Computational approaches with applications to non-

classical and classical thermomechanical problems

Kumar K Tamma
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Universityof Minnesota,
111 Church Street SE, Minneapolis MN 55455; mg24701@sk.msc.edu
Raju R Namburu
US Army Engineer WaterwaysExperiment Station, 3909 Halls Ferry Rd,
Vicksburg MS 39180; namburr@exl.wes.army.mil
A l t h o u g h the issues are n o t v e r y c o n t r o v e r s i a l , the fusion o f b o t h the fields o f h e a t c o n d u c t i o n in solids a n d
elasticity w h i c h results in the s o - c a l l e d field o f d y n a m i c t h e r m o e l a s t i c i t y ( b o t h n o n - c l a s s i c a l a n d classical),
d a t e s as far b a c k as M a x w e l l (1867), a n d h a s l o n g b e e n a s u b j e c t m a t t e r o f w i d e s p r e a d r e s e a r c h a c t i v i t y a n d
interest. A l t h o u g h r o u t i n e t h e r m o m e c h a n i c a l p r o b l e m s are p r i m a r i l y i n f l u e n c e d b y classical effects, issues
w h e r e n o n - c l a s s i c a l i n f l u e n c e s m a y b e c o m e i m p o r t a n t are also addressed. T o date, n u m e r o u s a p p l i c a t i o n s
r a n g i n g f r o m d e f e n s e , a e r o s p a c e to m a n u f a c t u r i n g related p r o b l e m s i n c l u d i n g routine m e c h a n i c a l , civil, n u -
c l e a r a n d allied e n g i n e e r i n g a p p l i c a t i o n s i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e r m a l - s t r u c t u r a l i n t e r a c t i o n s c o n t i n u e to p o s e sig-
n i f i c a n t c h a l l e n g e s b o t h f r o m the u n d e r l y i n g m e c h a n i c s a n d f r o m a c o m p u t a t i o n a l v i e w p o i n t . H e r e i n is first
p r e s e n t e d a n o v e r v i e w o f n o n - c l a s s i c a l a n d classical d y n a m i c t h e r m o e l a s t i c i t y m o d e l s a n d e q u a t i o n s g o v -
e r n i n g t h e s e situations. S u b s e q u e n t l y , a t t e n t i o n is f o c u s e d o n c o m p u t a t i o n a l a p p r o a c h e s for the m o d e l i n g
a n d a n a l y s i s o f v a r i o u s classes o f p r o b l e m s e n c o m p a s s i n g t h e r m a l - s t r u c t u r a l i n t e r a c t i o n s w h i c h c a n b e
b r o a d l y c l a s s i f i e d a s : / ) t h e r m a l l y - i n d u c e d stress w a v e p r o p a g a t i o n p r o b l e m s , ii) t h e r m a l l y - i n d u c e d d y n a m i c
(inertial type) p r o b l e m s , a n d iii) the g e n e r a l field o f t h e r m a l stresses. A v a r i e t y o f illustrative n u m e r i c a l ex-
a m p l e s e n c o m p a s s i n g n o n - c l a s s i c a l a n d classical i n f l u e n c e s are finally p r e s e n t e d to p r o v i d e a n i m p r o v e d
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e b e h a v i o r o f t h e r m a l - s t r u c t u r a l p r o b l e m s via e f f e c t i v e u n i f i e d c o m p u t a t i o n a l d e v e l o p -
m e n t s . T h i s r e v i e w article c o n t a i n s 142 r e f e r e n c e s .

CONTENTS
I INTRODUCTION ........................................................................... 515
2 GENERALIZED DYNAMIC THERMOMECHANICAL
FORMULATIONS: NON-CLASSICAL MODELS ........................... 517
2.1 Background ............................................................................... 517
2.2 Overview ................................................................................... 517
2.3 Heat conduction models and general boundary
and initial conditions ....................................................................... 518
2.4 Coupled dynamic thermoelasticity due to non-classical effects 520
2.5 Governing equations of coupled-uncoupled dynamic thermo-
elasticity with relaxation and consequences to classical forms........ 520
2.6 Boundary and initial conditions ................................................ 522
2.7 Summary: Non-classical models ............................................... 522
2.8 Non-dimensional representations .............................................. 522
3 NUMERICAL DISCRETIZATION ................................................ 523
3.1 Semi-discretized equations: Combined representation
of Green and Lindsay-Lord and Shulman models ........................... 523
3.2 Semi--discretized equations: Green and Lindsay ........................ 524
4 COMPUTATIONAL ALGORITHMS:
HYPERBOLIC PROBLEMS ............................................................. 524
5 SOLUTION ALGORITHMS AND STRATEGIES ......................... 527
5.1 Non-classical models ................................................................. 527
5.2 Non-classical models: Unified combined representations ......... 527
5.3 Numerical Smoothing ............................................................... 528
6 ILLUSTRATIVE NUMERICAL APPLICATIONS ......................... 528
6.1 Jeffrey's-type model by varying parametric values ................... 528
6.2 Dynamic thermoelastic model due to Non-Fourier effects ........ 529
6.3 Non-Fourier thermal-stress waves ............................................. 53 I
7 DYNAMIC THERMO-ELASTICITY FORMULATIONS:
CLASSICAL MODELS ..................................................................... 532
7.1 Overview....................................................................................532
7.2 Fundamental equations .............................................................. 534
7.3 Linear thermoelasticity equations .............................................. 535
7.4 Dynamic thermoelastic representations ..................................... 535
7.5 Quasi-static representations ....................................................... 535
7.6 Static representations ................................................................. 535
7.7 Boundary and initial conditions ................................................. 536
7.8 Summary: Classical models ....................................................... 536
7.9 Non.dimensional representations............................................... 536
8 NUMERICAL DISCRETIZATION ................................................. 537
8. I Semi-Discretized equations: Dynamic thermoelasticity............. 537
8.2 Quasi-static representations .................................... ~.................. 537
8.3 Static representations ................................................................. 537
9 COMPUTATIONAL ALGORITHMS:
PARABOLIC PROBLEMS ................................................................ 537
10 SOLUTION ALGORITHMS AND STRATEGIES ........................ 539
10.1 Classical models: Dynamic thermoelasticity, quasi-static,
and static representations ................................................................. 539
10.2 Classical models: Unified algorithmic representations ............ 540
10.3 Solution approaches ................................................................. 541
11 ILLUSTRATIVE NUMERICAL APPLICATIONS ....................... 541
11.1 Classical models: Thermal stress waves ................................... 541
11.2 Classical models: Thermal-structural dynamics ....................... 543
11.3 Classical models: Thermal-stresses .......................................... 545
12 ISSUES AND ASSESSMENT FOR
THERMOMECHANICAL MODELING-ANALYSIS ....................... 546
13 CONCLUDING REMARKS ......................................................... 548
14 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...................................... i....................... 549
REFERENCES ................................................................................... 549

part of Special Issue on Thermal Stresses, edited by Associate Editor RB Hetnarski

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 Appl Mech Rev vol 50, no 9, September 1997 Tammaand Namburu: Computational approaches for thermomechanical problems 515

I INTRODUCTION some success. However, there is still a critical need as re-

search progresses at a steady pace to provide further en-
The fusion of both the fields of heat conduction in solids and
hancements via improved and/or effective algorithmic repre-
continuum elasticity results in the so-called field of dynamic
sentations, increase in levels of computational and modeling
thermoelasticity, where, the thermoelastic behavior of solids
sophistication, control of solution errors in the analysis stages
and engineering structures in hostile thermal environments
and accuracy of models and finite element meshes, effective
has long been a subject of widespread research activity and
transfer of data between the analysis of each discipline, ap-
interest and numerous publications exist to-date. Numerical
plications to large scale problems on high speed computing
computational techniques for transient and steady nonlinear-
environments, relevant computer-aided design enhancements,
linear thermal-structural modeling and analysis have also re-
and the like.
ceived considerable attention in research activities over the
Typical in the aforementioned class of interdisciplinary
years and a number of versatile finite difference, finite vol-
problems are those associated with thermal-structural inter-
ume, finite element and boundary element codes have
actions (or thermoelasticity problems). Thermoelasticity rep-
evolved for general engineering applications. The major de-
resents a generalization of both the heat conduction and the
velopments have focused, to a large extent, in enhancing
elasticity theories. The theory based on the Foufier's law of
continuum field theories, approaches to increase the levels of
heat conduction is known as the classical theory of thermo-
computational sophistication, stability, accuracy and effi-
elasticity. In the classical theory, the thermal disturbances are
ciency of algorithms, and architecture and implementation
assumed to propagate at infinite speeds. This results in a
aspects for thermal-structural models, etc. With the advent of
parabolic(diffusive) type of thermal response. For most engi-
modern computational capabilities and developments in
neering applications, the classical assumptions provide ac-
computer-aided analysis techniques, the overall develop-
ceptable results. However, non-classical dynamic thermo-
ments have further extended the capability of modeling,
elastic theories have been postulated to account for the finite
problem solving techniques and interpretation to improved
speeds of thermal disturbances. Most of these models are
levels in conjunction with graphics enhanced visualization
based on the general notion of relaxing the heat flux in the
techniques.
classical Fourier model. This results in a hyperbolic
Due to the complex nature of the structural components
(propagative) wave nature for the thermal response. Such fi-
and configurations encountered in engineering practice, nu-
nite speeds of thermal disturbances have been cited to be of
merical computational methods play an important role for
importance for applications involving very short transient du-
both the fields of heat transfer and the associated structural
rations, sudden high heat flux situations, and at temperatures
analysis. The potential of any numerical methodology for
near absolute zero. Numerical modeling and analysis of both
muitidisciplinary analysis hinges primarily upon the devel-
classical and non-classical thermomechanical problems are
opment of robust, reliable and efficient analysis methodolo-
addressed subsequently in this review and the problems may
gies and effective Concepts for interfacing the individual dis-
be linear or nonlinear, steady/static or transient/dynamic in
ciplines for a unified analysis. Of the various numerical
nature.
methods, with the widespread acceptance of the finite ele-
Since routine experimental investigations are cost pro-
ment method in structural-solid mechanics disciplines and its
hibitive and/or highly impractical in certain situations, there
rapid growth in usage for thermal analysis, it has been found
particularly well suited for such interdisciplinary problems.
Interdisciplinary problems encompassing thermal sciences
and structural mechanics/dynamics disciplines are in general,
an important concern to the designer from the point of view
of reliability, durability, and integrity of a given structural FRS~
component or configuration. An illustrative complex geomet-
ric aerospace structure representative of the shuttle wing ge-
ometry is shown in Fig i. There are a significant number of
general engineering applications in mechanical, aerospace,
chemical, civil, electronic and nuclear engineering disciplines
wherein an accurate understanding of the interdisciplinary
thermal-structural interactions are of utmost importance and ~w INQIEtE
, VON
concern in the design and analysis stage. The complexity and RRSI;
'foxouEI l o x ~ ~ . ~ [L(v°N
interdisciplinary nature of these structures significantly influ-
ences the response characteristics and makes the combined
modeling and analysis a formidable and challenging task.
tHT~RM[OI&TI[
S(¢TIQN~ • "r~. ~
Furthermore, for several related applications, routine experi-
mental and/or ground tests are highly impractical and diffi-
cult or cumbersome to simulate. As a consequence, there is a
pressing need to effectively formulate accurate representative
models, modeling/analysis strategies, and unified computa-
tional approaches to numerically simulate the combined re-
sponse for a variety of situations. Traditional numerical ap-
proaches for the modeling/analysis of transient thermal- Fig I. Typical illustrative example of a complex geometric aero-
structural interactions have indeed been employed with quite space structure subjected to hostile thermal environment (shuttle
wing structure details)

