1. What is a membrane?

A membrane is any delicate sheet that separates one region from another,
blocking or permitting (selectively or completely) the passage of
substances. The skin, for example, can be considered a membrane that
separates the inside and the outside of the body; cellophane, used in
chemical laboratories to separate solutions, also acts as a membrane.

2. How are membranes classified

according to their permeability?
Membranes can be classified as impermeable, permeable, semipermeable
or selectively permeable.
An impermeable membrane is one through which no substance can pass.
Semipermeable membranes are those which only let solvents, such as
water, pass through them. Permeable membranes are those which let
solvents and solutes, such as ions and molecules, to pass through them.
There are also selectively permeable membranes, which are membranes
that, in addition to allowing the passage of solvents, let specific solutes
pass through while blocking others.

Diffusion and Osmosis

3. What is diffusion?
Diffusion is the spreading of molecules of a substance from a region where
the substance is more concentrated to another region where it is less
concentrated. For example, when water is boiled, gaseous water particles
tend to uniformly spread in the air via diffusion.
4. What does concentration gradient
mean? Is it correct to refer to the
“concentration gradient of water”?
The concentration gradient is the difference in the concentration of a
substance between two regions.

Concentration is a term used to designate the quantity of a solute divided

by the total quantity of a solution. Since water, in general, is the solvent in
this situation, it is not correct to refer to the “concentration of water” in a
given solution.

5. What is the difference between

osmosis and diffusion?
Osmosis is the phenomenon of the movement of solvent particles (in
general, water) from a region of lower solute concentration to a region of
higher solute concentration.1 Diffusion, on the other hand, is the movement
of solutes from a region of higher solute concentration to a region of lower
solute concentration.

Osmosis can be considered the movement of water (solvent) whereas

diffusion can be considered the movement of solutes, caused by a
concentration gradient.

6. What is osmotic pressure?

In a aqueous solution, osmotic pressure is the pressure that a region of
lower solute concentration puts on a region of higher solute concentration,
forcing the passage of water from the area of lower solute concentration to
the more concentrated region. The intensity of the osmotic pressure (in
units of pressure) is equal to the pressure necessary to apply to the
solution to prevent its dilution by osmosis.
It is possible to apply pressure to counteract the osmotic pressure on a
solution, such as the hydrostatic pressure of the liquid or atmospheric
pressure. In plant cells, for example, the rigid cell wall creates pressure that
acts against the tendency of water to enter when the cell is in a hypotonic
environment. Microscopically, the pressure that counteracts osmotic
pressure does not prevent water from passing through a semipermeable
membrane, but it does create a water flow in the opposite way as
compensation.

7. Can solutions with the same

concentration of different solutes have
different osmotic pressures?
The osmotic pressure of a solution does not depend on the nature of the
solute; it only depends on the quantity of molecules (particles) in relation to
the total solution volume. Solutions with same concentration of particles,
despite containing different solutes, exert the same osmotic pressure.

Even when the solution contains a mixture of different solutes, its osmotic
pressure only depends on its total particle concentration, regardless of the
nature of the solutes.

8. How are solutions classified

according to their comparative tonicity?
When compared to another solution, a solution can be hypotonic (or
hyposmotic), isotonic (or isosmotic) or hypertonic (or hyperosmotic).

When a solution is less concentrated than another, it is considered

hypotonic compared to that other solution. When it is more concentrated, it
is considered hypertonic. When two solutions have the same concentration,
both are designated isotonic. Therefore, this classification makes sense
only when comparing solutions.
9. What type of membrane is the cell
membrane in terms of permeability?
The cell membrane is a selectively permeable membrane, meaning that it
allows the passage of water and some select solutes.

The Phospholipid Bilayer

10. What are the basic components of
the cell membrane?
The cell membrane is formed of lipids, proteins and carbohydrates.

