served as the intermediary between the indio consumers and the Westera commercial houses, Among the vacational schools estab- lished in this period were the Nautical Schoo! (1320), the School of Commerce (1840), the School of Fine Aris (1849), the School of Trades (1861), and the School of Agriculture (1889). Ac the Uni- aTHE INDEPENDENT REVIEW versity of Santo Tomas, professional | intimate affairs of the times of the Duke schools of uculties for pharmacy, medi- cine and notaries were established in 1871, followed by philosophy and ietters in 1896. Theology sas offered notenly at the University of Sante Tomas bu also at the seminary colleges of Nueva Caceres, San Carlos , Jaro and Vigan. For centuries, priesthood was the omly profession open to the indios, Seminar- ics were institulions mainly designed for the training of sudenis for priesthood. Their scholastic education revolved around the development of the seminar- jans as “true shepherds of souls.” Bur many of those who entered the semninur- ies did su nai because they were ia need of religion, but because they wanted to fcarn. Many would later eave dhe semi- naries #6 pursue specialized veeations in Manila and Europe. The cducation of [be native clergy showed a macked improvement with the arrival in 1862 of the Order of Saint Vincent de Paul. Previously, the seminar. tes were regarded as training grounds for turning out half-baked native clergy. But with the passage of time, the new breed of native clergy, through sheer lent und will, began to execi in pastoral work. Its members began to rise in prominence. The indio had been so steeped in cu- lonial education that in the 1870s, a Bel- gian traveler, J. Dc Man, wrote so glow- ingly abouc en indio secular priest he met in Calambs “This priest is Indian but an Indian so exceptional that I cannot refrain from speaking about hita. We conversed for faore Unga one hour rcvicwing @ great number of things about Europe, abou history, literature, che arts, etc; every shing was familiar to him to the smallest detail; passing from general history ta the particular history of Aucwerp. Ele cited af Alba and Rubens; in short, he was a aman of greacerudition, an extraordinary person who must be the only one of his ‘kind in the Philippines.” But the Calarnba priest was no rare gem. Had J. de Mian stayed long enough, he would have met several other indio priests with not only the same remarkable gifts of knowledge but who alsg led admi- rable lives. Two such persons were Fr. Eugenio de Santa Cruz, an indso fram Pampangu who was the provisor of the ciscese of the Most Holy Nume af Jesus, and Pr. Bartolome Sagingin, un indin frocuAntipotn und parish priest of Quiapo. From the spiritual to the temporal Theology was initially the most popu- Jar field of study fur the sous of the principalis, but he changing economy drew more studeits to the study of favs, nhormacy, medicine, philusophy and norariate because af the scemendaus s0- cial prestige these courses carried. In 1883-84, for instance, the graduates in jurisprudence were 252 aguins| 68 al the Faculty of Sacred Theology and Phitosn- aby of the University of Santo Tamas. Of the total anaual graduaicy of about 300, halfrook civil law end jurisprudence, and about 25 percent went into theological studies, In the teetering Spanish colony, law, medicine and notari to the priestly profession in prestige and material gain. As in the case of all sovicries, she edu- cated mind wi cal mind, The eda- cated indios and the ilustrados (or “cn- lightened ones") openly criticized the colonial education, saying chat “ahe in- tellectual powers of the pupils were made dormant by devaing u greater part of time 40 the study of Latin, and for the purpose of diseouruging the pupils from studying the exact and experimental sof te came clase FEBRUARY «D2[Uk ‘NO EPENDENT KEVIEW ences and from gaining a knowledge of teue literary studies.” 1degpite the Jimilationg and inadequa- ies of colonial educatzon, the [armation of the educated uadin elite was isrevers- thle, This was enhanced by the return of the Jesuits and the establishimient of ad- ditional faculuics in law, medicine and pharmacy by the Dominicans. Most of the principulia parents were themselves pourly educated but devel- oped achievement values, They progected their unfulfilled ambitions onco their children. A good education was the best legacy that they could give to their chil dren, und [hey made painful saceifices 10 realize this, The sans of the principalia who scud- ied in Manila began tn pet rid uf sheir cthnic prejudices as they became 2c- quainted with oneanother. Che indio stu- dents fotind otter students fram varius ethnic groups agtecabh intelfigent und open minted: enthusiastic, hoor socializatian, the indin students rediscou- ered’ the richness of indigenuus vatues, cuhure and bsistory: Togeiher, they eriti- cized the weaknesses of dhe Spanish co- FEBRUARY 1298) Jona! educational system and the short- comings of their Spanish teachers. The same can be suid of those who went foreign shoves. The incios whe studicd abroad were influenced by the ideas of' the Entight enment (Lo 2hestracien in Spanish or fl- Jurrinat in Italian) and inspired by the political principles of the Spanish Revo- lution of 1868, The young indivs in Eu- tope came to be known in Manila as “Tlustradas” or Aijas de fa ilustracton, or the “enlightened ancs." Jose Rizal, in his Momurias de an Essudiante, vividly recollects the impact of his studies of literature, science and philosophy: “The eyes of my intelligence opened a little and my