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 516 SPECIALISSUEON THERMALSTRESSES
is a need to develop accurate and efficient numerical simula-
tion procedures which carefully account for the underlying
physical principles pertaining to the problem. In lieu of the
complexities involved in employing analytic-type methods
for interdisciplinary engineering problems, now-a-days, the
analysis of many thermal, mechanical, and combined ther-
momechanical interactions are being undertaken with consid-
erable confidence via various numerical methods of ap-
proach. Among the various numerical approaches, finite dif-
ference methods and finite element methods have been com-
monly used for the modeling and analysis of thermal-
structural problems. Historically, it was common to use finite
difference techniques exclusively for the heat equation by the
thermal analysts, whereas, the finite element method was the
ideal choice of structural analysts for the structural problems.
For combined thermal-structural interactions, one needs to
perform an accurate thermal/structural analysis in complex
geometries subjected to boundary conditions, irregular and
complicated geometries, and the like. As a consequence, the
finite element method has evolved as one of the more effec-
tive general purpose approaches available for the numerical
solution of these classes of problems because of the inherent
/ \
/ \
I I
I I
I FIJTII~ I
I I
I knowns at any time level are related to those of the previous
I t Thermal-Structural
I I
• ....... 5ons
Classification of Models
Non-Classical
Classical
Categories of Problems
Thermal-Stress Wave Propagation
Thermally-lnduced Structural Dynamics
Field of Thermal-Stresses
Typical Applications
High Temperature Structures, Hostile Thermal Environments
Sudden Thermal Shock induced Transients
Laser-Pulse Heating and High Heat Flux
Aero-Space Structures
Heat Pipes
Manufacturing Applications
Prediction of Residual Stresses, Metals, Alloys,
Polymers, Resin Transfer Molding
Thermal Cure
Micro-electronic Packaging
Fig 2. Multidisciplinary thermal-structural problems: classifica-
tions, categories, and illustrative overview of overlapping applica-
tion areas
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Appl Mech Rev vo150, no 9, September 1997
advantages of the method. Furthermore, the finite element
method in conjunction with direct time integration proce-
dures are routinely being employed for solving interdiscipli-
nary thermal-structural problems in most commercial codes.
Traditionally, the transient governing differential equa-
tions are first discretized in space employing the finite ele-
ment method. This procedure is known as semidiscretization.
The semidiscretization process reduces the partial differential
equations to a system of ordinary differential equations in
time. These equations are further integrated in time to obtain
the transient response. The commonly adopted techniques for
solving transient problems are: direct time integration meth-
ods and modal superposition methods. The direct time inte-
gration methods are the most widely used approaches for
transient analysis. 'Modal analysis approaches are preferred
mostly for linear situations and inertial type structural dy-
namic problems; and have not been popular for nonlinear
situations and for propagation type problems where high fre-
quencies are involved, thereby, becoming computationally
intensive and unattractive. In direct time integration methods,
finite difference approximations are introduced for the time
derivative terms of the semidiscretized equations for deriving
the necessary algorithmic relations. The basic types of direct
time integration techniques are explicit methods, implicit
methods, and mixed or variable time integration methods.
The basic difference between explicit methods and im-
plicit methods is the computational solution procedure and
the choice of time steps. In explicit methods, the unknowns at
the current time level can be directly evaluated from the pre-
viously known values. However, for implicit methods the un-
time levels and the derivatives of the current time level. As a
result, the solution algorithm for implicit methods requires
assembling and solving a system of algebraic equations. For
the explicit method, a lumped procedure is often used,
thereby avoiding the complex solution to a system of equa-
tions. Therefore, explicit methods require less computational
effort per time step than implicit methods. However, explicit
methods are only conditionally stable while implicit methods
are unconditionally stable. Unconditional stability does not
assure accuracy of solutions. As such, with implicit tech-
niques the selection of the time step is based on accuracy
considerations. Furthermore, for nonlinear transient/dynamic
analysis, explicit methods do not require iterations, while im-
plicit methods need to employ iterative strategies to obtain
convergence of solutions.
Customarily, routine modeling and analysis of thermally-
induced deformations and stresses (the general field of ther-
mal stresses) neglect the effects of the mechanical coupling
term in the heat conduction equation (Biot, 1956) and the in-
ertia terms in the elasticity equations. The resulting deforma-
tions and stress fields are evaluated from known transient
temperature fields as a series of quasi-static thermal stress
analysis. While the mechanical coupling term may play a
significant role in the case of inelastic solids at elevated tem-
perature environments, inertia effects, however, may become
important and need to be accounted for those general situa-
tions which experience sudden rapid heating or thermal
shock (Boley and Weiner, 1960). The class of problems with
the temperature field dependent upon the deformation field
and vice versa are often referred to as coupled problems,
 Appl Meeh Rev vol 50, no 9, September 1997 Tammaand Namburu: Computational approaches for thermomechanical problems
while if the temperature field is independent of the deforma-
tion field an uncoupled problem results.
Problems encompassing the general field of thermal-struc-
tural interactions may thus be categorized as:
I) Thermally-induced stress-wave propagation
problems,
2) Thermally-induced inertial dynamic problems, and
3) The field of thermal stresses.
All of these are addressed subsequently. Figure 2 illustra-
tes the classifications, categories and typical application ar-
eas for the thermal-structural disciplines encountered in engi-
neering practice.
2 GENERALIZED DYNAMIC
THERMOMECHANICAL FORMULATIONS:
NON-CLASSICAL MODELS
2.1 Background
Interdisciplinary thermal-structural interactions are of practi-
cal importance in many engineering fields and involve the
modeling/analysis of complex geometric components/confi-
gurations. The general class of coupled/uncoupled problems
in interdisciplinary thermal-structural mechanics falls in the
realm of thermoelasticity or dynamic thermoelasticity. In the
development of the governing equations relevant to the afore-
mentioned categories, the formulations emanate starting from
the principles of continuum mechanics. In the sections to
follow, attention is confined to the generalized form of equa-
tions for dynamic thermoelasticity based on the non-classical
theories of Green and Lindsay (1972) and Lord and Shulman
(1967), and are described first. The non-classical models
proposed by Green and Lindsay (1972) and Lord and Shul-
man (1967) involve the so called relaxation parameters. By
appropriately controling these relaxation parameters, the
generalized equations of linear thermoelasticity (based on the
non-classical models), can be readily reduced to the classical
linear dynamic thermoelasticity equations.
The conservation of mass, the conservation of momentum,
and the conservation of energy for a continuum are first de-
scribed in the sections to follow for the non-classical models
relevant to dynamic thermoelasticity. Therein, the reductions
to the classical models are described.
A thermoelastic model can be defined as one in which a
coupled exchange of mechanical energy and thermal energy
takes place under the action of an external thermomechanical
load. The field ofthermoelasticity represents a fusion of both
the theory of elasticity and the theory of heat conduction.
Thermoelasticity theories can be classified as:
i) Thermoelasticity theory based upon non-classical heat
conduction effects.
ii) Thermoelasticity theory based upon classical heat con-
duction effects.
The sections to follow briefly describe the non-classical
and the classical thermoelasticity equations, which are subse-
quently employed in the various investigations encompassing
interdisciplinary thermal-structural problems. The objectives
here are to overview and briefly present the basic equations
of non-classical and classical dynamic thermoelasticity theo-
ries and illustrate their effects on thermal-structural problems
rather than make any attempts to improve upon the various
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517
theories. Hence, the basic equations of the thermoelasticity
theories are briefly discussed and pertinent references are
cited during the discussions that follow.
The basic equations of dynamic thermoelasticity, namely,
continuity, equations of motion, and energy, are briefly de-
scribed in the subsequent sections following recent efforts by
Tamma (1996) wherein the details are presented.
Since it is beyond the scope of this chapter to cite all the
excellent studies of the various efforts, only a brief overview
of some of the relevant studies follow next.
2.2 Overview
In contrast to the classical heat conduction theory which as-
sumes that the thermal disturbances propagate at infinite
speeds, arguments questioning the validity of such a phe-
nomenon appear in literature for specialized applications in-
volving very short transient durations, sudden high heat flux
situations, and/or for very low temperatures near absolute
zero. The concept of the so-called hyperbolic nature involv-
ing finite speeds of thermal disturbance dates as far back as
Maxwell (1867). Thermal disturbances of a hyperbolic nature
have also been derived using various approaches (Landau,
1941, Peshkov, 1944, Vemotte, 1958, Cattaneo, 1958). Most
of these approaches are based on the general notion of re-
laxing the heat flux in the classical Fourier heat conduction
equation, thereby, introducing a non-Fourier effect. There is
also some contradiction to these non-classical propositions in
thermoelasticity, with arguments questioning the applicability
of finite speeds of propagation in gases to that occurring in
solid continua. Chester (1963) provides some justification to
the fact that the so-called second sound must exist in any
solid since all solid continua exhibit phonon-type excitations.
In an idealized solid, for example, the thermal energy can be
transported by different mechanisms: by quantized electronic
excitations, which are called free electrons, and by the quanta
of lattice vibrations, which are called phonons. These quanta
undergo collisions of a dissipative nature, causing a thermal
resistance in the medium. A relaxation time to is associated
with the average communication time between these colli-
sions for the commencement of resistive flow. Though the
convergence time for the solutions of the hyperbolic model to
that of the parabolic model is small, it may become important
when extremely short times are involved. It is under such
situations, that the assumption of a parabolic heat conduction
model may lead to inaccurate modeling of the transient ther-
mal behavior. As a consequence, a hyperbolic heat conduc-
tion model that allows for both the transient heat conduction
and a finite nature of thermal energy transport is argued as a
reasonable substitute for evaluating the propagating thermal
and thermally-induced stress disturbances. Among the vari-
ous propositions, the applicability of these non-classical
theories is well summarized by lgnaczak (1981) which in-
eludes the theories due to Lord and Shulman (1967) and
Green and Lindsay (1972). Excellent references are also
available due to Chandrasekhafiah (1986), and Joseph and
Preziosi (1989, 1990), Kaliski (1965), and Kaliski and
Nowacki (1969). Nayfeh (1977) studied the propagation of
thermoelastic disturbances in non-Fourier solids. Nayfeh and
Nemat-Nasser (1971) used the theory developed by Lord and
Shulman (1967) to study the effects of the thermal coupling
on both plane harmonic thermoelastic waves in unbound me-
 518 SPECIALISSUE ON THERMAL STRESSES
dia and Rayleigh surface waves propagating along the free
surface of a half space. Later, Puri (I 973), using the same
theory, obtained exact solutions to the frequency equations
and calculated exact values for the real and imaginary parts
of the wave number. Agarwal (1979) used Green and Lind-
say's theory to determine phase velocity, specific loss, at-
tenuation coefficient, and amplitude ratio behavior for quasi-
elastic and quasi-thermal modes by directly solving the fre-
quency equations.
Solutions to dynamic thermoelastic non-classical model
problems, particularly those that admit closed form analytical
solutions are limited. As a consequence, numerical methods
of approach must often be resorted to. The major difficulties
encountered in the numerical simulations of such problems
include severe oscillatory solution behavior (which often dis-
guises the true response) when sharp wave fronts and reflec-
tive boundaries are involved, capturing the sharp disconti-
nuities at the wave fronts with high resolutions, and the like.
Prevost and Tao (1983) demonstrated an implicit-explicit
formulation adapted from a variation of the Newmark struc-
tural dynamic algorithm to solve a dynamic thermoelasticity
problem based on the non-classical model. The above ap-
proach combines the algorithmic advantages of the explicit
and the implicit method into a single time integration proce-
dure. Tamma and Railkar (1990) demonstrated via tailored
hybrid transfinite element formulations the evaluation of a
particular uncoupled class of non-Fourier stress wave distur-
bances. Their results showed the presence of significant
thermal-stresses due to non-Fourier effects when the speeds
of the thermal waves and stress waves are equal under certain
loading situations. For the case of unequal speeds of propa-
gation, the relative magnitudes (Fourier versus non-Fourier)
were shown to be almost comparable. Subsequently, Tamma
(1989) and Tamma et al (1992, 1994) described various
studies encompassing dynamic thermoelasticity problems of
the non-classical type including providing effective ap-
proaches f o r stabilizing the oscillatory solution behavior.
With the advent of laser technology, in which high heat flux
conditions are encountered, its use for extremely short dura-
tions has found many applications. Some typical applications
include the annealing of semi-conductors, surface heating
and melting of metals, etc. Other applications include explo-
sive bonding and melting where high local heat fluxes are in-
volved, nucleate boiling, and the like. The basic nature of
thermal energy transport immediately after the application of
the pulse and the resulting sustained temperature at the sur-
face of the medium have been some topics of interest in such
situations.
The subsequent sections briefly describe first the non-
classical hyperbolic heat conduction model equations fol-
lowed by Green and Lindsay's (1972) and Lord and Shul-
man's (1967) coupled non-classical dynamic thermoelasticity
equations involving non-Fourier effects and subsequent re,
duction to the classical models.
2.3 Heat conduction models and
general boundary and Initial conditions
We are concerned here with the problem of heat transport
due to conduction in which the propagating thermal distur-
bances are transmitted by waves at finite but high speeds.
Starting from one form of a generalized model, namely, the
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Appl Mech Rev vo150, no 9, September 1997
heat flux model of the Jeffrey's type (1989) with the notion
of an effective thermal conductivity and an effective heat
flux, and subsequent concepts leading to those proposed by
Cattaneo (1958), reductions to the classical models are first
reviewed. Investigations illustrating the influence of general
nonlinear-linear boundary effects and loading situations are
subsequently touched upon for accurately representing the
thermal behavior. The references provided describe further
details of the modeling/analysis of a variety of problems.
2.3.1 Heat conduction models. Some representative models
encompassing non-classical/classical thermal models are
briefly identified next.
Jeffrey's model: On the analogy of relating the phenomenon
of shear waves in liquids and thermal waves as relevant to the
hyperbolic nature of thermal transport, Joseph and Preziosi
(1989) suggest a relation to the Jeffrey's type equation. A
heat flux constitutive model of the Jeffrey's type is thus ex-
pressed as:
q + = -kvr- (vr) (1)
where x is a relaxation parameter (non-negative constant)
which physically signifies the initiation of heat flow after a
temperature gradient has been imposed, k is the thermal con-
ductivity and is the sum of the effective thermal conductivity
(kl) and the elastic conductivity (k2). q is the heat flux and T
is the temperature.
Cattaneo's mode/: If kl = 0, then Eq (I) reduces to Cat-
teneo's equation (1958) as:
q + ~q,t = -kVT (2)
Fourier's mode/: If the relaxation parameter x = 0, the heat
flux law defined by Eq (2) reduces to the classical Fourier's
model for heat conduction as:
q = -kVT (3)
2.3.2 Governing heat transport equations. The heat trans-
port equations describing'the thermal behavior following the
constitutive laws described above are outlined here starting
from the Jeffrey's type equation (in the absence of heat
sources) to the classical form of heat Conduction.
Jeffrey 's-type:
- -I - -02T
+ - - - - I OT = V2T+K ~t ( V2T)
¢s 20t 2 ot Ot (4)
where G is the speed of heat transport propagation and is
given by e~ = (k/~ge) I/2 = (or/x)I/2. ~ is the thermal diffusivity
given by c~ = (k/pc); here k is the thermal conductivity, P is
the mass density, and e is the specific heat. The quantity K =
(Tkllk) = kll(k/x).
When K ~ 0, the above Eq (4) is parabolic in nature with
the discontinuities being smoothed by diffusion effects asso-
ciated with the effective thermal conductivity kt.
When K = 0, Eq (4) reduces to the hyperbolic heat con-
duction equation, where heat is transmitted as waves with fi-
nite speeds dictated by e. This case is a direct consequence of
Cattaneo's model (as described in a subsequent part of this
section).
 Appl Mech Rev vo150, no 9, September 1997 Tamma and Namburu:Computationalapproachesfor thermomechanicalproblems
When K = x, Eq (4) reduces to the diffusion equation
given by:
at L dt K J
TI= cSd£+±T1
' L at K J (5)
The consequence of varying K in Eq (4) starting from zero
and the sequence of events depicting the hyperbolic
(propagative) wave nature of thermal energy transport
through a mildly hyperbolic transition to a completely para-
bolic (diffusive) situation is described in the section on ap-
plications as an illustration of the phenomenon of thermal
energy transport.
Cattaneo's type: We now focus attention on the non-classical
model due to Cattaneo and its reduction to the classical
Fourier model. Denoting the internal energy as du = pcdT,
then the energy equation is represented (in the absence of
heat sources) following Joseph and Preziosi (1989) as:
du
-- + V.q = 0 (6)
dt
Employing Cattaneo's model Eq (2) in conjunction with
the energy Eq (6), leads to the heat transport equation given
by
i 632T ~- 1 c3T = V2 T
Cs
2 t3t2 ~ tgt (7a)
which is analogous to setting K = 0 in Eq (4) for the Jeffrey's
type. Equation (7a) is hyperbolic in nature and predicts a fi-
nite speed c,, equal to (//k/xpc)1/2, provided x > O. As cs ~ 0%
which is the limiting case of zero relaxation time, then z ~ O,
which is the case of the classical Fourier heat conduction
equation. At steady state, the non-Fourier model reverts to
the classical Foufier's model although the relaxation pa-
rameter x # 0, and as a consequence, the temperature solu-
tions differ for the two models only during the transient state.
Equation (7a) shows that the waves which have a finite speed
cs, are attenuated due to relaxation and steady-state condi-
tions can be induced by temperature gradients. Including in-
ternal source effects, the governing equation takes the form
given by
--~-.I----- = V2T+ Q+
c~2 a3t2 cz ~gt KL csz at ] (Tb)
From Cattaneo's heat flux law {Eq (2)}, an inertial heat
transport theory results when t --~ oo and k --~ oo, resulting in
k/z = [3, a finite quantity. Thus,
aq = _i3V r (8)
8t
for which a finite thermal conductivity arises from consid-
eration of damping resulting in a heat transport equation in
which the heat waves are propagated without attenuation.
The corresponding heat transport equation thus represents a
wave nature (propagative) rather than a diffusion character.
1 t92T = V2 T
Cs2 ~t 2 (9)
Fourier's type: For x = 0, Cattaneo's heat flux law {Eq (2)}
which eliminates the unpleasant paradox of infinite heat
propagation speed reverts to the classical Fourier model.
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519
When combined with the energy equation, it now leads to the
classical Fourier parabolic heat conduction equation given by
1 aT =V2T
ct&
(10)
which is no longer propagative but is diffusive, ct is the ther-
mal diffusivity given by ct = k/pc. Here, the classical theory
implies that it cannot account for the short time required for
steady state heat conduction to be reached when a tempera-
ture gradient is suddenly introduced. Hence, the thermal en-
ergy transport is assumed to be transmitted instantaneously to
every other point so that the speed of propagation is infinite.
Such a notion of instantaneous heat diffusion does yield
fairly accurate temperature predictions for most commonly
encountered practical engineering situations, although it is
believed that several pathological anomalies exist, especially
for cases involving extremely short transient durations or for
very low temperatures near absolute zero. In this regard, the
non-Fourier models seek to eliminate these anomalies with
the notion of a time-dependent relaxation model.
2.3.3 T h e r m a l r e l a x a t i o n parameter, x. The thermal re-
laxation parameter x, which is introduced in the heat flux law
is a non-negative constant (z > 0) and has a definite physical
interpretation. Joseph and Preziosi (1989) describe the tem-
perature in a continuum body as the macroscopic conse-
quence of vibratory motions which may represent the mo-
tions of molecules of a gas or the vibrations of a lattice in a
solid; on microscopic scales. The heat transport is due to
near-neighbor excitation where the changes in momentum
and energy are transported on a microscopic scale as propa-
gating waves in the continuum. Chester (1963) gives a clear
physical interpretation and identifies the value o f z as
• =3k/pcv (ll)
where vp is the speed of the ordinary sound (first sound). The
origins of the occurrence of wave-type heat transport
(referred to as second sound) can be traced to Maxwell
(1867) in the development of kinetic theory for gases. The
parameter x physically represents the time lag needed to es-
tablish steady heat flow conditions when a temperature gra-
dient is suddenly applied. This time lag, which is often re-
ferred to as the thermal relaxation time, may be assumed to
be associated with the average communication time between
quanta which undergo atomic collisions of a dissipative na-
ture for the commencement of resistive flow in the contin-
uum. Numerous authors have established values of x for dif-
ferent materials with ranges from 10-~° for gases to 10-14 for
metals (liquids, etc, are assumed to fall within this range).
From a simplistic viewpoint, hyperbolicity of the heat
transport equation, Eq (7) is a consequence of replacing the
classical Fourier model {Eq (3)} with the notion of a time-
dependent relaxation model {Eq (2)}.
Typical thermal boundary and initial conditions are given
as
Boundary conditions:
0 = Op on ¢gRp (12a)
 520 SPECIALISSUE ON THERMAL STRESSES Appl Meeh Rev vo150, no 9, September 1997

(-kijO j)n i = -q,~ + h(O - Oh)+ arc T(O4 - 0 4) % = o~:kt - 13~(0 + tjr) (17)-
(12b)
on ORq (18)
qi + toqi = -kijO,j
lnitial conditions:
n = I"10+ --co + ct20 + ._L ~ij£ q (19)
0(t = 0) = 0, (12c) To ro Po
where to, q, and t2 are the so-called relaxation parameters.
0(t = 0) = O, (12d) The parameters to, q, t2 govern the various dynamic ther-
where OR = OR? + 0Rq. The first boundary condition is the moelastic models. For example, when to = tl = t2 = 0, Eqs
specification of prescribed temperature 0? on aRp and the (17)-(19) reduce to the classical thermoelastic models. Green
second boundary condition involves the heat flux conditions and Lindsay (1972) introduced two relaxation parameters tl
on aRq, where the total heat flux is associated with the non- and t2 by modifying the DuhameI-Neuman relations Eq (17)
Fourier law of the Cattaneo's type (Cattaneo, 1958). and the entropy density relations Eq (19). In each of the pre-
vious models, the classical theory of dynamic thermoelastic-
2.4 Coupled dynamic thermoelasticity ity is readily obtained by appropriately setting the relaxation
due to non-classical effects parameters to zero.
The generalized dynamic thermoelasticity equations postu- p = mass density in current configuration
lated by Green and Lindsay (1972) and Lord and Shulman P0 = mass density in reference configuration
(1967) are discussed next. Both the coupled and the uncou- c 0. = stress tensor (Cauchy)
pled dynamic thermoelastic form of representations are
briefly summarized in this section. ~# = linear strain tensor = ui,] + uj, i
A special feature of the Green and Lindsay (1972) model
is that it does not violate the classical Fourier's heat conduc- ui = displacement vector
tion law (described previously) if the material has a center of vi = velocity vector
symmetry at each point. Also, for a general anisotropic situa- f = body force vector
tion, the model is not based on any predetermined form of qi = heat flux vector
the heat conduction law. In fact, the theory is based on an en- ~ = internal energy
ergy production inequality proposed earlier by Green and r I = entropy density
Laws (1972). Q = heat source
The basic equations of linearized thermoelasticity theory
Kq = thermal conductivity tensor (k O.= 19.i)
which represent a single phase continuum due to the presence
0 = temperature (T- To)
of relaxation parameters to, q, t2 (Green and Lindsay, 1972;
T = absolute temperature
Lord and Shulman, 1967) are highlighted next. The continu- To = initial uniform temperature (assumed to be positive)
ity, energy and linear momentum equations are shown next
followed by the constitutive relations. 2.5 Governing equations of coupled-uncoupled
Conservation of Mass: (Nowacki, ! 975) dynamic thermoelasticity with relaxation
and consequences to classical forms
P--.~-= 1 + vi, i (13) In this section, the governing coupled equations of dynamic
P thermoelasticity with relaxation parameters are depicted
Conservation of Momentum: (Fung, 1965) based on the balance equations described in the previous
sections. The resulting equations based on both that of Green
(~ji,j -I- Pfi ~" P~/i (14a) and Lindsay's and Lord and Shulman's formulations are first
where described in a combined form. Therein, consequences to the
various other forms are presented. Figure 3 shows an illus-
~ji = cr0. (14b)
tration of dynamic thermoelasticity models with/without re-
Energy Equation: (Fung, 1965) laxation effects.