The lipids contained in the membrane are phospholipids, a special type of

lipid, which is bound to a phosphate group on one end, thus giving an
electrical charge to this region of the molecule. Since phospholipids have
one electrically charged end and a long neutral organic chain, they can
organize themselves into two layers of attached molecules: the hydrophilic
portion (polar) of each layer faces outwards and is in contact with the water
(also a polar molecule) located in the extracellular and intracellular space
whereas the hydrophobic chains (non-polar) face inwards and are isolated
from the water. Because this type of membrane is made of two
phospholipid layers, it is also called a bilipid membrane.
Membrane proteins are embedded and dispersed in the compact bilipid
structure. Carbohydrates appear in the outer surface of the membrane,
attached to some of those proteins in the form of glycoproteins or bound to
phospholipids, forming glycolipids. The carbohydrates in the membrane
form the glycocalyx of the membrane.

This description of the structure of cell membranes is known as the fluid

mosaic model.

 Cell Membrane Review - Image Diversity: phospholipid

bilayer membrane proteinsglycocalyx
11. What are the respective functions of
phospholipids, proteins and
carbohydrates in the cell membrane?
Phospholipids have a structural function in cell membranes. They form the
bilipid membrane that the cell membrane is composed of.

Proteins have several specialized functions in cell membranes. Some of

them are channels for substances to pass through the membrane; others
are receptors and signalers of information; others are enzymes; others are
cell identifiers (cellular markers); and they also participate in the adhesion
complexes between cells or between the internal surface of the membrane
and the cytoskeleton.

Membrane carbohydrates, attached to proteins or to lipids, are found in the

outer surface of the cell membrane. In general, they are used to mark cells
so that these cells and their functions are recognized by other cells and
substances (for example, they differentiate red blood cells in the ABO blood
group system). They also carry out immune modulation functions, pathogen
sensitization functions, etc.

Microvilli and Cell Junctions

12. What is differentiation of a cell
membrane?
In some types of cells, the cell membrane has different structures that are
necessary for the specific functions of the cells. The main ones are the
microvilli and the structures for the reinforcement of adhesion between cells
(cell junctions).

Microvilli are multiple external projections of the membrane resembling

glove fingers. They are found in the cells of tissues in which it is
advantageous to increase the size of the surface area in contact with the
exterior, for example, in the enteric (intestinal) epithelium for the absorption
of nutrients.
Structures that promote the strengthening of the adhesion between cells
occur mainly in epithelial tissues where the need for coverage and
impermeability requires cells to be “glued” to neighboring cells. These
structures can be interdigitations, desmosomes, tight junctions (zonula
occludens), zonula adherens (adherens junctions) and gap junctions.

Active and Passive Transport, Simple and

Facilitated Diffusion
13. What is the relationship between the
concentration gradient and active and
passive transport?
Passive transport is the movement of substances across membranes in
favor of their concentration gradient, rather, from a more concentrated
region to a less concentrated region. Active transport, on the other hand, is
the transport of substances across membranes against their concentration
gradient, from a less concentrated to a more concentrated region. No
energy is used in passive transport because it is spontaneous. Active
transport, on the other hand, requires energy (work) to occur.
Active transport works to maintain or increase the concentration gradient of
a substance between two regions while passive transport works to reduce
the concentration gradient.

14. What are the three main types of

passive transport?
The three main types of passive transport are simple diffusion, osmosis
and facilitated diffusion.
15. What energy source is used in active
transport through biological
membranes?
The energy necessary for active transport (against the concentration
gradient of the transported substance) to occur comes from ATP
molecules. Active transport uses chemical energy from ATP.

16. What is the difference between

simple and facilitated diffusion? What
does the term “facilitated” refer to?
Simple diffusion is the direct passage of substances across the membrane
in favor of their concentration gradient. In facilitated diffusion, the
movement of substances is also in favor of their concentration gradient but
the substances move bound to specific molecules that act as
“permeabilizers”, that is, facilitators of their passage through the
membrane.