heart begins to cherish nobler sentiments.” ‘Many yeurs Jater, in one of hig teigers to Ferdinand Blumentrii, « German- Czech scholar and a bosom friend from Lilomerice, Rizal wrote about his class- ames i Manila: “These friends ure alt young men, Criofles, mestizos, and Ataluys, bul we called ourselves Kitipings. Almost all wets educated by the Jesuits. suils have truly ney wanted to teach aTHE INDEPENDENT REVIEW us love of country, but they have shown ‘us all that is beaurifut and all chat is best.” ‘The indios’ student life in Manila ze- flected the transition from rural ethnic | isolation to a large urben exposure en- | hanced by college experience and the cas- mopotitan atmosphere of Manila. When the young graduates from Manila re- tamed to their hame province or town, they cut impressive figures. They made | it a point to speak in Spanish, for to be- | come like the Spaniards meant to be | equal, if not supe- rior ta, the colonial masters. The educated indios were in gen- eral liberabminded and less religious, Because af their high visibility, and cheir eritical and ar- ticulate voices in their local commu- nities, they in. curred the unmiti- gated wrath and even the harsh per- secution of the Spanish friars. As guardians of the colo- nial state, the Spanish friars feared the growing number and influence of the educated indios, Tn Manila as well as in Spain, the indio students and the professionals urganized associations and published journals and newspapers, notably the short-lived Diariong Tagalog, Espeta en Pilipinas and La Solaridad. Eventually, the educated indios found themselves branded by the Spanish friars as personas sospechosas, o suspicious characters infected with dan- gerous ideas, The pejorative epithet ap- | plied to the educated indio was “Btihus- | ters," or in the words of Dr. Rizal, “is dun- Beraus patriot who will soon be hanged i | | 1 1 Most of the indio clergy who functioned as co-adjutors perceived contradictions in their theological education. While they were taught that men were equal in (he eyes of God, they saw the persistence of gross inequalities on earth. The emergence of the thinking indie Most of the indio clergy who func- tioned as co-adjutars perceived contra dictions in their theological education. While they were taught that men were equal in the eves of God, they saw the persistence of gross inequalities-on earth. This bitter resentment stemmed mainly from the unjust treatment from the Span- ish friars The antipathy between the Spanish friars and the native clergy on one hand, and between the Spanish friars and the edug: on the other hand, had deeper roots and historic antes cedents and tock various forms. This was exacerbated by the rancerous po- lemies of the Span- ish publicists and by the councerat- tacks of the indio ilustrados in Spain and Manila, Of course, the growing ten- sion was further fucted by MH. del Pilar’s “La Soberania Monacal” and his atheranti-friar writings, Gracin Lopez Jnena’s “Pray Butod,” and Dr. Rizal’ mortal novels Noli Mle Tangere and Et Filibusterism. ‘The Spanish friars wanted so much co keep the indios in their “rightful Place.” Fray Miguel 1. Bustamante in 4883 wrote that all the indios needed most in order “to enter the gales of heaven was to learn lo pray, to plow the field, anu to be obedient ta che priest.” He added tha. for the cotonial state to teach the india che Castilian kunguage und give hima litde education would be im: FEHRLARY 1958THE INDEPENDENT REWIEW a fatal mistake. Dor. Rizal in his repartee reminded the women of Malolos that religion did aot concern ilself solely with “ihe recitation of kilomnetric prayers, kissing the hunds of the parish priest, knocking and wear- ing greasy scaputaries.” An alliance was forged between the native clergy and the lay educated indios, and there were otter clear and fearless signs that other lay indios were taking ap the cudgels for the much-mafigned native clergy. Governadorcillos and principales marched on the sireets of Ma nila in March 1888 Among their de- snanids were the “suppression of thercli- gious orders and the secularization of the parishes.” ‘They denounced the Spanish friars’ interference in the political affairs of the colonial stare, the [riars’ greed for all kinds of Church fees, and their amassment of vast tract of lands in Ma- nila and elsewhere. ‘The Spanish frailocracy found irself with a double-cdged threat: the native clergy and the lay educaced indios, The antipathy of many Spanish friars toward the native clergy was personal and later FEBRKARY 199% | | i i t degenerated into a racial phobia th drove a few native priests toward a seri ‘ous schism in the Catholic church dur- ing the early American period ‘The anti-friar feelings among the lay educated indios and the native clergy converged in 1872, prodded and zein- forced by the webs of kinship among the native principalia, The Spaniards exacerbated the sita- ation by their desperation and growing insecuzity. Well uware of the numerical superiority af the indios, the Spaniards tied 19 keep the indios at bay through repressive measures such as arbitrary ar- rests, imprisonment at Bilibid, depor- tations 10 outlying islands, death by gar- rote, and public executions. All these were in addition to the oid mechanies of control such a3 censorship of the press, keeping a vigilant eye on the “sus- pected indios,” and threats of excommu- nication. But by then, the Spanish colonial stare’s attempt to turn back the clock 1 pre-1872 conditions was already tuo fate. dia elite’s education was itrevers- i