P ( v - Q) = % ~ o - q~,~ (15) Dynamic thermoelasticity: Combined representation

of coupled Green-Lindsay-Lord-Shulman's equations
or,
The heat conduction equation associated with the continuum
pTfi = - q i j + PQ (16) is discussed first. The energy equation namely Eq (16) and
the non-Fourier heat flux law as given by Eq (18) can be
Constitutive Equations:
combined to give the relation between the entropy density r I
Introducing 0 = T - To, where To is the reference temperature and the temperature 0. This is done by elimination of the heat
of the material (stress - free) state of the solid body, the con- flux qi from Eqs (16) and (18) and it leads to the following:
stitutive equations in a solid R are given in Tamma (1996).
With the notion of Duhamel-Neuman relations and the
entropy density function (Nowacki, 1975), we have the fol-
lowing:

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 Appl Mech Rev vo150, no 9, September 1997 Tamma and Namburu: Computational approachesfor thermomechanical problems 521

Substituting for the entropy density r I from Eq (19), after
some algebraic manipulations and eliminating higher-order
terms, the above equation for linear coupled thermoelasticity
with relaxation parameters to and t2 is given as follows:
pc(t o + t2~ + toTol~oiii,j+ pcO+ To~ijtJi,j-
(kijOj),i= p(Q+ t0Q) (21)
Next, the equations of motion associated with the contin-
uum are derived. On substituting Eq (17) into the conserva-
tion of the linear momentum Eq (14a), we have the equations
of motion for linear coupled thermoelasticity with relaxation
parameter h as follows:
The governing equations of dynamic thermoelasticity, in-
volving the relaxation theories of Green and Lindsay (1972),
and Lord and Shulman (1967), for a single phase continuum
in the presence of the relaxation parameters to, tl, t2 described
in this section are summarized subsequently.
A schematic representation of the dynamic thermal-
structural models in the presence of the relaxation parameters
to, t=, t2 is shown in Fig 3.
Due to the presence of the non-Fourier heat flux law, the
thermal wave no longer travels at an infinite speed as pre-
dicted by the classical model. The thermal wave propagates
through the continuum at a finite speed given by
/ N
Cr= Sqrt[o~t~} and the corresponding structural wave
propagates at the speed given by Cs= Sqrt(--Eo). It can be
easily seen that when the thermal relaxation parameter ap-
DYNAMIC THERMOELASTICITY INVOLVING 1
RELAXATION EFFECTS
to , t~ ,
COUPLED
preaches to zero the speed of propagation of the thermal
wave becomes infinite and thus the non-Fourier model now
reduces to the classical Fourier model.
Controling the relaxation parameters in the non-classical
governing dynamic thermoelasticity equations as represented
by Eqs (21) and (22), the governing equations for classical
dynamic thermoelasticity can be obtained. The relaxation pa-
rameters h, t2 are introduced by Green and Lindsay (1972),
whereas the relaxation parameter to is introduced by Lord
and Shulman (I 967).
Case 1: Dynamic thermoelasticity (Green and Lindsay)
The governing equations for linear coupled dynamic ther-
moelasticity for Green and Lindsay's (1972) model are ob-
tained by substituting to = 0 in Eqs (21) and (22) and are
given as follows:
p/ii + (t,130-O),j -(Duk, Uk,,-13iiO),j =Pfi (23a)
pc(t2)O+pcO+Tol3ij~i,j-(k~iO,i).i=Q (23b)
The above Eqs (23a)-(23b) represent the coupled dynamic
thermoelasticity equations with two relaxation parameters t~
and t2. These equations readily reduce to the classical cou-
pled equations in the absence of these relaxation parameters.
One form of non-classical heat conduction influence on
the structural response for the case of the linear uncoupled
dynamic thermoelasticity for Green and Lindsay's (1972)
model can be obtained by setting to = h = To = 0 in Eqs (21)-
(22). Such an analysis is shown subsequently.
These equations also reduce to the classical uncoupled
equations in the absence of the relaxation parameter t2.
J
I UNCOUPLED I

Green and I [Lord and LGreen and [Lord and [CLASSICAl.,

;SICAL i n d s a y t l ), t 2 LShulman to ] ]
Lindsay tl.t2 Shulman t o

[EAT CONDUCq HEAT CONDUC'

(HYPERBOLIC) (PARABOLIC) ~(EAT CONDUCTION [HEATCONDUCTION
HYPERBOLIC) ] l (PARABOLIC) ]

EQUATION OF MOTION]
FOR | EQUATION OF MOTION 1
STRUCTURE J FOR
STRUCTURE

Fig 3. Dynamic thermoelasticity models with-without involving relaxation effects

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 522 SPECIALISSUE ON THERMALSTRESSES Appl Mech Rov vo150, no 9, September 1997

Case 2: Dynamic thermoelasticity (Lord and Shuiman) H =(pQ-pcO] (29d)

The governing equations of linear dynamic coupled thermo-
elasticity for Lord and Shulman's (1967) model are obtained
by substituting tl = t2 = 0 in Eqs (2 I)-(22) to yield
pc(t 0)0 + toToPijiii.j + pcO + To~lflili. j
-(k.0.j)x = P(Q+toQ)
piii -(Do,tu,.t - I~ij0).j = pf/
The above Eqs (24a)-(24b) represent the dynamic ther-
moelasticity equations with one relaxation parameter to.
Setting To = 0, the uncoupled form is readily obtained.
2.6 Boundary and Initial conditions
Typical boundary and initial conditions are represented as:
Boundary conditions:
t Pfi )
where tl and t2 are the relaxation parameters due to Green
and Lindsay. Setting the parameters tt = t2 = 0 yields the
classical representations described subsequently.
For investigations encompassing dynamic thermoelasticity
(24a) influenced by non-classical effects, it is often convenient to
employ non-dimensional representations for the analysis of
problems of the Danilovskaya type.
(24b)
2.8 Non-dimensional representations
It is of interest here to study the effects of heat waves in one-
dimensional semi-infinite solids. In this regard, it is more
convenient to employ the non-dimensional form of the gov-
erning equations to study the influence of these non-
dimensional parameters.
Introducing the following non-dimensional parameters
(assuming an isotropic, homogeneous medium),

0=p on aRp (25a) 0* = 0/% (30a)

x* = Csx/a (30b)
(kiiO j)n i =q On cORq (25b)
t* = Cs2t/ot (30c)
ui = gi on t3Rp (26a)
o* = o/130 o (30d)
oijn j = h i on aRq (26b)
u* = DuCs/al30 o (30e)
lnitial conditions:
where
0 = O,° (27a) Cs = (DIP) 112 (31a)
0=0, ° in R (27b)
a = k/pc (31b)

u~ = u/° (28a) = rop2/pcO (31c)

u, = rio (28b)
=

where O,O,uifi i are prescribed initial temperature, initial Co t,~') Old)

temperature rate, initial displacement and initial velocity, re- yields the governing coupled thermoelastic representations in
spectively. For the thermal model, p and q are the specified conservation form (Lax and Wen&off, 1964; Richtmyer and
temperature and flux conditions. Similarly, the quantities gi Morton, 1967) (in the absence of internal sources and body
and hi are prescribed displacements and surface tractions re- forces and dropping the asterisks for convenience in the rep-
spectively for the structural model. resentation) as:
aU ag
2.7 Summary: Non-classical models +-- = H (32a)
at
For illustration, we summarize the governing equations for where
generalized coupled dynamic thermoelasticity employing the
non-classical model due to Green and Lindsay which can be
represented in conservation form as: (32b)
aU 0E
-- +-- = H (29a)
at ax
where
C2 (32c)
U-(pct201 (29b) ,c j
- ~. Pfii )

E = (_ - k"Od+ T°~J:T: "~

(Do.kte,t _j3jiO)+ ti~jiOJ (29C)
":/:) (32d)
t

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 Appl Mech Rev vo150, no 9, September 1997 Tammaand Namburu: Computational approaches for thermomechanical problems 523

The one-way coupled form of the Eqs (32) can be easily M mm= ~ pcNamN~'dR
obtained by disregarding the mechanical coupling term in the
R~
thermal equation.
C °° = ~ pcNa° N~dR
Re
3 NUMERICAL DISCRETIZATION
c0m = ro #N jN OdR
For the purposes of illustration, the analysis of the various Re
classes of problems encompassing thermomechanical inter-
actions is described employing the finite element method. Let (-)tl~ijNOaNmidR
C m0 __ ;

the solution domain R be enclosed by a boundary surface OR Re

K0O = ~ kuNa,iN~,jdR
0 0
= ORpI.)ORq where 0Rp and 0Rq are non-overlapping sub-
R~
regions of OR. For the thermal model, the boundary surface
K mm= ~ Do.ktNam,iN~mjdR
OR consists of prescribed temperature conditions on ORp and
Re
flux boundary conditions on ORq. For the structural model,
the boundary surface O R consists of prescribed displace- K me = I ( - ) ~ o N : N L d R
Re
ments on ORe and traction conditions on 0R~. Based on the
particular class of problems, the initial conditions are also = ;p(e + ,o0)N:dR
given quantities for both the thermal and the mechanical &
models respectively. m
Fro= f pf, N.dR
Within each element Re contained in R, the element vari-
ables are approximated following It should be noted that the combined representation of the
0 e = N°0 (33a) non-classical dynamic thermo-elastic semi-discretized equa-
tions of Green and Lindsay/Lord and Shulman models given
Ue = Nmu (33b) by Eqs (34) are hyperbolic second-order ordinary differential
equations in time. Hence, symbolically, the semi-discretized
where N O and N m are the element interpolation functions equations given by Eqs (34) can be typically represented, in
for the temperature and the displacement fields in the thermal general, as
and mechanical models respectively; and 0 are the nodal val-
ues of the temperature field, and u are the nodal values of the M°/ma + c°/mv + K0/md = F °/m (35)
displacement field respectively. where M °/m, C e/m, K °[m and F °/m can in general, be associated
The semi-discretized equations as related to the general in relation to the generalized mass, damping, and stiffness
form of the governing dynamic thermoelasticity model equa- matrices, and the corresponding load vectors respectively for
tions {Eqs (21, 22)} for the combined model (Green and each of the representative dynamic thermo-elastic equations
Lindsay/Lord and Shulman) are described next. Subsequent- of the combined model. The superscripts 0, m represent
ly, the reductions to the various dynamic thermo-elastic mod- either the thermal or the mechanical models respectively.
els are illustrated. The symbolic quantities a, v, and d, can be associated in
Introducing the discrete approximations {Eqs (33)} into relation to the generalized acceleration, velocity and dis-
the general form of the governing model equations {Eqs (21), placement fields respectively. Thus, the combined dynamic
(22)} and employing the relevant constitutive relations such thermo-elastic model problem is now reduced to an initial
as the flux-temperature relations for the thermal model and value problem which consists of finding functions d = d(t)
the strain-displacement relations for the mechanical model satisfying Eqs (35) together with the initial conditions d(0) =
respectively, and following the standard weak formulation
do and v(0) = re.
associated with the initial boundary value problem, yields
(boundary effects are purposely not included; and the fol- In the semi-discretized equations, M oo and M mm are the
lowing notations for the superscripts are used: m = mechani- mass matrices for the thermal and mechanical models re-
cal, 0 = thermal): spectively. C oo is the capacitance matrix of the thermal
model and K 0° and K mm are the conductance and stiffness
3.1 Semi-discretized equations: Combined representation matrices for the thermal and mechanical models respectively.
of Green and Lindsay-Lord and Shuiman models M 0m, C 0n', C m0, and K m° are the so-called coupling matrices.
F ° and F m are the relevant temperature heat source and me-
M°°O+MOmii+C°°O+c°mfl+KOOo=FO(t) (34a)
chanical load vectors respectively. The matrix representa-
Mmmii + cm00 + Kmmu + Kin00 = Fm(t) (34b) tions associated with the various case models of coupled-
uncoupled dynamic thermoelasticity described previously can
where be readily deduced from the general discretized representa-
M 00 = f pc(t ° + t2)N °0 Ni30 dR tions given by Eqs (34) by appropriately dropping the rele-
Re vant terms from the above generalized representations. Obvi-
0 m ously, for the case of the uncoupled models described in the
M°" = ItoToI3qN,~N;,jdR
R~
various case models earlier, the coupling effects (terms) dis-
appear.

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 524 SPECIALISSUE ON THERMAL STRESSES AppI Mech Rev vo150, no 9, September 1997

proximations are then customarily employed for the time de-

3.2 Semi-discretized equations: Green and Lindsay rivative terms for obtaining the necessary recursive time step-
For illustration, the semi-discretized equations for the Green ping algorithmic relations. These algorithms are generally
and Lindsay dynamic thermo-elastic model are shown next. categorized as explicit methods and implicit methods. In the
areas related to dynamic thermo-elasticity, from an algorith-
M°°0 + C°°0 + c°mfl + K°°0 = F°(t) (36a) mic viewpoint, in general, two prominent classifications need
Mmmii + cm00 + Kmmu + Kin00 = Fro(l) (36b) to be commonly addressed:
Again, the above semi-discretized representations can be 1) Non-Classical dynamic thermo-elasticity models which
represented in general, previously shown as: involve hyperbolic behavior for both the thermal and struc-
tural problems respectively, and
M°/ma + c0/mv + K0/md = F O/m (35) 2) Classical dynamic thermo-elasticity models which in-
which consists of finding functions d = d(t) satisfying Eqs volve parabolic behavior for the thermal problem and a hy-
(36) together with the initial conditions d(0) = do and v(0) = perbolic behavior for the associated structural problem.
V0. Since coupled problems are a direct extension of the un-
Note that for the semi-discretized equations as related to coupled problems, a brief discussion of some of the com-
the classical dynamic thermo-elasticity models, there is no monly advocated direct time integration methods for the un-
influence of the non-classical effects introduced by the vari- coupled problems, and various other, more recent computa-
ous relaxation parameters to, h, and t2, and can be readily tional algorithms are also identified.
obtained by setting the parameters to zero. The governing equations for the transient non-classical
heat conduction and dynamic thermo-elasticity models and
the dynamics of structures are hyperbolic in nature. In the
4 COMPUTATIONAL ALGORITHMS: context of non-classical hyperbolic heat conduction, the class
HYPERBOLIC PROBLEMS of problems are propagative in nature, while in the context of
Various computational algorithms and solution techniques thermal-structural dynamics or structural dynamics, the asso-
for parabolic and hyperbolic-parabolic systems of equations ciated problems are generally classified as: a) wave propaga-
have also no doubt matured over the years. These in con- tion problems, and b) inertial problems. For wave propaga-
junction with effective modeling and analysis approaches and tion problems, the behavior of the propagating thermal or in-
equation solvers serve a very important role in the analysis of duced stress wave front and the resulting induced stresses are
thermal-structural problems. There exist many numerical ap- of practical engineering importance. Merely for the sake of
proximation methods which have been introduced for the distinction, the remainder of the class of problems are re-
time discretization and the solution of these classes of prob- ferred to as inertial dynamic problems (or structural vibration
lems. These include finite difference approximations for the dynamics).
time derivatives which lead to the so-called direct time inte- Whereas for linear situations and inertial type problems,
gration one-step and multi-step methods (Belytschko and traditional mode superposition type approaches and practices
Hughes, 1983); hybrid transfinite element formulations are attractive, they have been not as popular for nonlinear
which employ transform methods in conjunction with stan- situations (because of the need to repeatedly compute the ei-
dard Galerkin procedures and finite elements and then nu- gen problem to satisfy local mode superposition) and propa-
merically invert the resulting representations to obtain the gation type of problems (because of the need to involve a
solutions at desired times of interest (Tamma and Railkar, large number of modes). On the other hand, direct time inte-
1987a,b; 1989a); finite element formulations in space and gration techniques continue to be popular in commercial
time (Argyris and Scharpf, 1969); and approaches using re- codes. There also exist other relevant, more recent computa-
duction methods (Noor et al, 1984). Of the various computa- tional algorithms to effectively tackle this class of problems.
tional algorithms available in literature for dynamic-transient Several of these are subsequently overviewed.
problems, direct time integration approaches have been con- The semi-discretized dynamical equations are typically
sistently popular and most common in production codes. represented in matrix form as
Direct time-integration methods for transient thermal,
structural dynamic and combined dynamic thermal-structural M°/ma+ cO/my q- K0/md FO/m = (35)
problems have long been a subject matter of widespread re- where M °/m is associated with the mass matrix, C °/m is asso-
search activity. To date, much progress has been made in the ciated with the damping, and K Olin is associated with the
development and understanding of the direct time-integration stiffness matrix. The vectors d, v, and a are the displacement,
methods. This includes the development of efficient algo-
velocity and acceleration vectors respectively. F Olin is the
rithmic representations, investigations encompassing accu-
racy and stability properties, formulations of variable and load vector. In Eq (35), M Olin is positive-definite and sym-
mixed time integration approaches, adaptive time stepping metric, C °/m and K Olin are positive semi-definite and symmet-
approaches, effective solution methods, implementation as- ric.
pects and the like. The initial value problem consists of finding the vector d
Employing finite elements as the principal computational = d(t) satisfying Eq (35) and the following initial conditions:
tool, the traditional practice and approach for transient prob-
lems first involve the semi-discretization of the partial differ- d = do (37a)
ential equations to yield a set of ordinary differential equa-
v = vo (37b)
tions in time as described previously. Finite difference ap-

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 Appl Mech Rev vol 50, no 9, September 1997 Tammaand Namburu: Computational approaches for therm0mechanical problems 525

For dynamical situations, numerous direct time integration starting features, algorithmic attributes, elimination of accel-
approaches exist for the analyses of this class of problems. eration computations during the solution process, simplicity
Explicit, implicit, mixed explicit-implicit and variable time and ease of implementation, and excellent accuracy in com-
integration approaches have been employed for a variety of parison with the explicit central difference method. More re-
situations in dynamical thermal-structural problems. The di- cently, with the notion of capitalizing on the advantages of
rect time integration approaches rely on deriving recursion both direct time integration methods and modal superposition
formulas that relate the values of d, v, and a at one instant of methods for the particular class of inertial-type problems,
time, n, to the values of these quantities at a later time, n + 1. Sha, Chen, and Tamma (1995) described an explicit, uncon-
These recursion relations make it possible for the solution to ditionally stable, second-order accurate virtual-pulse (VIP)
be marched out in time, starting with the initial conditions at time integral methodology of computation for linear compu-
t = t, and continuing until the desired duration of time. tational dynamics. Subsequent extensions to nonlinear com-
The evaluation of direct time integration methods (as of putational dynamics are described by Tamma et al (1996). A
1983) and their relative merits for general computational dy- unique feature of these developments is the application of a
namic applications has been a subject matter of many inves- weighted residual approach for the time discretization with
tigations and has been well documented by Hughes and Be- the selection of unique time weighting functions for the time
lytschko (1983) and Belytschko and Hughes (1983). discretization resulting in an explicit method of computation.
As a general guideline, thermal stress wave or mechanical For nonlinear situations, the approach is explicit with itera-
stress wave propagation problems are solved using explicit tions, and, the computation of the eigen-problem is con-
time-integration methods, while implicit methods are em- ducted only once for the entire analysis. Applications have
ployed for the remainder class of inertial problems. This is been demonstrated for inelastic elasto-plastic dynamic prob-
because in the former, the small time steps ensure accurate lems. And, applicability to other classes of nonlinear prob-
tracking of the induced stress wave fronts, while for the lat- lems are identified as a subject of further research. The
ter, such a restriction is not as severe. methodology is effective for the general class of dynamic in-
A cursory overview of some of the explicit and implicit ertial type problems.
approaches, and other relevant, more recent methods which An unconditionally stable explicit algorithm for structural
have been successfully applied follows next. dynamics is described by Trujiilo (1977b). However, unlike
the VIP time integral methodology of computation, the time
Explicit methods integration approach by Trujillo (1977b) suffers from the
Probably the oldest and the most popular of the explicit drawbacks of conditional consistency.
methods is the central difference method which uses values
Implicit methods
of the functions at time n - 1 and n + 1 to approximate the
first and second derivatives of the function at time n. In the Focusing attention on the inertial class of dynamical thermo-
central difference method, the displacement is written in elasticity problems, implicit methods are attractive (although
terms of a Taylor series expansion and is approximated to some analysts prefer explicit methods).
second-order accuracy in the development of the time step- The implicit Houbolt method (Houboit, 1930) was devel-
ping relations. It is conditionally stable and second-order ac- oped in 1950 and is one of the earliest employed for the cal-
curate in time. The central difference or equivalently, the culation of structural response of an airplane subjected to dy-
Newmark-13 = 0 (Belytschko and Hughes, 1983) has been the namic loads. It uses the concept of displacement difference
most popular of the explicit methods. equivalents to approximate the velocity and acceleration
Kreig (1973) investigated other explicit formulations ap- components, and thereby establishes a recurrence relation
plicable to linear undamped problems with first-order accu- that can be used to solve for the step-by-step response of the
racy. The method due to Fu is an extension of the method of structure. In the Houbolt method, the generality and physical
de Vogelaere (see Fu 1970) which is also an explicit method aspects of the basic equilibrium are preserved. From a stabil-
and is conditionally stable with respect to the choice of the ity and accuracy point of view, it is unconditionally stable,
time step. Another explicit formulation available in literature second-order accurate, and is suitable for higher frequency
is the Modified Euler Method (MEM), presented by Hahn dynamic problems. A disadvantage is the need to use a large
(1991). The MEM is explicit and applied to the analysis of historical data pool.
the dynamic response of earthquake-excited building struc- In 1959, Newmark (1959) introduced an implicit method
tures and wave-excited off-shore structures. The method is of computation for the solution of problems in structural dy-
simple and easy to implement. namics. The algorithm assumes that the average acceleration
Recently, Tamma and Namburu (1988a, 1990b) described is constant over an integration time step. Belytschko and
an explicit, conditionally stable, second-order accurate direct Hughes (1983) document the Newmark-[3 family of ap-
self-starting formulation for general computational dynamics. proaches which are either implicit or explicit depending upon
The formulations are described based on the developments the choices of the two free parameters which control the sta-
following the spirit of the Lax-Wendroff-type (Lax and bility and accuracy of the algorithms. As an implicit scheme,
Wendoff, 1964; Richtmyer and Morton, 1967) finite element the Newmark method (Houbolt, 1930) is unconditionally sta-
philosophy and have been demonstrated to be effective for a ble and second-order accurate. As an explicit scheme, the
variety of dynamical situations encompassing wave propaga- Newmark method is only conditionally stable and second-
tion type and inertial problems, and for linear-nonlinear order accurate.
situations. An important aspect of the approach described in The Wilson-0 method (Wilson, 1968) is essentially an
Tamma and Namburu (1988a, 1990b) are the direct self- extension of the average acceleration approximation in which