17. How does the intensity of simple

diffusion vary depending on the relation
to the concentration gradient of the
transported substance?
The higher the concentration gradient of a substance, the more intense its
simple diffusion will be. If the concentration gradient diminishes, the
intensity of simple diffusion also diminishes.
18. How does the intensity of facilitated
diffusion vary depending on the
concentration of the transported
substance? What is the limiting factor?
Like simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion is more intense when the
concentration gradient of the substance is higher and less intense when the
gradient is lower. However, in facilitated diffusion, there is a limiting factor:
the quantity of the permeases that facilitate transport through the
membrane. Even in a situation in which the concentration gradient of the
diffusing substance is high, if there are not enough permeases to carry out
the transport there will be no increase in the intensity of the diffusion. This
situation is called saturation of the transport proteins and it represents the
point at which the maximum transport capacity of the substance across the
membrane is reached.

19. In a situation in which the transport

proteins are not saturated, how can the
speed of simple diffusion be compared
to the speed of facilitated diffusion?
The action of facilitator proteins in facilitated diffusion makes this type of
diffusion faster than simple diffusion (for the same concentration gradient of
the transported substance).
20. What does facilitated diffusion have
in common with enzymatic chemical
reactions?
One of the main examples of facilitated transport is the entrance of glucose
from blood into cells. Glucose from blood binds to specific permeases
(hexose-transporting permeases) present in the cell membrane and, via
diffusion facilitated by these proteins, it enters the cell to carry out its
metabolic functions.

Facilitated diffusion resembles chemical catalysis because the transported

substances bind to permeases like substrates bind to enzymes and, after
one transport job is finished, the permease is not consumed and can
transport other molecules.

21. What are some examples of

biological activities in which osmosis
plays an important role?
Hemolysis (the destruction of red blood cells) by the entrance of water,
hydric regulation in plants and the entrance of water into the xylem of
vascular plants are all examples of biological phenomena caused by
osmosis.

Excessive dilution of blood plasma causes, via osmosis, the entrance of too
much water into red blood cells and the subsequent destruction of these
cells (hemolysis). Osmosis is also the main process in the maintenance of
the flaccid, turgid or plasmolytic states of plant cells. Osmosis is one of the
forces responsible for the entrance of water into the roots of plants, since
root cells are hypertonic in comparison to the soil.
22. What do facilitated diffusion and
active transport have in common? What
are the differences between them?
Facilitated diffusion can be confused with active transport because
membrane proteins participate in both processes.

However, in active transport the transported substance moves against its

concentration gradient, consuming energy. Facilitated diffusion is passive
transport in favor of the concentration gradient and does not require
energy.

23. Which molecules make active

transport through membranes possible?
Active transport is made possible by specific membrane proteins. These
proteins are called “pumps” because they “pump” the moving substance
through the membrane by using energy from ATP molecules.

The Sodium-Potassium Pump

24. How is the sodium-potassium pump
involved in the functions of cell
membranes? What is the importance of
this protein for cells?
The sodium-potassium pump is the transport protein that maintains the
concentration gradient of these ions between the intra and the extracellular
spaces. This protein is phosphorylated in each pumping cycle and then
pumps three sodium ions outside the cell and two potassium ions inwards.
The phosphorylation is caused by the binding of a phosphate donated by
one ATP molecule that is then converted into ADP (adenosine
diphosphate).

The job of the sodium-potassium pump, also known as sodium-potassium

ATPase, is fundamental in the maintaining of the characteristic negative
electrical charge on the intracellular side of the membrane of the resting
cell and in creating adequate conditions of sodium and potassium
concentrations inside and outside the cell to maintain cellular metabolism.

Endocytosis
25. What is mass transport across the
cell membrane?
Mass transport is the entrance or exit of substances through the process of
being engulfed by portions of membrane. The fusion of internal substance-
containing membranous vesicles with the cell membrane is called
exocytosis. The entrance of substances into the cell after they have been
engulfed by projections of the membrane is called endocytosis.

26. What are the two main types of

endocytosis?
Endocytosis is the entrance of material into the cell through being engulfed
by portions of the cell membrane.