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 526 SPECIALISSUE ON THERMAL STRESSES
the variation between time levels n and n + 1 is assumed to
be linear. In particular, the Wilson-0 method assumes that the
acceleration is linear between t and t + 0 At, where 0 _> 1.0.
It is indicated that when 0 = 1.4 (Belytschko and Hughes,
1983; Wilson, 1968), the obtained solution is most accurate
and stable.
Park (1975) developed an A-stable algorithm applicable
for both linear and nonlinear structural dynamic problems
which retains good accuracy in the low frequencies and
strong dissipative characteristics in the high frequency re-
gime. The Park method is unconditionally stable and second-
order accurate. However, the method requires a large histori-
cal data pool.
Zienkiewicz (1977) and Zienkiewicz et al (1984) de-
scribed a new class of recurrence formulae for the equations
of motion using a'weighted residual approach. Several previ-
ously described algorithms are identified as special cases of
these formulations.
The collocation methods generalize and combine aspects
of the Newmark and Wilson methods. The collocation meth-
ods can be adjusted to reduce to either the Newmark or the
Wilson methods and an analysis of these is contained in Hil-
beret al (1977).
To control the algorithmic damping, extensions and/or
modifications have been attempted employing the Newmark-
13 family of trapezoidal schemes as a starting point. These in-
clude the Hilber-Hughes-Taylor (HHT) a-method (1977), the
scheme due to Wood, Bossak and Zienkiewicz (1980) and
the SSpj family of single step algorithms (Zeinkiewicz et al,
1984). Recently, Hoff and Pahi (1988a,b), Valiappan and
Ang (1989), and Chung and Hulbert et al (1993) presented
alternate formulations with the purpose of controling algo-
rithmic damping. Other related efforts can be found in the
references thereof.
Alternatively, to address some of the issues in interdisci-
plinary dynamical thermo-elastic problems, and to general
structural dynamic problems, and with the notion to enhance
the computational and algorithmic attributes and permit easi-
ness in implementations, developments following the spirit of
Lax-Wendroff type finite element formulations which pro-
vide direct self-starting features, eliminate the need to in-
volve accelerations in the computations, and permit unified
algorithmic representations for transient thermal-structural
problems are described via a generalized T:family of explicit
and implicit representations by Tamma and Namburu (1988a;
1990b,c), and Namburu and Tamma (1992).
Typically, following the semi-discretization process, finite
difference approximations are introduced for the time de-
rivatives, thereby leading to the various types of time
marching schemes. Usually displacements (or alternatively,
the principal unknowns may be accelerations obtained by ap-
propriate rearrangement of the terms in the approximations)
are the unknowns which are first solved for. Therein, the
particular algorithm employs updates for both the velocities
and accelerations to advance to the next time level. Most of
these methods require an initial acceleration vector to be
specified besides the displacements and the velocity vectors
to start the time integration procedure. Hulbert and Hughes
(1987) presented an error analysis due to truncated starting
conditions in some of the commonly advocated step-by-step
integration methods including the Newmark-13 family. In par-
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AppI Mech Rev vo150, no 9, September 1997
ticular they have discussed two approaches for defining ini-
tial acceleration values, namely, i) a consistent acceleration
vector which is obtained by solving the equations of motion
for the acceleration vector at the initial time based on the ini-
tial displacement, velocity, and applied load vectors, and ii) a
truncated initial acceleration vector obtained by setting
(initializing) the acceleration values to zero at the initial time.
The latter approach, that is setting the initial acceleration
vector to zero is preferable on the basis of computational ef-
ficiency (thus avoiding assembling and factorizing the global
mass matrix, and assembling the internal and external load
vectors) at the initial time conditions. However, for selected
algorithms (such as the Newmark-13 family) they show that
truncating the starting values (a practice quite often used by
some analysts) adversely effects the rate at which the numeri-
cal response converges to the exact solution of dynamic
model. These studies show that direct self-starting features
which eliminate and overcome these deficiencies are ideal for
dynamical situations. In view of these considerations, the 7:
family of direct self-starting representations are described by
Tamma et al (1988a; 1990b,c; 1992). The basic idea ema-
nates starting from the conservation form of representations
for the equations of motion and therein follows the spirit of a
Lax-Wendroff type philosophy in conjunction with finite
elements (although alternate approaches of derivation are
also feasible).
Attention is next purposely focused on two of the ap-
proaches that have been employed for dynamic thermoelas-
ticity problems involving the classical and the non-classical
models. The widely used Newmark-13 family of direct inte-
gration methods, and the generalized 'y.~.family of represen-
tations for solving Eqs (35) are detailed next.
Newmark family of methods:
Man+i+ Cv"+l + Kd n+l = F "+i (38a)
m.L.r(A
2 + an+l]
d.+|= dn+ A t v " + 2 L t l - 2 1 3 ) a " 213 . (38b)
v"+l = v" + At[(1-Tla" + T a "+1] (38c)
where d "+l in Eq (38b), and vn*l in Eq (38c) are the finite
difference approximations for the displacement d(t") and
velocity v(t") in terms of the acceleration at the (n + 1) time
level. The parameters 13 and 7 determine the stability and ac-
curacy characteristics of the algorithm. The values 13 = 0 and
7 = 1/2 leads to an explicit scheme (central difference) which
is conditionally stable, second-order accurate, and one of the
most widely advocated explicit methods. The values of 13 =
I/4 and 7 = I/2 lead to the original Newmark or trapezoidal
method which is implicit, unconditionally stable and second-
order accurate.
Ts-family of direct selfistarting methods:
[M + AtYiC + At2T iT 2K] vn+l
= [M - At(l - , i ) C - At2'y i (1 -'y z)K]v" (39a)
- AtKd" + At(I - 71 )F n + At'/i F"+i
 Appl Mech Rev vo150, no 9, September 1997 Tamma and Namburu: Computational approaches for thermomechanical problems
d n+l=d n + At[7 3Vn+l +~l--?3/Vn
/I ~ ]I (39b)
where v n+~, d "+l are the current computed velocity and dis-
placement fields and v ~, d n are the values known from the
previous time step or the initial conditions.
For given initial conditions v ~, d" the ?.F-family of repre-
sentations shown in Eqs (39a) directly yield the representa-
tive velocities at the current time level n + 1. Next, these ve-
locities are substituted in Eq (39b) to directly obtain the dis-
placement field at time level n + i. The evaluation of the ac-
celerations is not involved in the computational process. The
parameters ?s, s = 1, 2, 3 govern the stability and accuracy of
the family of representations. For 0_< ~_< 1 and 71 = 1/2 and
?3 = 1/2, and Y2 = 0, the scheme is explicit, conditionally sta-
ble and second-order accurate. For 0 _<~ _<1 and Yl = 1/2, 72
= 1/2, and Y3 = 1/2, the scheme is implicit, unconditionally
stable and second-order accurate. ~ ~ 0 relates to the cases
of physical damping present in the problem.
Other relevant, and more recent approaches which have
b e e n successfully employed to a class of transient-dynamic
situations are briefly identified next.
Although explicit, unconditionally stable, and second-
order accurate, the Virtual-Pulse (VIP) time integral method-
ology detailed in Refs (Sha et al, 1995; Chen et al, 1995;
Tamma et al, 1996) capitalizes on both the advantages of di-
rect time integration approaches and modal superposition
techniques and is attractive, being developed for the class of
inertial type problems. It possesses excellent algorithmic
characteristics and computational attributes, and has been
applied to nonlinear situations. However, for propagation
type problems, the approach is not as attractive because of
need to involve a large number of modes.
In contrast to the above, Tamma and Railkar (1987a, b;
1989a, b; 1988) employed hybrid transfinite element formu-
lations for dynamical thermomechanical problems. Here,
Laplace transforms are employed to the governing model
equations and therein in conjunction with classical Galerkin
procedures and-finite elements, the problem is formulated
and solved in the transformed domain itself. Finally, the so-
lution is obtained at desired times of interest using an inverse
numerical transform. The approach is very attractive for lin-
ear dynamical thermo-elastic problems and had been also
successfully applied to nonlinear thermal analysis situations.
Applicability to nonlinear structural issues have not been ad-
dressed to-date.
5 sOLUTION ALGORITHMS AND STRATEGIES
5.1 Non-classical models
For the non-classical dynamic thermoelastic problems as de-
scribed earlier, both the thermal and mechanical model gov-
erning equations are hyperbolic in nature and involve two
initial conditions in each of the respective disciplines for ini-
tiating the solution procedure. Most often, of interest thus far
have been the accurate prediction of the propagating thermal
and the associated thermally-induced propagating stress wave
responses. Among others, as indicated earlier, the numerical
simulations necessitate the need to employ explicit time inte-
gration algorithms (although other types of formulations as
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527
described later can be employed) for each of the disciplines
for predicting the combined response. The major difficulties
typically encountered include severe oscillatory solution be-
havior (which often disguises the true responses of the un-
derlying physics associated with the problem) when sharp
wave fronts and reflective boundaries are involved, handling
the capture of the sharp discontinuities occurring at the wave
fronts with high resolution, restrictions of the time steps that
can be employed, and the like. Caution should be exercised
so as to understand the differences between the representa-
tive physical dynamics and those induced by the numerics.
In contrast to the propagation problems, to the author's
knowledge, no work appears in the literature in the study of
the so-called inertial class of problems employing non-
classical models.
5.2 Non-Classical models: Unified combined
representations (explicit ?s-family)
Focusing attention on the classical propagation type prob-
lems, in the combined analysis, in contrast to the traditional
explicit formulations, the alternate explicit direct self-starting
formulations which have been successfully employed in the
recent past are illustrated next for solving the non-classical
dynamic thermoelasticity models identified earlier which are
of the form:
M°/ma + c0/mv + K0/md = F °/m (40)
subject to d(0) = do and v(0) = v0. Both the non-classical
transient/dynamic thermomechanical models can be cast in
the above general representative form.
Following Eqs (39) for the solution of Eq (40), the ex-
plicit discretized representations with good stability and ac-
curacy, direct self-starting features and easy to implement
representations can be represented (YI = 1/2; y2 = 0; and 73 =
0 for second-order accuracy is employed in conjunction with
smoothing procedures described later, or ?3 is adjusted to
stabilize the oscillatory solution behavior without signifi-
cantly effecting the stable time step limit) as:
_ AtK°/md n +AtFo/m," +AIFO/m,n+l
2 2
(41 a)
d"+l = d"+ At[Y3vn+I+(1-y 3)v"] (41b)
subjected to d(t = t,) = d" and v(t = t~) = v".
Various types of approaches have been successfully em-
ployed in the past to stabilize the oscillatory solution behav-
ior encountered in the non-classical propagating thermal and
thermally-induced stress waves as illustrated by Tamma et al
(1991a,b,c; 1992). Firstly, in conjunction with the ?.F-family
of algorithms, s = 1, 2, 3, the explicit representations are ob-
tained by setting 72.= 0 and y~ = I/2, and by adjusting the pa-
rameter Y3, the solution can be stabilized without significantly
(adversely) affecting the stability and time step employed to
predict satisfactory performance. Since an explicit time step-
ping procedure is used, equation solvers are not necessary
(provided that the mass and damping matrices are lumped).
 528 SPECIALISSUE ON THERMAL STRESSES AppI Mech Rev vo150, no 9, September 1997

Also, adaptive automated time stepping procedures will no and is proportional to the gradient of the conservation vari-
doubt help provide an optimal number of time steps in a sin- ables.
gle analysis (again, the time step restrictions may be dictated
by the smallest of the thermal or mechanical model govern- 6 ILLUSTRATIVE NUMERICAL APPLICATIONS
ing equations). Secondly, although explicit time stepping rep-
In this section, for purposes of illustration, the unified com-
resentations are most suitable, mixed (such as combining ex-
putational methodology and approach and relevant algo-
plicit and implicit representations) and/or variable integration
rithms described previously are demonstrated for interdisci-
methods may also be suitable under certain conditions
plinary thermal-structural problems. The unified representa-
(Tamma and D'Costa, 1991c). Finally, alternate smoothing
tions are based on the philosophy of preserving a common
approaches such as that due to Lapidus (1967) have also
finite element and algorithmic representations via a single fi-
been successfully employed and described in a later part of
nite element program for applicability to general thermal-
this section on solution strategies.
structural problems. An illustrative application employing the
Alternatively, for the linear class of non-classical dynamic
hybrid transfinite element formulation is also presented for
thermoelastic problems, hybrid transfinite element based
the case of non-Fourier thermal-stress waves.
procedures have been employed to predict the combined
The computational developments and approaches in con-
propagating thermal and thermally-induced stress wave re-
junction with accurate constitutive models and physical rep-
sponse. An illustrative formulation is described by Tamma
resentations are important. In this article, attention is focused
and Raiikar (1990).
on both the non-classical and subsequently the classical ef-
Although the computational efforts may indeed pave the
fects on thermal-structural interactions. Non-classical ther-
way to more or less understanding the qualitative behavior of
moelasticity problems involving thermal waves and thermal
the influence of non-classical effects in solids and materials,
stress waves are first described.
it is equally important to quantitatively and qualitatively sup-
In a subsequent section, the application areas for the clas-
port the validity of the results (if not, the issues can get con-
sical thermoelasticity problems include thermal stress waves,
troversial), in particular, via carefully thoughtout experimen-
thermally-induced structural dynamics, and general thermal
tal set-ups which are currently lacking due to difficulties in
stresses. All of these are discussed in a later part of the re-
isolating the particular types of materials and thermophysical
view. Comparisons are also made whenever feasible with
properties amenable to inheriting such features and thermal
analytic solutions and available results published in the lit-
environments, highly accurate devices to measure the ex-
erature.
tremely short transients, equipment to provide precise oper-
Of interest in this section are the influence of the heat
ating thermal scales, regimes and environments, and the like.
transport due to non-Fourier heat conduction, and dynamic
5.3 Numerical smoothing thermoelastic problems due to non-classical effects. The na-
ture of the propagating thermal and thermally-induced stress
For problems where strong shocks and sharp discontinuities waves is investigated for a variety of situations. For the pur-
are encountered, the numerical solutions most often tend to poses of illustration, attention is focused on the transient be-
produce an oscillatory solution behavior which disguises the havior of the propagating thermal disturbances and ther-
actual response. As a consequence, smoothing procedures mally-induced stress waves.
may be employed as demonstrated by Tamma et a! (1991a, b, This section is arranged as follows. First, the nature of the
c; 1992) to stabilize the oscillatory solution behavior. One heat wave behavior and transition from hyperbolic to para-
approach is via controling the algorithmic parameter 73 in the bolic behavior is described for the Jefferey's-type model with
explicit form of the 7.y-familyof representations. By adjusting varying parametric values which describe the physics of tran-
73 (72 = 0, 71 = 1/2), the solution can be stabilized without sition. Finally, the influence of non-Fourier effects for a par-
adversely affecting the stability and time step employed in ticular form of the Green and Lindsay model described ear-
predicting satisfactory performance. A variant of a mixed lier are analyzed and comparisons are drawn with that of the
and/or variable time stepping procedure using the 7s-family classical Fourier effect.
of representations is illustrated for hyperbolic heat conduc- For this test case, the hybrid transfinite element formula-
tion problems by Tamma et a l (1991c). Alternatively, tions in conjunction with specially-tailored elements are em-
smoothing procedures following Lapidus (Tamma et al, ployed to illustrate their applicability and to avoid any un-
1991a,b,c; 1992) have also proven to be effective. Here, the wanted propagation of numerical errors which generally arise
solution approach seeks to smooth or post process the be- due to typical time-integration methods for these types of
wave propagation problems. Next, the unified methodology
havior U"+l by replacing this by smoothed values U~+l at the
discussed previously is employed to a dynamic thermoelas-
end of each At employing ticity problem due to non-Fourier effects.
Two special cases are illustrated here. One involving
U.~+' = U"+t _ At Lx ~ x ) (42) equal speeds and another involving unequal speeds of ther-
mal and stress waves.Numerical smoothing is employed for
where, the so-called artificial viscosity Lx, is given here as stabilizing the numerical oscillations near the propagating
Z x = L h 2 V,x (43) wave fronts for these cases.
and L is an adjustable Lapidus constant, h is the representa- 6.1 Jeffrey's-type model by varying parametric values
tive mesh size and v is associated with the component of the The objective of this illustrative example is to describe the
velocity of the conservation variable. Lx serves as an indictor hyperbolic-parabolic nature and transition from the context

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 Appl Mech Rev vol 50, no 9, September 1997 Tamma and Namburu: Computational approaches for thermomechanical problems 529

of the heat transfer mechanisms associated with non- Following Joseph and Preziosi (1989), this problem is
classical-classical models. We consider here the problem of analogous to that of Stoke's first problem in fluid mechanics.
transient heat transport in a one-dimensional semi-infinite The sequence of events and transition of the heat transport
solid (x > 0) when a sudden change of temperature is applied characteristics for varying K values is studied here. The
at x = 0. Initially, we have the nondimensional temperature 0 problem was modeled employing 201 degrees of freedom
= 0 for all x >_ 0. The boundary conditions employed are 0 = and two-noded linear conduction elements. The time step
I at x = 0 and t = 0, and 0 = 0 at x = oo. The governing differ- employed using an explicit time stepping formulation de-
ential equation in nondimensionai form is given by scribed by Tamma and Namburu (1992) was 10-4. Figure 4
shows the sequence of temperature distributions for various
2 ao_ K (ao (44) K values.
For K = 0, the a.bove governing equation reduces to that
of the non-Fourier hyperbolic heat transport equation, where

l\l
0.1

0.0

|O.t
I ,.00 the thermal disturbance of the propagating wavefront travels
as a discontinuity without any smoothing. Such models under
the influence of general boundary effects for a variety of
situations have been studied in the literature with/without
:"'-- ""f consideration of issues influencing stabilization of solution
~" I, L -- I behavior. For K # 0 we have diffusion with the discontinui-
ties being smoothed by diffusion effects. For very small val-
ues of K, the discontinuity of the wavefront begins to be
11.1% . . . . . . . . . , ......... . ......... _ ........ • slightly rounded with a shock structure thickness 6 = (klx/k) I/2
I I ! 31 4
and this type of smoothing is analogous to the smoothing by
0ls~:lt
viscosity effects of shock waves in gas dynamics. For K =
I.IJ
0.5, the equation is of a purely parabolic nature with a
0.51
smooth solution behavior and the absence of discontinuities.
"' 'l',C = 0.002
~II.#
~|.l, 6.2 Dynamicthermoelasticmodel
dueto non-Fouriereffects
~a4
The illustrative numerical test example described here con-
cerns dynamic thermoelastic wave propagation in an elastic
L!
half-space (x > 0) due to non-Fourier effects. The bounding
|,l
I " . . . . . . . . [ . . . . . . . . . ' . . . . . . . . . l . . . . . . . . . l
-(k~ q )n~=q
| l ! | 4 o , ; n l = hi
0lSlaIC8 ^

|.I ~ P ~ ~ 'a P ~ ~ R
,., g = 0.1
I.|

a) Green-Lindsay model
LI

LI 0SUIDEN SURFACE HEATING

o.I , , . , , , , , _,,, _ , , _ , , , , ,
I.I LI L! L! Ll I.$ LI 1,1 I,I 8.1 I,I I.I I d 1,1 I , i LS
Otg~

X
time

~' ~C = 0..5

tL~ = 3.34E+04 kg/°K/cm/sec 2

£+2p = i.99E+09 kg/cm/sec2
p = 7.82E-03 kg/sec 3
&l

L|
c = 4.61E+06 cm2/°K/seJ
........ ............, i ........ i ........ ; k = 1.70E+03 kg-cm/°K/sec 3
t2 = 0.18E-12 sec
Fig 4. Hyperbolic-parabolic thermal behavior and transition in
b) Problem description employing Green/Lindsay model
semi-infinite solid for various K values
Fig 5. Illustrative example of sudden heating of elastic half-space

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 530 SPECIALISSUEON THERMALSTRESSES Appl Mech Rev vol 50, no 9, September 1997

plane x = 0 is subjected to a sudden step change in tempera- noded linear elements for the thermal and structural models
ture. The bounding plane at x = 0 is assumed to be traction respectively. The material is assumed to be stainless steel
free at all times and the half-space is constrained so that there (following Prevost and Tao, 1983) and the thermophysical
is only uniaxial motion. properties assumed are identified in the description of the
Ux = u(x,t) problem Fig 5. For the test model, the smoothing features
(controling y3 and the approach due to Lapidus) mentioned
uy=O
earlier are employed to eliminate the numerical oscillations
Uz=O that often disguise the true response. A value of 73 between
The initial and boundary conditions are given as 0.5 and 1.0 is employed in the computation to stabilize the
Ux(X,O)= i,x (x,O) = o numerical oscillations. Smoothing features due to Lapidus
(1967) were also employed for the above problem. Both ap-
0(x,0) = 0i proaches predicted identical smoothed behavior.
The data employed for the computation is shown in Fig 5,
0 (x,0)= 0i and is representative of stainless steel. First the analysis is
ax(O,t) = o performed for equal speeds of thermal and stress waves (Co =
The test model has been attempted in the past (Prevost
and Tao, 1983), and the model is analyzed employing two-
T 0.8
E
T 0.8 M
E P
M E Cs = C O
P R 0.4
E A
R
A
0.4 T C O= 2C s/3
U
T R
U E 0.0
R
E 0.0 1.0 2.0
0.0 ig

0.0 1.0 2.0 TIME

D
D TIME 1 4
I 20
S
S p 3
P Cs = C O
L L
A 10 A 2
C C =- /3
E E
M M 1
E 0 E
N N 0
T T
-I0 -1
0.0 1.0 2.0
0.0 1.0 2.0
1000 TIME
TIME
5O

S 500
S
Cs = CO A
T T =~/3
R R
E 0 E 0
S S
S S
- 500

- 1000 -60
0.0 1.0 2.0 0.0 1.0 2.0
TIME TIME
Fig 6. Temperature, displacement, and stress histories for case of Fig 7. Representative stabilized solution for the case of equal
equal speeds (Cs = CO) showing oscillatory solution behavior as speeds (comparative stabilized solution for unequal speeds also su-
obtained via explicit method perimposed for illustration)

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 Appl Mech Rev vo150, no 9, September 1997 Tammaand Namburu: Computational approaches for thermomechaniealproblems 531

Cs). A non-dimensional characteristic length (I = 4) and a

mesh having 501 degrees of freedom is used. The time step
6.3 Non-Fourier thermal-stress waves
employed for the computation is At = 0.001. Figure 6 shows The governing differential equations of uncoupled thermoe-
the temperature, displacement, and stress histories obtained lasticity for the relaxation model of Green and Lindsay
via the present formulations for evaluating the dynamic ther- (1972) was described earlier. A particular form of the uncou-
moelastic response due to second sound effects. The oscilla- pled Green-Lindsay model is employed here to elastic half-
tory solution behavior (see Fig 6) disguises the actual re- space models of the Danilovskaya's type. The resulting heat
sponse. Thus to predict the representative response, the re- conduction equation due to the presence of the relaxation pa-
sulting stabilized solutions employing the smoothing features rameter is of the non-classical type and hence the thermal
described earlier are shown in Fig 7 (both features yielded stress waves associated with this model are termed as non-
the same results). Fourier thermal stress waves. For illustration, only the un-
The comparative results for the thermally-induced stress coupled situation is presented. The problem is analyzed em-
wave histories with those presented in Prevost and Tao ploying specially tailored hybrid transfinite element formula-
(1983) are shown in Fig 8. It can be readily observed that the tions as described by Tamma and Railkar (1990).
present formulations with 101 degrees of freedom agree very The representative models are illustrated in Fig 9. Using
well with those in Prevost and Tao (1983). However, em-
ploying a refined mesh of 501 degrees of freedom, the mag- Thermal model Structural model
nitude of the resulting response is significantly higher. This
may be attributed to the fact that the presence of a jump in
- (kij0j }nj~q a~jnj =h i
stress is caused because of the presence of a sharp front,
which occurs in the displacement and temperature profiles
for non-Fourier models at the non-dimensional location (x =
1.0). The dynamic thermoelastic responses for the two cases:
2
1) equal speeds (Co = Cs), and 2) unequal speeds C o =-~'C s
were shown superimposed in Fig 7. Note that for unequal
speeds, the thermal wave front is at a different location and
the displacement and stress histories are not as sharp.
(a) a form of uncoupled Green-Lindsay model
Furthermore, the magnitude of the stress for unequal
speeds is comparatively less than that for the case of equal
speeds. The results presented here depict the representative
k=l.0 L = 4 . 0 ~
response and are accurate to within the framework of the Q=I.O A=I.O
mesh refinement. Nonetheless, in comparison to the assump- c=l.0 Ti=l.0
tion of infinite speed of thermal wave propagation (see '91"- 4 " ~ ~
Danilovskaya, 1950), the results are significantly different
and indicate the importance of second sound effects. The 0
thermoelastic models, for different temperature boundary
conditions employing the present approach are discussed by
Tamma and Namburu (1992). (b) Case 1

" k=l.0 h=0.5~

Q=1.0 Tcx=1.0
h,T a c=l.0 Ti=l.0 tI
60
I Z"~x zx ~'~ot~~' °~A<)~t~~i~83J~] SurfaceSudden
ConvectiveHeating ~ ~ ~ 4~ ~ ~

S (c) Case 2
T
R 0
E
S
S
I Q=I'° T= =1'0 /
I c=10 T,=o.o
• t. ~..._.~.~~_~_~
-60
I 2

TXME (d) Case 3

Fig 8. Representative comparative thermally-induced stress histo- Fig 9. Danilovskaya's type illustrative examples influenced by a
ties for different mesh refinements (Co = Cs) form of uncoupled Green-Lindsay model

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 532 SPECIALISSUEON THERMALSTRESSES
the unified hybrid formulations in conjunction with the spe-
cially tailored elements (whose shape functions are derived in
a closed-form manner), these models were analyzed with a
mesh containing of only two elements for each of the thermal
and structural problems respectively.
Figures 10 show the time history results for temperature,
structural displacement and stress for a point ~ = 1.0 for the
first Danilovskaya's problem. Note that g = i.0 is the nondi-
mensionalized location of the elastic thermal stress wave
front at a nondimensionalized time z = 1.0 for the case of
equal speeds of propagation of the thermal and structural
waves (CT = Cs). For different speeds of propagation of the
thermal and the structural waves (CT = 2 Cs), the thermal
stress wave front no longer occurs at the nondimensionalized
time x = 1.0, but occurs at a nondimensionalized time z = 0.5
for temperature, displacement and stress histories respec-
tively. Suppressing the relaxation parameter 't2', the non-
Fourier model reverts to the Fourier model. The solutions
corresponding to the Fourier stress wave problems are also
plotted for comparison purposes. Figure 11 depicts the com-
parative time histories for the temperature, structural dis-
placement and thermal stress for the second Danilovskaya's
problem at the similar location to the previous problem. The
comparative results for the third Danilovskaya's problem are
shown in Fig 12. The solution shows no oscillations due to
the use of special purpose transfinite elements and the solu-
tions for the temperature, displacement and stresses are exact
within the framework of numerical inversion process. Figures
10-12 show that when the speeds of propagation are equal
and the type of heating used is sudden, the stresses obtained
in such cases reach a very large value at time x = 1.0 for non-
dimensionalized location ~ = 1.0. However, for the case of
unequal speeds of propagation, the magnitudes of the thermal
ANALYTICAL
TRANSFINITE
TEMPERATURE
o.4 L
0,()
0 I 2 0 . 0 0 ~
TIME. s
/
DISPLACEMENT ().3~J
i"" " CT= C S
, %,
Iwl . . . .
ANALYTICAL
TRANSFINITE II
I OI S PLACU'[(NT
0 I 2 ,
TIME. s
STRESS
"[ i q=c~
TIME. s
Fig I 0. Comparative results using transfinite element formulations
= 1 for case ! with Green-Lindsay models
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Appl Mech Rev vol 50, no 9, September 1997
stresses seem comparable to those obtained from the classical
thermoelasticity theory.
7 DYNAMIC THERMO-ELASTICITY
FORMULATIONS:CLASSICAL MODELS
7.1 Overview
Since it is beyond the scope of this chapter to cite all the ex-
cellent studies of the various efforts, only a brief overview of
some of the relevant studies follow next.
The dynamic thermoelasticity theory based on the Fourier
heat conduction equation is known as the classical theory of
dynamic thermoelasticity. In the classical theory, the thermal
disturbances are assumed to propagate at infinite speeds
through the continuum. Coupling between the deformation
and the temperature fields was originally postulated by Du-
hamel (I 837). The fundamental relations and the basic equa-
tions of thermoelasticity are given in Biot (1956). Solutions
to the problems in dynamic thermoelasticity have drawn con-
siderable interest, and the first analytic solution to an initial
boundary value problem in dynamic uncoupled classical
thermoelasticity is that presented by Danilovskaya (1950).
This well known Danilovskaya's problem proposed in the
1950s, originally studies an elastic semi-finite medium sub-
jected to a uniform heating on its boundary plane, the plane
assumed to be always traction free. The temperature varia-
tions in the half-space were calculated from the classical heat
conduction equation, neglecting thermomechanical coupling.
Next, the associated thermally-induced loads were used for
predicting the dynamic response of the medium. These re-
sults were later extended by Danilovskaya (1952) to account
for boundary-layer conductance. Sternberg and Chakravorty
(1959) further extended the problem to include a more real-
istic ramp-type temperature boundary condition.
The general solutions of the coupled theory relevant to the
Danilovskaya's problems (1950, 1952) which account for the
O,301 .....oO
O I TIN(. $ 2
i) temt~'t~re I ~ /
0,1
{ = rlO/,rl#
r~
. . .~.tl i
0.05
2
TIM(, |
"~) d i ~ l ~ I~/
i iiiii
0.2 ..*'*"
O. *. . . . . . . . . . .
- s o n
¢) ~ i~t
Fig 11. Comparative results using transfinite element formulations
at ~ = 1 for case 2 with Green-Lindsay and classical models
 Appl Mech Rev vol 50, no 9, September 1997 Tammaand Namburu: Computational approaches for thermomechanical problems 533

temperature variations due to mechanical deformation were pied thermoelasticity involving the classical model. They
studied by Muki and Breuer (1962), Boley and Tolins have adopted an explicit rational Runge-KuRa time integra-
(1963), and Dunn (1966). Muki and Breuer (1962) obtained tion method for solving the heat conduction equation and the
the solution to the coupled Danilovskaya's problem as the Newmark family of time integration methods for solving the
sum of two integrals, an infinite integral and a discontinuous structural equations, respectively.
finite integral. The efforts by Tamma and Railkar (1987a,b; 1989a,b;
Literature relevant to analytical and approximate solution 1988) involve the development of a hybrid transfinite ele-
methods including applicability to coupled/uncoupled dy- ment methodology for solving combined thermal-structural
namic thermoelastic models appeared due to Nowacki problems. The approach involves a combination of transform
(1957), Hetnarski (1964), Hetnarski (1967), Boley and We- methods and classical Galerkin procedures in conjunction
iner (1960), Nowinski (1978), Boley and Hetnarski (1968), with finite elements. Briefly described, the region under con-
Chadwick (1960), Boley and Tolins (1963), Ignaczak (1989), sideration is first idealized as a finite number of discrete ele-
Achenbach (1964), Dunn (1966), Hetnarski and lgnaczak ments for both the thermal and the structural models. The re-
(1994, 1993), and Galka and Wojnar (1995). Finite element sulting element matrices are then evaluated and assembled
formulations for the classical heat conduction problem have using a hybrid formulation in the transformed domain. The
been presented by Wilson and Nickell (1966). Coupled dy- heat transfer and the structural disciplines are unified in the
namic thermoelasticity using finite elements was considered transform domain itself. To obtain the structural response due
by Nickell and Sackman (1968). The formulations were de- to thermal considerations, the solution is then numerically in-
rived from a variational principle in integral form. The ex- verted only in the final structural formulation at desired times
tended Ritz method was then employed to obtain matrix of interest unlike traditional time marching approaches. This
equations for the numerical calculations. Approximate solu- approach is very attractive for linear transient thermal-struc-
tions using finite elements to coupled-uncoupled dynamic tural problems. Other related efforts demonstrated the appli-
thermoelasticity and thermomechanical problems have also cability of this approach to nonlinear thermal problems and
been reported by Oden and Kross (1968), Oden (1969), the determination of the associated structural response (Tam-
Keramidas and Ting (1976), Ting and Chen (1982), Liu and ma and Railkar, 1987b).
Zhang (1983), and more recently by Tamma and Railkar In contrast to formulating the traditional direct time inte-
(1987a,b; 1989a, b; 1988) and Tamma and Namburu (1990; gration approaches as described earlier, Lax-Wendroff type
1991a, b). Typical review papers were written by Boley (1964, 1967) numerical difference schemes are also avail-
(1972a) and Bargmann (1974). able. Using the Lax-Wendroff approach, first the governing
The approaches discussed above for thermoelasticity equations are represented in a conservation form (1967) (for
problems involve deriving two sets of finite element formu- example, conservation of energy, linear momentum, etc)
lations, one for the heat conduction and the other for the me-
chanical displacement. The resulting combined system of fi- TEMPERATURE I ANALYTICAL I
nite element matrix equations are then solved for the tem- 11.7 . . . .
TRANSFINITE
perature and displacement fields.
Keramidas and Ting (1976) and Ting and Chen (1982) 0.4 P A R A B O L ~ / / ~ T m CS
proposed a unified finite element formulation for thermal
stress wave problems based on the classical model. They in- o.1 L . L _ Z . . . , j
troduced a quantity defined as the heat displacement. This
0 1 2
quantity is related to the temperature changes in the same
manner as the mechanical displacement is related to the TIME,s
strain. The introduction of the heat displacement allows a
variational principle to be formulated in terms of compatible DISPLACEMENT
0.35 ~. I .... ANALYTICAL I
generalized displacements. The resulting finite element TRANSFINITE
equations are symmetric and are numerically integrated using
standard explicit methods. However, the heat displacement 0.19 'ARA' B ~ , ~ ! T=Cs
formulation introduces additional variables, thus increasing
the number of degrees of freedom. For example, in a three -0.01 _ . _ ~ _ t ~ . Z T-2C s
dimensional finite element model, instead of dealing with - 0.07
0 1 2
four degrees of freedom per node (three mechanical dis- TIME, s
placement components and one temperature component), one
has to deal with six degrees of freedom per node (three me- III
chanical displacement components and three heat displace- STRESS
ANALYTICAL
ment components). Tamma and Railkar (1989) conducted .... TRANSFINITE
analogous studies employing a hybrid transfinite element ap-
proach which combines heat displacement based representa-
tions with finite elements and Laplace transforms to further
enhance past efforts.
0.0

-1 :; 2 Cs

An alternate time integration formulation was employed -2

0 I 2
by Liu and Zhang (1983). They describe an implicit-explicit TIME,s
procedure for the analysis of thermal stress waves for cou- Fig 12. Comparative results using transfinite element formulations
at x = 1 for case 3 with Green-Lindsay and classical models