Endocytosis can be classified as pinocytosis or phagocytosis. In

pinocytosis, small particles on the external surface of the membrane
stimulate the invagination of the membrane inwards and vesicles full of
those particles then detach from the membrane and enter the cytoplasm. In
phagocytosis, bigger particles on the external surface of the membrane
induce the projection of pseudopods outwards to enclose the particles. The
vesicle then detaches from the membrane and enters the cytoplasm,
receiving the name phagosome.
 Plant Cell Wall
27. How do plant cell walls react when
placed in a hypotonic medium?
Plant cell walls (the cover of the cell external to the cell membrane) are
made of cellulose, a polymer of glucose.
When a plant cell is placed in a hypotonic medium, it absorbs too much
water through osmosis. In that situation, the cell wall pressure acts to
counteract the osmotic pressure, thus preventing excessive increases in
cellular volume and cell lysis.

28. What is meant by the suction force of

a plant cell? Does suction force facilitate
or hinder the entrance of water into the
cell?
Suction force (SF) is the osmotic pressure of the plant cell vacuole, or
rather, the cell sap found inside the vacuole.

Since cell sap is hypertonic in comparison to cytosol, it attracts water, thus

increasing the cytosol concentration. Through the osmotic action of the
vacuole, the cytosol becomes hypertonic in relation to the exterior and
more water enters the cell.
29. What is the turgor pressure of plant
cells? Does it make it easier or harder
for water to enter plant cells?
Turgor pressure (TP) is the pressure caused by the distension of the plant
cell wall against the increase of the cell volume. Turgor pressure works
against the entrance of water into the cell, as it forces the exit of water and
counteracts the entrance of the solvent via osmosis.

30. What does the formula DPD = SF –

TP mean?
DPD is the abbreviation for diffusion pressure deficit; SF (suction force) is
vacuolar osmotic pressure; and TP is turgor pressure.
The difference between SF and TP determines whether water tends to
enter the cell or not. If SF > TP, DPD > 0, water tends to enter the cell by
osmosis. If TP > SF, DPD < 0, water cannot enter the cell by osmosis.

31. What are the values of DPD for plant

cells in hypertonic, isotonic and hypotonic
media?
When plant cells are placed in a hypertonic medium, they will lose water to
the exterior, SF > 0 (the vacuolar pressure is high because it is
concentrated) and TP = 0 (there is no distension of the cell wall since the
cellular volume is reduced), so DPD = SF. These cells are called
plasmolysed cells, and they are characterized by the retraction of the cell
membrane, which detaches from the cell wall.
When plant cells are placed in a isotonic medium, there is no increase in
the internal water volume, SF > 0 and TP = 0 (since the cell wall is not
distended). The cell membrane touches the cell wall just slightly, and the
cell is called a flaccid cell.

When plant cells are placed in hypotonic medium, water tends to enter
them, SF = TP (since the osmotic pressure is fully compensated by the
distension of the cell wall) and DPD = 0. A cell that has expanded to this
point is called a turgid cell.

32. What is the formula for the DPD of

wilted (shrunken) plant cells? How is
this situation possible?
Wilted plant cells are those that have shrunk due to the loss of water by
evaporation without enough replacement. In this situation, the cell
membrane retracts and detaches from the cell wall. Moreover, the cell wall
expands in length to stimulate the entrance of water, making TP < 0. Since
DPD = SF – TP and TP is negative (< 0), its formula becomes DPD = SF +
|TP|.

33. What is the deplasmolysis of plant

cells?
When placed in a hypertonic medium, plant cells lose a large amount of
water and their cell membranes detach from their cell walls. In that
situation, the cell is called a plasmolysed cell. When a plasmolysed cell is
placed in a hypertonic medium it absorbs water and becomes a turgid cell.
This phenomenon is called deplasmolysis.
 Dehydration

34. Why are salt and sugar used in the

production of dried meats and dried fruits?
Substances that maintain a highly hypertonic environment, such as sugar
and salt, are used in the production of dried meats, fruits or fish (for
example, cod) because the material to be conserved is dehydrated and the
resulting dryness prevents the growth of populations of decomposer
organisms (since these organisms also lose water and die).
1. What is cell theory?
Cell theory states that the cell is the basic unit of living organisms.

Before the discovery of the cell, people were unaware that living organisms
were made of building blocks like cells.
Cell theory is one of the basic theories of biology.

2. Are there living organisms without

cells?
Viruses are considered the only living organisms that do not have cells.
Viruses are made up of genetic material (DNA or RNA) enclosed in a
protein capsule. They do not have membranes, cell organelles, or own
metabolism.