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 534 SPECIALISSUEON THERMALSTRESSES
followed by a Taylor series expansion in terms of the time
derivative terms. The time derivative terms in the Taylor se-
ries expansion are then replaced with the appropriate spatial
derivative terms of the previously represented conservation
representation. This procedure has originally been employed
for finite difference formulations. Earlier work relevant to
employing finite elements as a basis for formulating the Lax-
Wendroff type approach for shock calculations appeared by
Oden (1973), and Fost, Oden, and Wellford (1975). On ana-
logous principles, Donea (1984) describes a Taylor-Galerkin
method for flow problems. Several studies have been since
conducted (Lohner et al, 1984, 1985; Bey et al, 1985; Thorn-
ton and Dechaumpai, 1986) in computational fluid dynamics
and other areas with one-step and two-step Lax-Wendroff
schemes. More recently, Tamma and Namburu (1988a) de-
scribed a new generalized methodology of computation
which in principle may be regarded as a finite element based
Lax-Wendroff formulation for computational dynamics. The
formulations emanate from conservation form of the equa-
tions of motion to preserve improved algorithmic and com-
putational attributes and were originally proposed to tackle
general structural dynamic problems and large linear-non-
linear structures and multi-body structural dynamic systems.
In comparison to traditional time integration procedures for
computational dynamics adopted in the past, the develop-
ments originally proposed by Tamma and Namburu (1988a;
1990b,c) offer certain added algorithmic, computational, and
implementation benefits. Some of the considerations include,
direct self-starting features, elimination of accelerations in
the computations, conservation properties and other compu-
tationally attractive features. Other related formulations have
also been more recently described for transient interdiscipli-
nary thermal-structural problems in conjunction with flux-
stress based representations by Tamma and Namburu (1990a;
! 991 a,b).
The problem of dynamic structural response due to ther-
mal effects was originally addressed by Boley (1956, 1957).
Boley showed that the vibrations yielded structural ampli-
tudes of at least twice the corresponding quasi-static deflec-
tions. Realistic occurrence of thermally-induced structural
dynamic vibrations have been cited in various studies (1990,
Murozono and Sumi; 1987, Frisch, 1970) and is indeed a
subject area of importance in certain applications. He took
structural inertia into account and analytically treated ther-
mally-induced vibrations of a simply supported elastic rec-
tangular beam and plate. Later, Boley and Barber (1957) re-
ported some related work for a simple beam and plate with
comparison between static and dynamic behaviors. Boley and
Weiner (1960) suggested that the principal results for beams
and plates are almost identical regardless of the aspect ratio
of the plate, of the rapidity of the heat application, and even
of the support conditions. Some relevant theoretical work on
the thermoelastic vibrations of solid beams appeared due to
Jones (1966). He derived the equation of motion of a solid
beam with the lateral surface thermally insulated. The effects
of shear deformation and rotary inertia were included, and
the thermoelastic coupling in the heat conduction equation
and in the elastic constitutive relations was also included. In
1972, Boley (1972b) reconsidered the problem, derived a
simple approximate formula for the ratio of the maximum
dynamic to static deformation of heated beams and plates,
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Appl Mech Rev vo150, no 9, September 1997
and he then generalized it to include the effects of damping
and of axial or in-plane loads. Seibert and Rice (1973) com-
pared the thermally-induced vibration of a simple supported
beam with heat input to one edge using the Bernoulli-Euler
and Timoshenko beam models when the equations of motion
with one-dimensional heat conduction were thermoelastically
coupled and uncoupled. Numerical investigations for linear
beam models and constant symmetric cross-sections includ-
ing ffi'ameworkshave been attempted by Manolis and Beskos
(1980) by means of Laplace transforms. Tamma et al (1987b,
1987) developed a generalized hybrid transfinite element
formulations for thermal-structural dynamic analysis. They
employed transform methods in conjunction with the classi-
cal Galerkin formulations and finite elements for both the
transient thermal and thermally-induced structural dynamic
models. -
More recently, Namburu and Tamma (1991) and Tamma
and Namburu (1990a, 1991a) described new computational
developments for applications to general thermal-structural
pi'oblems to include thermally-induced structural dynamic
problems. However, all of the aforementioned work focused
attention on solid beams with symmetry. The major distinc-
tion between a thin-walled beam of open cross-section and
the general solid beam is that bending deformations in two
perpendicular planes are coupled with the torsional deforma-
tion. Limited or no literature is available which shows how
this coupling affects the dynamic response of thin-walled
flexural configurations under sudden rapid heating. The vari-
ous forms of coupling involved may be triple, double, or no
coupling at all. To address this problem, Chen, Mohan, and
Tamma (1994) described the instantaneous response of thin-
walled structures of arbitrary cross-section to rapid heating.
They employed an effective unified implicit formulation to
accurately predict the combined representative behaviors.
Additional details regarding the mechanics of thin-walled
structures appears in Refs (Vlasov, 1961; Gelin and Lee,
1988). Other related work appeared due to Thornton and
Kim (1993). Chang and Allen (1989) describe the analysis of
a viscoplastic plate subjected to rapid external heating.
7.2 Fundamental equations
Following Tarnma (1996), the linear thermoelasticity theory
is based on the following fundamental equations.
Conservation o f Mass: (Nowacki, 1975)
P--Q-= 1 + vi. i (45)
P
Conservation o f Momentum: (Fung, 1965)
aji,j + pf. = pfi (46)
where
oji = o/j (47)
Energy Equation: (Fung, 1965)
P(+ - Q) = oij~,j - qi,i (48)
Fourier's Law of Heat Conduction: (Fung, 1965):
The classical Fourier's law, on which the theory of heat con-
duction is based, relates the heat flux vector q~ to the tem-
perature gradient O,j, through the equation
 Appl Mech Rev vol 50, no 9, September 1997 Tamma and Namburu: Computational approaches for thermomechanical problems
q~ = -ko.O j
where the thermal conductivity k/y, must be positive to as-
sume a positive rate of entropy production.
Supplementing the above equations by the second law of
thermodynamics, which demands positive production of en-
tropy in the form of the Ciausius-Duhamel inequality
(Lawerence, 1969), and introducing this via an entropy den-
sity rl and absolute temperature T, the following can be ob-
tained:
q~Tj _<0 (50a)
and
qi,, + p(T~ - Q) = 0 (50b)
7.3 Linear thermoelastictty approximations
To deduce the constitutive laws governing material behavior,
additional assumptions are made. The fundamental assump-
tions of the theory of linear thermoelasticity are (Lawrence,
1969) that the field variables are infinitesimally small, and
that the free-energy is a differentiable function of only the in-
stantaneous strain and absolute temperature.
Let us introduce 0 (= T - To) as the increment of the ab-
solute temperature T over the reference temperature To. The
reference temperature is assumed to be uniform throughout
the body. The associated mechanical state of zero strain and
zero stress is known as the natural or unstressed state. For
linear thermoelasticity, it is assumed that the increment of the
temperature compared with the reference temperature is
small (Nowacki, 1975), that is
10 << 1
T0
To obtain the constitutive relations, consider the flee en-
ergy per unit volume ¢p (also known as the thermoelastic po-
tential), which is given (Nowacki, 1975) as
Expanding the function q~ in a power series in terms of its
arguments e# and T (= 0 + To), and ignoring in the series all
terms of order higher than the second (a term linear in 0 is
disregarded since it does not appear in the equations of inter-
est), the resulting expressions which are the Duhamel-
Neuman relations and entropy density function are obtained
as (Nowacki, 1975)
oij = Do.ktekt - 130.0
pr I= 130.e0.+.-P--~-0
r0
The stress and strain tensors are symmetric. Substituting
for qt, rl and a~j in a linearized form of Eq (50b) and in Eq
(46) by employing Eqs (49), (53), and (54), we obtain the
linear coupled dynamic thermoelasticity equations based on
the classical theory (Nowacki, 1957) as:
7.4 Dynamic thermoelastic representations
pcO + To13ij~i,j -(kijO, j ),i : PQ
P/~i- (D/jktekl- [3/j0)j = pJ; (56)
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535
(49) where To is the reference temperature and 13/j is the thermo
elasticity tensor.
The corresponding uncoupled (one-way coupled) equa-
tions are readily obtained by setting To = 0 in Eq (55).
The first equation {Eq (55)} does not account for the
short time response required for steady state heat conduction
to be reaEhed when a temperature gradient is suddenly intro-
duced. Therefore the thermal energy transport is assumed to
be transmitted instantaneously to every other point so that the
speed of propagation is infinite. Such a notion of instantane-
ous heat diffusion does yield accurate temperature predic-
tions for most commonly encountered practical engineering
situations.
7.5 Quasi-static representations
The quasi-static (neglecting dynamic aspects in the structure)
representations commonly employed for thermomechanical
applications can be cast in the form,
pcO + To13ijui,j -(ko.O, j ),i : pQ (57)
= (58)
where there is a two-way coupling.
The corresponding uncoupled equations are obtained by
setting To = 0 in Eq (57).
7.6 Static representations
The representative steady thermal and static equations of
equilibrium can be cast in the form
To13 (il~i,j - (k/j0, j ),i = PQ (59)
(51)
-- ( DijktCkt --13q0 ),/ = Pf i (60)
Setting To = 0 in Eq (59), results in a one-way coupling be-
tween the thermal and mechanical models.
(52) 7.7 Boundary and initial conditions
Typical thermal boundary and initial conditions that may ex-
ist for a given domain R bounded by a closed surface OR =
ORpUORq a r e given as
Thermal."
0 = 0p on ORp (61)
(53)
qini=-qs+h(O-Oh)+Orer(O4-Or4)OncgRq (62)
or,
(54) (63)
qini + qs - qh -- qr = 0 on 0Rq
and,
0(x,0) = 0 i in R (64)
Equations (57) and (61)-(64) refer to general unsteady
nonlinear thermal fields in materials with thermophysical
properties dependent upon temperature. The first boundary
condition {Eq (61)} is the prescribed temperature condition
on 0Rp. The second boundary condition {Eqs (62), (63)} is
(55) the flux condition on 0Rq. The terms q., qh and qr represent
the surface heating rate per unit area, the rate of heat flow per
unit area due to convection, and the rate of heat flow per unit
area due to radiation, respectively, h is the convective heat
 536 SPECIALISSUE ON THERMAL STRESSES Appl MechRov vo150, no 9, September 1997
transfer coefficient, Oh is the convection medium tempera- In this regard, introducing the non-dimensional parameters
ture, Or is the Stefan-Boitzman constant, er is the surface (considering an isotropic, homogeneous medium) as
emissivity, and Or is the radiation medium temperature. 0* = 0/00
Mechanical: x* = Csx/~
Typical mechanical boundary and initial conditions for the t* = Cs2t/~ (69)
Eqs (55)-(56) are given as o* = o/1300
Ui = gi on ~Rp (65) u* = DuCslot[3O o
o#nj = hi on aRq (66) where D is associated with the modulus of elasticity, 13 is the
thermo-elastic modulus, and
and initial conditions:
u i(t=O)=ui ° in R (67a)
Cs : (DIp) '/2
a = k/pc
tii(t = 0) = u/0 in R (67b) 8 : TOI32/pcD
The first boundary condition is the prescribed displace- yields the governing coupled classical dynamic thermoelastic
ment on 0Rp and the second boundary condition is the trac- non-dimensional representations which in conservation form
tion condition on c~Rq. (in the absence of internal sources and body forces and drop-
Equations (55-56) represent the classical fully coupled ping the asterisks for convenience in representation) are rep-
dynamic thermoelasticity equations. A two-way coupled or resented as:
fully coupled problem implies that the temperature field in-
fluences the displacement field and vice versa. A one-way aU ~gE
+-- = H (70a)
coupled problem implies that only the temperature changes ~t
influence the displacement field. A one-way coupled problem where
with a transient thermal field and a static structural field leads
to a quasi-static analysis. For static analysis, the transient u:/°ul
terms in both the thermal and the structural fields are ne-
glected.

7.8 Summary: Classical models -/ 0x ~gt/

E - / _~u+0 / (70c)
in summary, the governing Eqs (55)-(56) can be represented
in conservation form of representation for the classical mod- L ~gx )
els (Lax and Wendroff, 1964, Richtmyer and Morton, 1967)
as: s :I:l <70 ,
0U 0E
.-. + - - = H (68a)
dt tgx
where 8 NUMERICAL DISCRETIZATION
As mentioned previously, solutions of coupled/uncoupled
U =(pcO I (68b) thermomechanical problems (both dynamic and static), par-
\PUt ) ticularly those that admit closed form analytical solutions are
(-ko.o,j + ro j/,j ] limited. Hence, numerical methods of approach seem to be a
viable alternative. Nevertheless, both the multi-disciplinary
E : t-(D/jkte,,- 13jiol) (68c)
nature of the thermomechanical interactions and the geomet-
ric complexity of the structural components pose significant
(PQ) (68d) challenges for the combined modeling and analysis of these
H= OZ. classes of problems which can be broadly categorized as:
Note that by appropriately choosing the inertia and cou- i) thermally-induced wave propagation type,
pling parameters the above relations readily reduce to the un- ii) thermally-induced inertial dynamic type, and
coupled, quasi-static and static linear thermoelasticity equa- iii) the remaining class of quasi-static and static
tions as described previously. thermal-stress problems.
7.9 Non-dimensional representations Of the various numerical methods available for the mod-
eling/analysis of thermal, mechanical, and multi-disciplinary
Quite often, it is convenient to employ non-dimensional rep- thermomechanical interactions, finite differences, finite vol-
resentations. Especially, for general coupled/uncoupled situa- ume based techniques, finite element methods and boundary
tions such as those encountered in thermal-stress wave prob- element methods have been previously employed and have
lems (one-dimensional) of the Danilovskaya's-type, such rep- no doubt matured over the years to improved levels. The
resentations enable a direct physical interpretation of the ef- choice of the particular method has been a matter of some
fects of the physical parameters influencing the model. debate, although the selection of the finite element method
seems to be quite popular. In this study, for purposes of il-

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 Appl Mech Rev vo150, no 9, September 1997 Tamma and Namburu: Computational approaches for thermomechanical problems
lustration, attention is confined to employing the finite ele-
ment method for each of the individual disciplines and for the
combined analysis of thermomechanicai interactions in engi-
neering problems. Because of the wide acceptance of the fi-
nite element method and its numerous inherent modeling and
computational advantages and the flexibility it provides in
being implemented as a general purpose computer program,
it is particularly well suited for these problems.
Introducing the discrete approximations {Eq (33)} into
the general form of the governing model equations {Eq (68)}
and employing the relevant constitutive relations such as the
flux-temperature relations for the thermal model and the
strain-displacement relations for the mechanical model re-
spectively, and following the standard weak formulation as-
sociated with the initial boundary value problem, yields
(boundary effects are purposely not included; and the fol-
lowing notations for the superscripts are used: m = mechani-
cal, 0 = thermal):
8.1 Semi-discretized equations:
Dynamic thermoelasticity
C°°0 -t- c0mil "1-K°°0 = F°(t) (71 a)
M mmii + Kmmu + Kin00 = Fro(t) (71b)
In contrast to the non-classical dynamic thermo-elastic
model semi-discretized representations, for the classical
models, the resulting equations are symbolically represented
in general, as
C°v + K°d = F°(t) (72a)
Mma + Cmv + Kind = F m (72b)
where the thermal model is a parabolic first-order ordinary
differential equation in time with the need for one initial con-
dition on the temperature field, while the corresponding me-
chanical model is a hyperbolic second-order ordinary differ-
ential equation in time with the need for two initial condi-
tions, namely, one for displacement field and one for the ve-
locity field. In Eq (72a), C o is associated with thermal ca-
pacitance, K ° is associated with thermal conductance, and F °
is associated with heat load vectors respectively. The vector
v = 0 and vector d = 0, represent the first-order time deriva-
tive of the temperature field and the temperature field re-
spectively. In Eq (72b), M m is associated with the mass ma-
trix, C m is associated with the damping matrix, K m is associ-
ated with the structural stiffness, and F m is associated with
the load vector respectively. Also, a is the acceleration vec-
tor, v is the velocity vector and d is the displacement field
vector, respectively.
8.2 Quasi-static representations
In the absence of inertial dynamic terms in the mechanical
model, the resulting quasi-static semi-discretized representa-
tions are obtained as
C000 + C0mll + K°°0 = F°(t) (73a)
Kmmu + Km°0 = Fro(t) (73b)
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537
8.3 Static representations
In the absence the transient/dynamic inertial terms in the
thermal and mechanical models respectively, the resulting
static or steady thermomechanical semi-discretized repre-
sentations are obtained as
c0mll + K°°0 = F°(t) (74a)
Kmmu + Kin00 = Fro(t) (74b)
It should be pointed out that in the aforementioned semi-
discretized representations for the classical models, the vari-
ous element integrals take on the relevant definitions (forms)
by appropriately considering the respective terms in each
situation [see definitions, Eq (34)].
As seen from the earlier sections, thermomechanical
problems may be generally classified as: i) non-classical, and
ii) classical problems. Much of the research appearing in lit-
erature relevant to thermomechanicai problems focuses em-
phasis on the classical approach to the thermoelasticity equa-
tions. The assumptions involved here are indeed adequately
representative and quite accurate for most of the practical
situations encountered in common engineering practice. On
the other hand, for certain other classes of problems, such as
those applications involving very short transient durations,
sudden high heat flux situations, and/or for very low tem-
peratures near absolute zero, the notion to adopt the non-
classical models has been cited in literature as being relevant
and important as discussed previously.
9 COMPUTATIONAL A L G O R I T H M S :
PARABOLIC PROBLEMS
Focusing attention on the classical form of the transient para-
bolic thermal problems (diffusive), the first step involves the
semi-discretization process on the form of the parabolic heat
conduction equation. This semi-discretization process leads
to a system of simultaneous ordinary differential equations,
which can be represented in matrix form as:
C(0,t)0 + K(0,t)0 = Q(0,t) (75)
C,K, ERNEQxRNEQ;o,o and Q E R NEQ
where C is the capacitance matrix, K is the thermal conduc-
tance matrix, and Q is a vector of heat loads. The specific
heat and density may be temperature dependent and affect
the solution through the capacitance matrix. The thermal
conductivity and the convection coefficient may be tempera-
ture dependent and affect the solution through the conduction
and convection matrices, contained in K, respectively. Ra-
diation heat transfer is inherently nonlinear and affects the
solution through K and the incident heat load vector in Q.
Also, internal heat generation, surface convection and surface
heating rates may be temperature dependent and affect the
solution through the heat load vectors contained in Q. 0 is the
global nodal temperature field The initial conditions are
given as 0(t = 0) = 0i.
The semi-discretized matrix representations described
above usually involve integrals over the element domain and
surface. Further, these matrices are customarily evaluated
using numerical integration. For nonlinear situations, these
 538 SPECIALISSUEONTHERMALSTRESSES
element matrices are evaluated repeatedly to account for
proper updating of material thermophysical parameters be-
sides the issues involving the radiation matrix. Since the
system of equations {Eq (75)} does not readily permit
closed-form analytical solutions, numerical time-integration
schemes are mostly adopted.
Following the semi-discretization process, the next step is
the time discretization. The solution is typically marched out
in time at each time step At starting from the initial condi-
tions, until the total duration of the transient response is
reached. Typical well known and commonly advocated time-
integration approaches for transient heat transfer analysis in-
elude the one-step generalized or-family of methods
(Belytschko and Hughes, 1983). The generalized trapezoidal
or-family of methods are typically represented as:
C0,+l + K0,+= = Q,+l (76a)
0 "+1 = 0" + At0"+a (76b)
0,+ct = (1 - ct~" + ct0 "+1 (76c)
where At is the time step. The parameter ct (ct E [0,1]) con-
trols the stability and accuracy of the schemes.
The initial value problem consists of finding the tempera-
ture field 0 = 0(t) satisfying Eqs (76) and the initial condi-
tions 0(t = 0) = 0~.
The commonly advocated or-family of time-integration
methods are the explicit (ct = 0) and the implicit (ct = 1/2)
schemes. For ct = 0, the method is the explicit (or Euler for-
ward), which is first-order accurate and is conditionally sta-
ble. For ct = 1/2, the method is the implicit (or Crank-
Nicoison, 1947), which is second-order accurate and is un-
conditionally stable. For ct = 2/3, the method is implicit (or
Galerkin method) and is first-order accurate and uncondi-
tionally stable. For ct = I, the method is the implicit (or
Euler-backward), which is first-order accurate and uncondi-
tionally stable.
The Linear Multi Step (LMS) methods belong to a gener-
alized class of time stepping methods (Belytschko and
Hughes, 1983; and Hughs, 1987). The or-family of trapezoi-
dal methods is a special case of LMS methods if the pa-
rameters are chosen appropriately. An A-stable LMS method
is of second-order accuracy at most, among which the trape-
zoidal rule is the one with the smallest error constant
(Belytschko and Hughes, 1983; and Hughs, 1987). Following
the spirit of a Lax-Wendroff based finite element formula-
tion, an explicit scheme with second-order accuracy in time
is described by Tamma et al (1988b) and is readily reduced
to the Euler forward explicit scheme. The method is also
conditionally stable which imposes a time step restriction.
However, this particular form of representation was devel-
oped for subsequent applications to provide a unified algo-
rithmic representation for combined thermal-structural tran-
sient analysis. An advantage is the second-order accuracy of
this explicit conditionally stable approach. On the other hand,
unconditionally stable second-order accurate algorithms also
appear due to DuFort and Frankel (1953) and Saul'yev
(1964), but suffer from the drawbacks of conditional consis-
tency which implies convergence only when the rate of time
step being close to zero is faster than that of the mesh size.
Likewise, with the same drawbacks, Trujillo (1977a) ex-
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Appl Mech Rev vo150, no 9, September 1997
tended such work to multi-dimensional models. Various
other approaches have also been used to include the multi-
step Lee's algorithm (1966), and those proposed by Ziamal
and Liniger (1975, 1969). Besides time stepping approaches
as described above, Argyris (1969) suggested alternate for-
mulations employing finite elements for the time domain.
In comparison to the direct step-by-step time marching
approaches, a hybrid formulation based on a transfinite ele-
ment approach is described by Tamma and Railkar (1987b,
1988c) to overcome some of the restrictions in the step-by-
step time stepping philosophy. Laplace transformation was
first applied to the governing heat conduction equations as
well as the boundary and initial conditions. Therein, finite
elements were employed in the transform domain. For linear
situations, the temperature was solved directly in the trans-
form domain, and then a numerical inversion process was
adopted to predict the temperature field at only desired times
of interest, thereby, avoiding the need to employ small time
steps. Interesting extensions to practical nonlinear thermal
analysis problems are subsequently described by Tamma and
Raiikar (1987b, 1988c) in conjunction with an inverse nu-
merical transform and an iterative strategy to obtain conver-
gence of solutions. The results for both linear and nonlinear
transient thermal problems yielded good agreement with
analytical solutions, existing methods of approach and avail-
able results in literature for simple and geometrically com-
plex engineering structures. The pros-cons and limitations of
such formulations are also identified.
Another distinct approach to perform the time discretiza-
tion of the transient heat transfer problems is modal analysis
or mode superposition. The basic ideas and computational
procedures follow approaches analogous to those in struc-
tural dynamics (Bathe, 1982). Modal analysis first use modal
decomposition to decouple the governing equations, and
then, the solution may be achieved exactly if the loading
function is a simple function of time. However, it is generally
more convenient to employ a direct time integration proce-
dure to approximate the temperature field synthesized from
the modes.
Hogge (1977) proposed an integration operator technique
for linear transient heat transfer. He pointed out that the mo-
dal operator has many advantages over direct time integra-
tion methods if one pays the price for the preliminary eigen-
value problems. The modal analysis is convenient for situa-
tions where a small number of modes is required and for
long-time analysis situations.
Comparing direct time integration methods and modal ap-
proaches, each has its computational advantages in certain
circumstances. Following Hughes (1987), direct time inte-
gration methods are easily coded, are felt to be more efficient
for short-time calculations, and are generalizable to nonlinear
situations. However, modal analysis is felt to be more effi-
cient if many analyses of the same configuration are neces-
sary, for long-time calculations, and/or if only a small num-
ber of modes are participating in the solution. The appropri-
ate technique depends heavily on the problem under consid-
eration.
To address some of the disadvantages of direct time-
stepping approaches such as the widely advocated or-family
of methods, and to overcome the deficiencies and practical
inability of traditional modal analysis methods for general
 Appl Mech Rev vol 50, no 9, September 1997 Tamma and Namburu: Computational approaches for thermomechanical problems
transient nonlinear situations, Tamma et al (1994a,b; 1995)
recently described a new explicit, unconditionally stable
Virtual-Pulse (VIP) method of computation which is applica-
ble to general thermal heat transfer applications influenced
by conduction, convection, and radiation heat transfer
mechanisms and identify the pros and cons of such ap-
proaches for practical problems. The approach has excellent
stability and accuracy attributes and does not suffer from the
drawbacks of conditional consistency.
10 SOLUTION ALGORITHMS AND STRATEGIES
10.1 Classical models: Dynamic thermoelasticity,
quasi-static and static representations
For most of the commonly encountered situations in engi-
neering practice, the notion of employing the theories of clas-
sical dynamic thermoelasticity or classical thermoelasticity
have proven to be fairly adequate (with satisfactory valida-
tions via experiments both qualitatively and quantitatively).
For the class of the classical dynamical thermoelastic prob-
lems in general, the transient thermal model is parabolic and
involves first-order time-derivatives with one initial condi-
tion on the temperature field, while the associated mechani-
cal dynamic model is hyperbolic and involves second-order
time derivatives involving two initial conditions, one for the
displacement field and the other for the velocity field respec-
tively.
For the combined analysis, this has traditionally necessi-
tated the use of altogether completely different algorithmic
representations in the computational analysis. The most
common representations have traditionally been the so-called
a-family (Belytschko and Hughes, 1983; and Hughs, 1987)
of methods for the classical heat conduction model, and the
Newmark (Belytschko and Hughes, 1983; and Hughs, 1987)
family of methods for the corresponding dynamic mechanical
model.
The categories of problems that may be encountered in
classical dynamic thermoelasticity are either thermally-
induced stress wave propagation or thermally-induced struc-
tural dynamics problems. Whereas explicit methods are pre-
ferred for the former, the implicit approaches are most effec-
tive for the latter.
For problems of the thermal stress wave propagation type,
the explicit representations for the transient thermal model
typically lead to the general form
Clumped 0n+l =
Reff(0",/5"+I,/5",Ato,COO,KOO,cOm,F o) (77a)
and, the corresponding explicit representations for the dy-
namic mechanical model lead to the form (in the absence of
damping)
M lumped/5n+l =
Feff(/5",on+l o',Atm,Kmm,KmO,cOm,Fm ) (77b)
where 0 is the temperature field, and/5 is the associated with
the mechanical field.
For a fully coupled problem, the solution of 0 "+7 and/5,,+1
is dictated by the restrictions imposed by At0 and Arm. And,
although explicit, the combined solution of 0"+l and 8"+l si-
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539
muitaneously may be cumbersome. As such, predictor-
corrector or staggered approaches as described later may lead
to efficiency of the computations. For the uncoupled prob-
lems, the procedure simply involves first the solution of the
thermal field e"*= (since coupling terms are not involved and
the right side of the thermal model is a function of previous
time step values), followed by the prediction of the corre-
sponding structural response, 8"+l, and related quantities at
each time step which is dictated by the restriction imposed by
Ate and Arm.
For problems of the thermally-induced structural dynamic
type, the implicit representations for the transient thermal
model typically lead to the general form
(C,K)OO+' =
(78a)
Rn+lfan+l an ~n+I,/Sn,At0,C00,K00,c0m,F0 )
e.ffW ,v ,v
and, the corresponding implicit representations for the dy-
namic mechanical model lead to the form (in the absence of
damping)
(M,K)/5"+' =
F'+I{x, x,+l,0,+=,O,, ,Kmm,KmO,F m) (78b)
elf W ' v , At m
where 0 is the temperature field, and/5 is the associated with
the mechanical field.
For a fully-coupled problem, again the solution of 0 "+l
and/sn+l is dictated by the restriction imposed by At0 and Atm.
Since the representations are implicit, the solution of systems
of coupled equations are necessary at each time step. Implicit
algorithms are unconditionally stable, however, the arbitrary
selection of any time step does not guarantee solution accu-
racy, and hence is governed by accuracy considerations. The
n+l n+l
combined simultaneous solution of 0 and /5 not only
enlarges the storage space, but also tends to make the analy-
sis cumbersome and expensive. As such, predictor-corrector
or staggered approaches as described later may prove to be
more efficient. For nonlinear situations, iterations are in-
volved during each time step and some form of a generalized
Newton-Raphson or related quasi-Newton type methods are
useful. The equation solvers which exist are of the direct
solver type or iterative solvers. In principle, iterative solvers
are preferred (although some numerical analysts may prefer
direct solvers).
For the uncoupled problem, the coupling terms are not
present and the solution involves the determination of the
thermal field 0"+l and the structural response/5"+1 and related
quantities at each time step as dictated by the restrictions im-
posed by At0 and Atm. Since the combined simultaneous de-
termination of 0"+t and/5"+7 may not be efficient due to the
increase in storage space and the cumbersome and expensive
nature of the computations, predictor-corrector or staggered
approaches as discussed later prove to be more efficient.
Quasi-static representations
The quasi-static thermal-structural response arises due to the
absence of the inertial dynamic terms in the mechanical
model as described earlier. As such, the thermal model is a
transient parabolic first-order differential equation in time
with one initial condition on the thermal field, 0initial, and the
corresponding mechanical model is static. Hence, the analy-
 540 SPECIAL ISSUE ON THERMAL STRESSES
sis involves the determination of the thermal field at each
time step of the transient and therein evaluating the structural
response at each of these time steps. Based on the choice of
the algorithms, either an explicit or an implicit algorithm can
be employed for evaluating the transient thermal field. In
general, the explicit form is typically represented as
Clumped 0n+l = R effl,
n (O n , At 0, C OO' K °° ' c0m,F 0)
and the static mechanical model takes the form
K effective°~.+l --
_ F.+l/0.+l
eft k ' Fm~
] (79b)
or in a nonlinear case,
-intfn+l_Fenn+l
ff (0 n+l ,Fro)=0
At each time step At0, the representative temperature field,
0 "+l, is calculated without the need for equation solvers be-
cause of the explicit representation, and the corresponding
temperatures at each time step are employed as a series of
quasi-static analysis for evaluating the structural response
which involves the solution of systems of equations.
In general, the implicit form is typically represented as
(C, K)0 "+' = D"+I(O"+I,O",Ato,C°°,K°°,cOm,F
) eft . , 0
and the static mechanical model takes the form
K effectiveo~n+l = Vqff
ll~n+l (on+l
_ , F m]
or in a nonlinear case,
fn+l n+l( n+l m)
int - F q r 0 ,F =0
At each time step At0, equation solvers are needed to pre-
dict both the thermal field, v~q"+l,and the corresponding ther-
mally-induced stress field, ~5"+l.
Static representations
These arise due to the absence of the transient-dynamic iner-
tial terms in the thermal and mechanical models respectively
as illustrated earlier. Thus, the determination of the tem-
perature and the mechanical fields involves the solution of 0
and 8 from equation systems typically represented as
K qff" v = R(F°,~5)
Thermall-I
eft v F ,0
or
fmech
in,e07 _ F e f f ( F m , O ) = O
For a fully-coupled or uncoupled problem, predictor-
corrector or staggered solution strategies are preferred in
comparison to the combined determination of 0 and 8 simul-
taneously. For nonlinear situations, some form of Newton-
Raphson, or quasi-Newton type methods have proven to be
fairly effective for most of the commonly encountered prob-
lems in engineering. The choice of efficient equation solvers
plays an important role in large scale thermomechanical
problems.
10.2 Classical models: Unified algorithmic representa-
tions (explicit/implicit 7e/m-family)
Unlike traditional practices of employing altogether com-
pletely different algorithmic representations in the computa-
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Appl Mech Rev vo150, no 9, September 1997
tional analysis of combined classical dynamic thermoelastic-
ity problems as described earlier, with the emphasis on pro-
viding and preserving a unified computational algorithmic
representation and methodology, Tamma and Namburu
(1991a,b) have recently demonstrated a viable and effective
unified methodology, which, in principle, is similar to that
employed for the non-classical dynamic thermoelastic mod-
(79a) els, but with a slightly different interpretation for the solution
of the classical dynamic thermomechanical problems.
For illustration purposes, focusing attention on the classi-
cal dynamic thermoelastic problems identified earlier, a uni-
fied computational methodology which preserves the same
algorithmic representations and approach follows Tamma
(79c) and Namburu (1991 a,b) and are compactly represented as
~n+l n Al n
O/m = d~O/m+-~-V m (82a)
(M0/m + X0/.K0/m)AV/+m' C0m/K.0
(82b)
( ) .^.+,
= At 1 - ~'O/m Com/Nmo ~,qo - AtNo/m~O/m o.+,
+ "VOlta
Atr n ]
(80a) 4,"£ = Cm +Ttvm + v,7 (82c)
where
= = [0"+'- o",v"+'-v°]
(80b)
X,o = 0 for explicit; A.__t.for implicit
2
(80c)
At 2
Zm = 0 for explicit; for implicit
4
*L =[0,u]
Ym = 0 for explicit; 1/2 for implicit
Y0 = 0 for explicit; 1/2 for implicit
At a first glance, the aforementioned unified algorithmic
representations may appear to be notationally difficult. How-
ever, a careful look at the representations will provide to the
reader a relatively simple illustrative approach for imple-
(8la) menting the resulting representations.
The subscripts 0 and m represent those associated with
(81b) thermal and mechanical models "respectively. The .first and
second (O/m or Om/mO) subscripts indicate that for the heat
conduction model all terms in the algorithmic equation relate
(80c)
to only the first of the subscripts (0 and 0m) are to be em-
ployed; while the second is to be used with the corresponding
dynamic mechanical model. Likewise, the first and second
(Com/Kmo) notations indicate that the Corn appears in the dis-
cretized thermal model equations, and Kin0 appears in the
discretized mechanical model equations respectively. When-
ever a subscript 0 or m is absent, the notation used implies
that there is no contribution of that quantity to the remainder
of the terms in that equation or the particular step of the algo-
rithmic relation is not involved.
The unified Y0/m-familyof representations of the computa-
tional methodology shown above may be either explicit or
implicit. For the explicit representations, the thermal scheme
is first-order accurate and conditionally stable, while the as-
 Appl Mech Rev vol 50, no 9, September 1997 Tamma and Namburu: Computational approaches for thermomechanical problems 541

sociated dynamic representations are second-order accurate

and conditionally stable. And, for the implicit representa- 11.1 Classical models: Thermal stress waves
tions, both the thermal and the mechanical formulations are Thermal stress waves due to Fourier models
second-order accurate and unconditionally stable. For the
dynamical representations, all of the computational and algo- The explicit form of the unified 'Y0/m-familyof thermal-struc-
rithmic attributes and features described previously for the tural dynamic formulations developed previously are evalu-
non-classical models remain. The formulations can also be ated in this section for applicability to coupled dynamic
readily reduced for handling uncoupled dynamic thermoelas- thermoelasticity models. The results obtained via the present
tic models or coupled/uncoupled steady/static type situations formulations are compared with the available numerical re-
for general thermal-stress problems. The above unified repre- suits published in the literature. ,
sentations have been used in most of the subsequent numeri- The problem geometry for the coupled dynamic thermo-
cal examples to illustrate the applicability to a variety of en- elastic models is depicted in Fig 13 for an elastic half-space
gineering applications which employ the classical models. (x > 0). As shown, the boundary plane x = 0 is subjected to
sudden imposed temperature heating boundary condition on
10.3 Solution approaches the exposed surface during a finite time interval, after which
the temperature is held constant. The bounding plane (x = 0)
Depending on the type of coupling (fully coupled or uncou-
is assumed traction free at all times and the elastic half-space
pled), a typical steady or transient analysis is conducted ei-
is constrained so that there is only uniaxial motion. The
ther as a combined (integrated) analysis for the simultaneous
model is essentially one-dimensional and it is desired to
determination of the temperature field and the displacement
evaluate the nature of the coupled/uncoupled thermally-in-
field (which may be inefficient), or as a staggered approach
duced stress waves that occur due to the sudden temperature
in a predictor-corrector fashion.
conditions imposed on the traction-free boundary x = 0. The
For static/steady type problems, whereas for the uncou-
present unified formulations with an explicit time-stepping
pled case, the solution for the thermal-stress computations is
procedure are employed to analyze the thermal stress waves.
fairly straight/forward (first solving for the thermal field fol-
The numerical data assumed is taken from the Ting and Chen
lowed by the solution of the mechanical field), for the cou-
(1982), who analyzed the concept of heat displacement and a
pled case (especially for nonlinear problems), an iterative in-
variational formulation in Lagrangian form. Ting and Chen
cremental procedure such as a Newton-Raphson type or some
(1982) modeled the semi-infinite elastic half-space as a finite
form of quasi-Newton type methods in conjunction with a
medium and introduced non-dimensional variables. A non-
staggered type approach is effective in comparison to the
dimensional characteristic length (L = 4) and a mesh having
solution for the temperature and displacement field simulta-
248 degrees of freedom was used by Ting and Chen (1982).
neously. For transient-dynamic type problems a similar ap-
The uncoupled dynamic thermoelastic model was first
proach can be followed at each time step.
analyzed with a common mesh containing 200 two-noded
Predictor-corrector or staggered approach linear elements for evaluating combined thermal-structural
A predictor-corrector or staggering approach is postulated stress wave response. A time step of At = 0.001 is used for
and recommended instead of the combined solution of the the model. Figure 14 shows the comparative time histories
temperature and displacement field simultaneously. Such an
Thermal model Structural model
approach will significantly reduce computer storage as well
- (lfij 0j ) n j = q olin j =hi
as computational costs. In this regard, the approach is as fol-
lows: Since, for thermomechanical problems the temperature
is the driving force (of interest are imposed temperature in-
fluence on deformation and vice versa), the procedure con-
sists of first assuming the mechanical fields (from the previ-
ous step for the case of transient analysis). Therein, the cou-
pled matrix equations can be arranged after algebraic matrix
manipulations and matrix augmentations in such a way that
the next step involves the solution of the temperature field (a) classical model
from which the mechanical field variables can be readily cor-
rected in the following step and so on. For transient analysis,
care should be exercised so as not to suffer from the draw-
backs of loss of algorithmic accuracy and stability. 0 Sudden Surface
Heating
11 ILLUSTRATIVE NUMERICAL APPLICATIONS
k,,,.__~.._~ r - - 4"lp~
Thermal-structural problems employing the classical theory
of thermoelasticity are illustrated in this section. Applications
encompassing thermal-stress wave propagation, thermally- o tim L ~=1
induced structural dynamic response, and thermal-stresses in
structures and materials are described here for a variety of
problems. (b) problem description of Danilovskaya's first problem influ-
enced by classical effects
Fig 13. Classical dynamic thermoelasticity model

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 542 SPECIALISSUE ON THERMALSTRESSES Appl Mech Rev vo150, no 9, September 1997

for the temperature, mechanical displacement, and thermal The same model is also analyzed using 500 two-noded
stress for a non-dimensional point ~ = 1.0. linear elements for the uncoupled ease giving similar results
(not Shown). For this uncoupled problem, two eases are dis-
cussed. In the first ease, the comparative time histories for
T 0.7
the temperature, mechanical displacement and thermal stress
M 0.5
P
(Fig 15) at characteristic time step values are plotted. These
E results are exact. In the second case, numerical smoothing
AR03 EXACT discussed due to Lapidus is employed (Tamma and Nam-
buru, 1992) to eliminate the numerical oscillations that often
R [] [] PRESENTEXPL C T
E 0.0
disguise the true response. Figure 16 shows the comparative
I 2 time histories for the temperature, mechanical displacement
TIME and thermal stress at a point ~ = 1.0.
D 0.2.'
Next, a coupled dynamic thermoelastic model is analyzed
S with a common mesh containing 200 two-noded linear ele-
P 0.15
L ments (201 dof) for evaluating the combined thermal-struc-
A tural stress wave response. A time step of At = 0.0005 is used
C
E 0.01 for the analysis. Figure 17 shows the comparative time histo-
M ries for the temperature, mechanical displacement and ther-
E
N - o.11( mal stress at a point ~ = 1.0. Although a refined mesh could
I 2
T TIME have been employed, no further attempts have been made to
0.4 =
include this. Also smoothing is not employed. The compara-
6
tive results for uncoupled/coupled models are in excellent
S 0.0 ="
T
agreement and thereby demonstrate the applicability of the
R present explicit unified architecture for thermal-structural
E - 0.5
S
propagation problems.
S Thermoelastic models employing other temperature and
- 1.0
I 2
convection boundary conditions via the present approach are
TIME described elsewhere by Tamma and Namburu (1990a).
Fig 14. Comparative temperature, displacement and stress histories
for uncoupled dynamic thermoelasticity
T 0.6
T 0.7 E
M
P
P E 0.3
E 0.4 R
R EXACT A
A
T CHARACTERIST|~ T
U
U R 0.0
R o.o
E
E I 2 0 I 2
TIME TIME
0.24 D 0.30
I
S
s P
P 0.12 L 0.15
L
A
A
C
C o.oo
E E o.oo
M M
E -oAo E
N N -o.10
0 t 2 T 1 2
T
TIME TIME
0.2
0.50
s
T N T
R R o.o0
E
E -0.5
S S
S S - 0.50

- 1.0
I - 1.00
TIME 2 0
TIME
Fig 15. Temperature, displacement and stress histories obtained at
characteristic time step values for uncoupled dynamic thermoelas- Fig 16. Stabilized temperature, displacement and stress histories for
ticity uncoupled dynamic thermoelasticity

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 Appl Mech Rov vol 50, no 9, September 1997 Tamma and Namburu: Computational approaches for thermomechanical problems 543

0.0027) and the nonlinear case ( K = 0.0027 + 0.001 ~T).