3. In 1665, Robert Hooke, an English

scientist, published his book
Micrographia, in which he described that
pieces of cork viewed under a
microscope presented small cavities,
similar to pores and filled with air. Based
on knowledge discovered later on, what
do you think those cavities were
composed of? What is the historical
importance of this observation?
The walls of the cavities observed by Hooke were the walls of the plant
cells that form the tissue. This observation led to the discovery of cells, a
fact only possible after the invention of the microscope. In that book, Hooke
established the term “cell", which is now widely used in biology, to
designate those cavities seen under the microscope.

Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Cells

4. What are the two main groups into
which cells are classified?
Cells can be classified as eukaryotic or prokaryotic.

Prokaryotic cells are those that do not have an enclosed nucleus.

Eukaryotic cells are those with a nucleus enclosed by a membrane.

5. Do the cells of bacteria have a

nucleus?
In bacteria, genetic material is contained in the cytosol and there is no
internal membrane that encloses a nucleus.

6. Are any bacteria made of more than

one cell?
There are no pluricellular bacteria. All bacteria are unicellular and
prokaryotic.

Plasma Membrane
7. What is the plasma membrane of the
cell? What are its main functions?
The plasma membrane is the outer membrane of a cell, it encloses the cell
itself, maintaining specific conditions for cellular function within the cell.
Since it is selectively permeable, the plasma membrane plays an important
role in the entrance and exit of substances.

8. What chemical substances compose

the plasma membrane?
The main components of the plasma membrane are phospholipids,
proteins and carbohydrates. Phospholipids are amphipathic molecules that
are regularly organized in the membrane according to their polarity: two
layers of phospholipids form the lipid bilayer, with the polar part of the
phospholipids pointing to the exterior part of the layer and the non-polar
phospholipid chains toward the interior. Proteins can be found embedded in
the lipid bilayer. In addition, there are also some carbohydrates bound to
proteins and to phospholipids in the outer surface of the membrane.

9. What is the difference between a

plasma membrane and a cell wall?
A plasma membrane and a cell wall are not the same thing. The plasma
membrane, also called the cell membrane, is the outer membrane common
to all living cells, made of a phospholipid bilayer, embedded proteins and
some bound carbohydrates.

Because cell membranes are fragile, in some types of cells, there are also
external structures to support and protect the membrane, like the cellulose
wall of plant cells and the chitin wall of some fungi cells. Most bacteria also
have an outer cell wall made of peptidoglycans and other organic
substances.
10. What are the main respective
components of cell walls in bacteria,
protists, fungi and plants?
In bacteria, the cell wall is made of peptidoglycans; among protists, algae
have cell walls made of cellulose; in fungi, the cell wall is made of chitin
(the same substance that makes the exoskeleton of arthropods); and in
plants, the cell wall is also made of cellulose.

11. Are membranes only present as the

outside of cells?
Lipid membranes do not only form the outer layer of cells. Cell organelles,
such as the Golgi complex, mitochondria, chloroplasts, lysosomes, the
endoplasmic reticula and the nucleus, are also enclosed by membranes.

Cell Nucleus
12. Which type of cell evolved first, the
eukaryotic cell or the prokaryotic cell?
This is an interesting problem of biological evolution. The most accepted
hypothesis claims that the simpler cell, the prokaryotic cell, appeared
earlier in evolution than the more complex eukaryotic cell. The
endosymbiotic hypothesis, for example, claims that aerobic eukaryotic cells
appeared from the mutualistic ecological interaction between aerobic
prokaryotes and primitive anaerobic eukaryotes.
13. Regarding the presence of the
nucleus, what is the difference between
animal and bacterial cells?
Animal cells (the cells of organisms of the kingdom Animalia) have an
interior membrane that encloses a cell nucleus and are therefore eukaryotic
cells. In these cells, the genetic material is located within the nucleus.
Bacterial cells (the cells of living organisms of the kingdom Monera) do not
have organized cellular nuclei and are therefore prokaryotic cells. Their
genetic material is found in the cytosol.

14. What are the three main parts of a

eukaryotic cell?
Eukaryotic cells can be divided into three main parts: the cell membrane
that physically separates the intracellular space from the outer space by
enclosing the cell; the cytoplasm, the interior portion filled with cytosol (the
aqueous fluid inside the cell); and the nucleus, the membrane-enclosed
internal region that contains genetic material.

15. What are the main structures within

the nucleus of a cell?
Within the nucleus of a cell, the main structures are: the nucleolus, an
optically dense region, sphere shaped region, which contains concentrated
ribosomal RNA (rRNA) bound to proteins (there may be more than one
nucleolus in a nucleus); the chromatin, made of DNA molecules released
into the nuclear matrix during cell interphase; and the karyotheca, or
nuclear membrane, which is the membrane that encloses the nucleus.
16. What substances is chromatin made
up of? What is the difference between
chromatin and a chromosome?
Chromatin, dispersed in the nucleus, is a set of filamentous DNA molecules
attached to nuclear proteins called histones. Each DNA filament is a double
helix of DNA and therefore a chromosome.

17. What is the fluid that fills the nucleus

called?
The aqueous fluid that fills the nuclear region is called karyolymph, or the
nucleoplasm. This fluid contains proteins, enzymes and other important
substances for nuclear metabolism.

18. What substances make up the

nucleolus? Is there a membrane around
the nucleolus?
The nucleolus is a region within the nucleus made of ribosomal RNA
(rRNA) and proteins. It is not enclosed by a membrane.
19. What is the name of the membrane
that encloses the nucleus? Which
component of cell structure is
contiguous to this membrane?
The nuclear membrane is also called the karyotheca. The nuclear
membrane is contiguous to the endoplasmic reticulum membrane.

The Cytoplasm
20. What are the main structures of the
cytoplasm present in animal cells?
The main structures of the cytoplasm of a cell are centrioles, the
cytoskeleton, lysosomes, mitochondria, peroxisomes, the Golgi apparatus,
the endoplasmic reticula and ribosomes.

21. What are cytoplasmic inclusions?

Cytoplasmic inclusions are foreign molecules added to the cytoplasm, such
as pigments, organic polymers and crystals. They are not considered cell
organelles.

Fat droplets and glycogen granules are examples of cytoplasmic

inclusions.

Ribosomes
 22. Where in the cell can ribosomes be
found? What is the main biological
function of ribosomes?
Ribosomes can be found unbound in the cytoplasm, attached to the outer
side of the nuclear membrane or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum
membrane that encloses the rough endoplasmic reticulum. Ribosomes are
the structures in which protein synthesis takes place.

The Endoplasmic Reticulum

23. What is the difference between the
smooth and rough endoplasmic
reticulum?
The endoplasmic reticulum is a delicate membrane structure that is
contiguous to the nuclear membrane and which is present in the cytoplasm.
It forms an extensive net of channels throughout the cell and is classified
into rough or smooth types.

The rough endoplasmic reticulum has a large number of ribosomes

attached to the external side of its membrane. The smooth endoplasmic
reticulum does not have ribosomes attached to its membrane.
The main functions of the rough endoplasmic reticulum are the synthesis
and storage of proteins made in the ribosomes. The smooth endoplasmic
reticulum plays a role in lipid synthesis and, in muscle cells, it is important
in carrying out of contraction stimuli.

The Golgi Apparatus

24. A netlike membrane complex of
superposed flat saccules with vesicles
detaching from its extremities seen is
observed during electron microscopy.
What is the observed structure called?
What is its biological function?
What is being observed is the Golgi complex, or Golgi apparatus. This
cytoplasmic organelle is associated with chemical processing and the
modification of proteins made by the cell as well as with the storage and
marking of these proteins for later use or secretion. Vesicles seen under an
electronic microscope contain materials already processed, and which are
ready to be exported (secreted) by the cell. The vesicles detach from the
Golgi apparatus, travel across the cytoplasm and fuse with the plasma
membrane, secreting their substances to the exterior.

Lysosomes and Peroxysomes

25. Which organelle of the cell structure
is responsible for intracellular
digestion? What is the chemical content
of those organelles?
Intracellular digestion occurs through the action of lysosomes. Lysosomes
contain digestive enzymes (hydrolases) that are produced in the rough
endoplasmic reticulum and stored in the Golgi apparatus. Lysosomes are
hydrolase-containing vesicles that detach from the Golgi apparatus.

26. Why are lysosomes known as “the

cleaners” of cell waste?
Lysosomes carry out autophagic and heterophagic digestion. Autophagic
digestion occurs when residual substances of the cellular metabolism are
digested. Heterophagic digestion takes place when substances that enter
the cell are digested. Lysosomes enfold the substances to be broken down,
forming digestive vacuoles or residual vacuoles, which later migrate toward
the plasma membrane, fusing with it and releasing (exocytosis) the
digested material to the exterior.

27. What are the morphological,

chemical and functional similarities and
differences between lysosomes and
peroxisomes?
Similarities: lysosomes and peroxisomes are small membranous vesicles
that contain enzymes and enclose residual substances of an internal or
external origin to break them down. Differences: lysosomes have digestive
enzymes (hydrolases) that break down substances to be digested into
smaller molecules whereas peroxisomes contain enzymes that mainly
break down long-chain fatty acids and amino acids, and which inactivate
toxic agents including ethanol. In addition, within peroxisomes, the enzyme
catalase is present. It is responsible for the oxidation of organic compounds
by hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) and, when this substance is present in
excess, it is responsible for the breaking down of the peroxide into water
and molecular oxygen.

Centrioles
28. Which cell organelles participate in
cell division and in the formation of the
cilia and flagella of some eukaryotic
cells?
The organelles that participate in cell division and in the formation of the
cilia and flagella of some eukaryotic cells are centrioles. Some cells have
cilia (paramecium, the bronchial ciliated epithelium, etc.) or flagella
(flagellate protists, sperm cells, etc.). These cell structures are composed
of microtubules that originate from the centrioles. Centrioles also produce
the aster microtubules that are very important for cell division.

Mitochondria
29. What are mitochondria? What is the
basic morphology of these organelles
and in which cells can they be found?
Mitochondria are the organelles in which the most important part of cellular
respiration occurs: ATP production.
Mitochondria are organelles enclosed by two lipid membranes. The inner
membrane invaginates to the interior of the organelle, forming the cristae
that enclose the internal space known as the mitochondrial matrix, in which
mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), mitochondrial RNA (mt RNA), mitochondrial
ribosomes and respiratory enzymes can be found. Mitochondria are
numerous in eukaryotic cells and they are even more abundant in cells that
use more energy, such as muscle cells. Because they have their own DNA,
RNA and ribosomes, mitochondria can self-replicate.

30. Why can mitochondria be considered

the "power plants" of aerobic cells?
Mitochondria are the “power plants” of aerobic cells because, within them,
the final stages of the cellular respiration process occur. Cellular respiration
is the process of using an organic molecule (mainly glucose) and oxygen to
produce carbon dioxide and energy. The energy is stored in the form of
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) molecules and is later used in other cellular
metabolic reactions. In mitochondria, the two last steps of cellular
respiration take place: the Krebs cycle and the respiratory chain.
31. What is the endosymbiotic
hypothesis regarding the origin of
mitochondria? What molecular facts
support this hypothesis? To which other
cellular organelles can the hypothesis
also be applied?
It is presumed that mitochondria were primitive aerobic prokaryotes that
were engaged in mutualism with primitive anaerobic eukaryotes, receiving
protection from these organisms and providing them with energy in return.
This hypothesis is called the endosymbiotic hypothesis of the origin of
mitochondria.
This hypothesis is strengthened by some molecular evidence, such as the
fact that mitochondria have their own independent DNA and protein
synthesis machinery, as well as their own RNA and ribosomes, and that
they can self-replicate.

The endosymbiotic theory can also be applied to chloroplasts. It is

assumed that these organelles were primitive photosynthetic prokaryotes
because they have their own DNA, RNA and ribosomes, and can also self-
replicate.

The Cytoskeleton
32. What are the main components of
the cytoskeleton?
The cytoskeleton is a network of very small tubules and filaments
distributed throughout the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells. It is made of
microtubules, microfilaments and intermediate filaments.

Microtubules are formed by molecules of a protein called tubulin.

Microfilaments are made of actin, the same protein that is involved in the
contraction of muscle cells. Intermediate filaments are also made of
protein.

33. What are the functions of the

cytoskeleton?
As the name indicates, the cytoskeleton is responsible for maintaining of
the normal shape of the cell. It also facilitates the transport of substances
across the cell and the movement of cellular organelles. For example, the
interaction between actin-containing filaments and the protein myosin
creates pseudopods. In the cells of the phagocytic defense system, such
as macrophages, the cytoskeleton is responsible for the plasma membrane
projections that engulf the external material to be interiorized and attacked
by the cell.

Chloroplasts
34. What are chloroplasts? What is the
main function of chloroplasts?
Chloroplasts are organelles present in the cytoplasm of plant and algae
cells. Like mitochondria, chloroplasts have two boundary membranes and
many internal membranous sacs. Within the organelle, DNA, RNA
ribosomes and also the pigment chlorophyll are present. The latter
is responsible for the absorption of the light photic energy used in
photosynthesis.

The main function of chloroplasts is photosynthesis: the production of

highly energetic organic molecules (glucose) from carbon dioxide, water
and light.
35. What is the molecule responsible for
the absorption of light energy during
photosynthesis? Where is that molecule
located in photosynthetic cells?
Chlorophyll molecules are responsible for the absorption of light energy
during photosynthesis. These molecules are found in the internal
membranes of chloroplasts.

36. What colors (of the electromagnetic

spectrum) are absorbed by plants? What
would happen to photosynthesis if the
green light waves that reach a plant
were blocked?
Chlorophyll absorbs all other colors of the electromagnetic spectrum, but it
does not absorb green. Green is reflected and such reflection is the reason
for that characteristic color of plants. If the green light that reaches a plant
was blocked and exposure of the plant to other colors was maintained,
there would be no harm to the photosynthesis process. This appears to be
a paradox: green light is not important for photosynthesis.

There is a difference between the optimum color frequency for the two
main types of chlorophyll, chlorophyll A and the chlorophyll B. Chlorophyll A
has an absorption peak at a wavelength of approximately 420 nm (indigo)
and chlorophyll B has its major absorption at a wavelength of 450 nm
(blue).
37. What path is followed by the energy
absorbed by plants to be used in
photosynthesis?
The energy source of photosynthesis is the sun, the unique and central star
of our solar system. In photosynthesis, solar energy is transformed into
chemical energy, the energy of the chemical bonds of the produced
glucose molecules (and of the molecular oxygen released). The energy of
glucose is then stored as starch (a glucose polymer) or it is used in the
cellular respiration process and transferred to ATP molecules. ATP is
consumed during metabolic processes that require energy (for example, in
active transport across membranes).

Plant Cell Wall and Vacuoles

38. What substance are plant cell walls
made of? Which monomer is this
substance made of?
Plant cell walls are made of cellulose. Cellulose is a polymer whose
monomer is glucose. There are other polymers of glucose, such as
glycogen and starch.

39. What is the function of plant cell

walls?
Plant cell walls have structural and protective functions. They play an
important role in limiting cell size, and stopping cells from bursting, when
they absorb a lot of water.
40. What are plant cell vacuoles? What
are their functions? What is the covering
membrane of vacuoles called?
Plant cell vacuoles are cell structures enclosed by membranes within which
there is an aqueous solution made of various substances such as
carbohydrates and proteins. In young plant cells, many small vacuoles can
be seen; within adult cells, the majority of the internal area of the cell is
occupied by a central vacuole.

The main function of vacuoles is the osmotic balance of the intracellular

space. They act as “an external space” inside the cell. Vacuoles absorb or
release water in response to cellular metabolic necessities by increasing or
lowering the concentration of osmotic particles dissolved in the cytosol.
Vacuoles also serve as a place for the storage of some substances.

The membrane that encloses vacuoles is called the tonoplast, named after
the osmotic function of the structure.