11.2 C l a s s i c a l d y n a m i c t h e r m o e l a s t i c i t y :
Unified implicit representations are employed for this prob-
Thermal - structural dynamics
lem. The time step o f At = 0.1 is employed. Additional ther-
In this section, several examples are presented to evaluate the mal-structural dynamic test models are available in Namburu
structural dynamic response due to linear and nonlinear and Tamma (1991).
thermal effects. Explicit methods are preferred for wave
propagation type problems. On the other hand, for inertial
05 ~ LINEAR A
type problems such as those demonstrated in this section, im-
plicit approaches are often employed since large time steps
do not impose severe restrictions on the dynamic response.
°° / -
Thermal-structural dynamic response of a simply supported
beam due to linear~nonlinear thermal effects L = 20 in
A simply supported beam o f length L, mass per unit length q(t) h = 0.01539 in
b = l in
m, bending rigidity El, and rectangular cross-sectional di-
E = 10.66E+06 lb/in2
mensions o f depth h and width b as shown in Fig 18 is sub- m = 0.4E-04 lb-sec2/in 2
jected to a sudden triangular surface heat input on the top qs = 1 Btu/in2 -see
surface while the bottom surface is assumed to be insulated. otc = 12.25E-06 I/F
The data assumed for the computations is also shown in Fig I= 2L =1 ct =0.133 in2/sec
20. The beam is modeled with eight Euler-Bernoulli type oo ~2 04 O,6 Og

beam elements. The thermal conductivity for the linear TIME. S

analysis is assumed as K0 = 0.0027 and for the nonlinear

analysis the thermal conductivity o f the flexural member is Fig 18. Nonlinear-linear thermal induced structural dynamic re-
allowed to vary quadratically with temperature as shown in sponses of beam
Fig 18.
Figure 18 shows the thermally-induced dynamic response
at the center o f the beam for both the linear case (K0 =

T 0.48
E a
06
at om
time
(a) Constantheating
t (b) Thermalshock
t

M ~,, 8'
P
E 0.24 I
R 0
A 1 ~ ~ ~ TINGANDCHE~I98211
T • [] [] [] PRESENTEXPLICIT J
U
R 0.0o
E 1
TIME
AIIO
D 0.l'~
I 4
o •
S D
I
P ~ u
L 0.08 g Structural model
A II Thermal m o d e l
I
C 0.00 pllll •
0

E Thermal model data

IP
M = 17.3E-06/°K k = 16.3 W / m OK
E - 0.8~
N 1 qs = 7400 W/m 2 (for constant heating) Tr = 273 OK
T TIME
oc = 5.6696E-08 W/m2(°K) 4 cv = 502.4 J/kg OK
0.3 o

o.o ..',,..., qs = 136500 W / m 2 (for thermal shock)

O
S Structural model data
T
|
R o a = 1.98 m m th = 0.04 m m L = 100ram
E -0.5 ° ~ o o o

S A = 0.25 ! 3 mm 2 Cz = 1.27324 m m e = 1.273 m m

4
S J =l.34E-04mm 4 E=193GN/m 2 G = 72 GN/m 2
o 1.0 4
p = 7930 kg/m 3 I~ = 0.5027 mm 4 In = 0.91 m m
o 1TIME 2
Io = 1.8203 mm 4 I~ = 0
Fig 17. Comparative temperature, displacement, and stress histories Fig 19. Thermally-induced vibration of a cantilever beam with
for the case of coupled dynamic thermoelasticity semi-circular section to illustrate double coupling effects

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 544 SPECIALISSUE ON THERMALSTRESSES Appl Mech Rev vo150, no 9, September 1997

Thermally-induced vibration
of a semi-circular cross-sectional beam
This problem represents the case o f a double coupling phe- E 16 ....................................
N
nomenon. As shown in Fig 19, a cantilever beam with semi-
iD .12
circular cross section is subjected to two different heating
N
conditions. 1) constant sudden heating, 2) rapid thermal
.G ~ ! i !
shock. The temperature field along the beam axis is constant. M 8 , , "----"'-":-"--""
For the structural model, 10 thin-walled beam elements were o i i i !

used. For the thermal model, 20 four-noded bilinear quadri- M

E
N 4 ~ ~
lateral elements were used. The thermal boundary conditions
T
were such that the inside of the beam was insulated and the 0
outside o f the beam was considered to be radiating. A time 0 1 2 3 4 5
step At = 0.005 seconds was adopted for both the thermal and TIME
structural models. Figure 20 shows the numerical results for c ) thermal bending moment about z" a x i s f o r c o n s t a t n heating
the dynamic response of the semi-circular thin-walled beam
under two heating conditions. The semi-circular beam con-
sidered has one symmetric axis z, therefore, there is double 0 ' '
, i
coupling (bending vibration v is coupled to the torsional vi- D f , . ! i
bration 0x). From the dynamic responses obtained for both l -20 " -- ~ .............f. . . . . . . . . .
S . ! i~ t,
cases, the coupling effect is reflected through the zagged re- P L_ !
sponse o f the twisting angle (Chen et al, 1994).
Figure 21 shows a cantilever beam of L-shape cross sec- C
E - 60 ..............................
tion subjected to a sudden constant heating. This case repre-
sents that o f triple coupling (bending vibrations v are coupled
M t i '
E
N t "~^t --4 '
T -80 v '~JV'~, A " Z ~ . . . . . . . . . . . T. . . . .
to the torsional vibration 0x). In the finite element analysis,
for the structural model, 10 equal length thin-walled beam
- I00
'
[
i?"5'vvvWvv
elements were used. The bottom of the beam was considered 0 I 2 3 4
as insulated. A time step At = 0.01 seconds was employed for TIME
both the thermal and structural models respectively. Since d) deflectionof tip point in y directionfor constantheating
there exists no symmetric axis for this beam, triple coupling
is involved in the analysis. The numerical results for this

T
380 • • • [

i
. . . . . .
•
i | •
time = I s e c o n d
, • o2° I
I
S 15 ......
i J

E ~ ...=.,. -4 - time =5 seconds" L ?

M /
P 340 A
! I ",. I f C 10
E
R E
A M
T [ I T--, E 5
N
U 300
R T !
E i

...... ~ ~ . . ~i 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2

260
TIME
A B
MESH ALONG POINTS AB
e) deflection of tip point in z direction for constant heating
(a) t e m p e r a t u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n a l o n g the c e n t e r line A B for c o n s t a n t h e a t i n g

0.0005 i
T
-2.2 W
I
i i

I
S
" t i T

No \
N ! N
G
A
1

oivl
o
G
M

E
-3 I
I
N
G
L
E
- 0.0005 i i
N
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2
0 I 2 3 4 5 TIME
TIME

b) thermalbend'ng momentabouty" axis for constantheating 0 twisting angle at the free end for constant heating

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 Appl Mech Rev vol 50, no 9, September 1997 Tamma and Namburu: Computational approaches for thermomechanical problems 545

beam are given in Fig 22. Again, the coupling effect can seen 11.3 Quasi-statie thermal stresses
from the dynamic response of the twisting angle at the free In this section, an example is presented to illustrate the
end o f the thin-walled beam (Chen et al, 1994). evaluation of thermal stresses induced during solidification
360
process. A quasi-static analysis is employed.
" ' ' ' ' " : ' ' i' '' t ' ' '.
T i = time =.1 second
....... ~,.It -- __=_ time = 5 second.
Thermal-stress distributions in a solidi~ing bar
E 340
M
The example concerns the influence of cooling and the pre-
P
;\
I I ,_
:
diction of the thermally-induced stresses in a solidifying bar.
E 320
'
R
A \i i i
, A description o f the problem and the data is taken from
T 300
I Ix ,
......
i
i. . . . . . . . . Lewis and Bass (1976) and is depicted in Fig 23. The prob-
U
R lem was analyzed employing two-dimensional quadrilateral
E 280 elements having a total of 42 dof for both the thermal and
. . . .
it , , ,
ii , • !
i r ~
'] ~ r , t mechanical models. The transient time step employed was
260
A B 0.001 seconds and a lumped capacitance was used in con-
Mesh points along AB
junction with the enthalpy-based formulations for the thermal
g) temperaturedistributionalong the center line AB for thermalshock analysis. The right end of the bar is assumed to become solid
at time t = 0 and thus assumed to be fixed. The comparative
transient freezing front locations for the solidifying bar are
-2 .... i j
shown in Fig 24 and the comparative time variation o f

/
. . . . . . . . i . . . . . . .
B . . . .
i i

E
, stresses along the bar(relative stresses) are shown in Fig 25 at
N -3 various time intervals. The results agree extremely well with
D
I -4 those published. This example clearly illustrates the applica-
N
r tion for solidification problems as a result of phase change
G -5
M (Tamma and Namburu, 1990).
O _7
M -6
E
: Static thermal stresses: Thermal-stresses in plate
N -7
T
: A thermal-stress test specimen shown in Fig 26 is considered.
-8 ~ .... , . • i r .... ° , , , , : An aluminium plate of thickness t = 0.25 inch is maintained
1 2 3 4 5 at 245°F with an electrical heater at the center and the plate is
TIME maintained at 95°F on both the outside edges by passing
h) thermalbending moment abouty* axis for thermal shock cooling water. Due to symmetry considerations only a quarter
of the plate is modeled and the typical finite element mesh
35
used is shown in Fig 26. Of interest here are the stresses de-
B I .... ! .... .......
E i t
N 25
D
t
N
.... i !
G 15 1 --i 1 I - 25 i
M
O
M
E 5 i I~.~L ~ I
N $ •
T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i .................' 7 ................... i.................
T
-5
.... ! ,,,!. .i .... ', . . . . !
1 2 3 4 5 -5
TIME 0 1 2 3 4
TI~

i) thermal bending moment about z* axis for thermal shock k) deflection o f tip point in z direction for thermal shock

0.02
D
200
i i. T
W
1 100 I
S 0.01
S
P T
L 0 I
A . 0
C G
A
E - I00
N . 0.01
M G
E L
N - 200 E
T I 'i I - 0.02
0' 0.4 0,8 '1.2 1.6
- 300 t !, I, I
0 1 2 5
I) twisting angle at the free end for thermal shock
TIME

Fig 20. Thermally-induced structural dynamic results illustrating

j) deflection of tip point in y direction for thermal shock double coupling

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 546 SPECIAL ISSUE ON THERMAL STRESSES Appl Mech Rev vol 50, no 9, September 1997

veloped due to thermal considerations. Both analytical and
experimental results are available for this problem for the
linear case. The stresses ~x, ~y, and "Cxyare compared at x = 0
with the analytical and experimental results, and are shown in
Fig 27. These results agree very well with the analytical so-
lution. To make the problem more realistic, the case with
thermal conductivity varying with temperature is considered
Thermally-induced vibration of L-beam
q' [
q, time
(see Fig 26). The resulting thermal stresses C~x,Cry and %,
along x = 0 are shown in Fig 28. No solutions are available
for this case for comparison purposes.
The applicability of a unified computational methodology
for general thermal-structural problems encompassing classi-
cal/non-classical models has been presented for a variety of
situations. The examples clearly illustrate the general appli-
cability of the developments described earlier. A variety of
illustrative examples encompassing non-classical/classical
models and the related applications relevant to thermal stress
wave problems, thermally-induced structural dynamic prob-
Y"
lems, and thermal stress applications presented in this section
describe a means to an accurate understanding of the funda-
mental behavior of the thermal and thermomechanical inter-
actions. Thermal effects on structures and materials is an im-
h
portant area and affects a variety of problems encountered in
numerous practical engineering fields and cannot be ignored.

12 ISSUES AND ASSESSMENT FOR

THERMOMECHANICAL PROBLEMS
C AND MODELING/ANALYSIS
A ~ n t~ ,/1 ~
B V
Although traditional practices for the modeling and analysis
of general transient/steady thermomechanical interactions in
Structural model
D i ncrnm+ rnoact
engineering structures have no doubt matured over the years,
Fig 21. Thermally-induced vibration of a cantilever L-beam section there is still a pressing need to provide further enhancements
to illustrate triple coupling effects to include the following attributes and considerations:

t2oo I- ~'-'~'+" e--.e--~..+-.g._.__ t i .t

"~ ! I + : !;...e 1
I o'~-~--¢--o--0--~-6~.:0--
0= I i I f I / "1
= ~- Temperature along AB at time = 0.5 see. ~ 0
- " 4 - - Temperature along AB at time = 5 sec. O..S i ;i It
.d .............
.- - ~ -- Temperature along CD at time = 0.5 see. +~, - 0.2
600 - - ~ - . Temperature along CD at time = 5 sec. 0 ,+i Ii i
~o.4 i I [
+ t I
I i .~ -0.6

' ,", . ,+'III ~ o.~

i
N
.9
i
t
I
+
+ '
te ~'-~'. ~-~'+-r-'-1'-'-t-" I ~0.~
.... !-,2, i
O.
A,C D B ~=0 . l 0 '
Mesh points ' I ~ - 1.4 " i i I +
0 + I
0 2 3 4 $ ~ o I 2 3 4
(a) temperature distribution of the thermal model
t i m e (see)
time t (see)
e) deflection of tip point in z direction
c) thermal b e n d i n g m o m e n t a b o u t ~ axis
1200

i 0 I
0.0006
, i !4, I
"7'

i! o
.~ -S . ~ 0.o002 ;A
O
/ .L2 -+o /\
~
.o
0
Li ' r
'l[iA
rl,,/i
! III i I
/ I
i "~ -0.0004
~ -15
O

0 1 2 4 5 -20 1
1 $ 4
.-0.0008 v!' -'t,,I
! 2 3 5
time (see) fime(sec) t i m e t (see)
(b) thermal bending moment about y° axis d) deflection o f tip point in y direction f) t w i s t i n g a n g l e at the tip p o i n t

Fig 22. Thermally-inducedstructural dynamic results illustrating t

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 Appl Mech Rev vol 50, no 9, September 1997 Tamma and Namburu: Computational approaches for thermomechanical problems 547

1) Improved and/or effective algorithmic representations
to integrate the combined thermomechanical interdisciplinary
analysis and associated solution strategies.
2) Provide effective approaches to permit congruent ther-
mal and structural models (most often the thermal finite ele-
ment mesh may be dictated by the conditions imposed on the
thermal model and the structural finite element mesh is dic-
tated by altogether different conditions imposed on the struc-
tural model; as such, it is somewhat a common practice to
employ an overly refined, yet, the same mesh for the com-
bined analysis purposes resulting in an overkill of the mesh
employed in one of the models).
3) Alternatively, to provide optimal solution accuracy, the
different thermal and structural models necessitate altogether
different meshes; hence, since the corresponding thermal and
structural nodes are not co-located, effective procedures to
compute and automate the transfer of thermal data to the cor-
responding structural model are a welcome asset.
4) For the non-classical dynamic thermoelastic models,
the semi-discretized forms of representation lead to a system
of hyperbolic second-order ordinary differential equations in
time; as such, the issues of challenge in the analysis of this
class of problems, especially as pertaining to the accurate
Cooling
Cooling
Water i Water

T18
L ~\\\NXXN\\\\\\\\\\",~
55 ~'I T i ,, 4S.0 | T w - 0.0
~\\\\\\\\\\\\\~\\\\~
i_ 60 ~J
K e 1.O I=., 0.34
p~ 1,414 v e 0.3 ~Eleetrical
Heater
L - 70.28p0 m - 1.0E-06

S e 1J~

Fig 23. Description of solidifying bar model and numerical data

i| / a = 12.7E-07
[ t : 0.25 in
v = 0.29
t °aa ~ I 075| I I I I
0 100 200 300 400
3eJl Fig 26. Study of elastic thermal stresses in plate heated along center

B!
I

S
<
j
C ¸

.4'.-

| .......
r .ft 4 8 12
OISTa~q,
CIE y,ln.
Fig 24. Comparative freezing front locations for solidifying bar
I B~OT
0 O0 S~,,mBcr~
|,8' t I...E'W~;u14¢III~. 13 D O
¢,+. O O D Iq~.SGMT

Re.l'
L 11.7 g
0 4 8 12
y,ln.

5 Ih2 I t
L|' ? n o
o[ + . . ,.o
l,!
.!

DZSTaNCE
o + i m
Fig 25. Comparative relative thermal stress in solidifying bar at
various time intervals Fig 27. Comparative thermal stresses 6x, oy, "~xy at x = 0 due to lin-
ear properties

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 548 SPECIALISSUE ON THERMAL STRESSES
prediction of the induced propagating thermal-stress wave
problems are the needs and approaches to effectively track
the propagating fronts, handle (capture) the sharp disconti-
nuity of the solutions with high resolutions when sharp fronts
and reflective boundaries are involved, and stabilizing the
oscillatory solution behavior typically encountered in the
solution of these problems while preserving the underlying
physics. Extensions to nonlinear problems are a challenge.
5) For the various classes of problems related to the clas-
sical models, for the transient cases, the transient classical
semi-discretized thermal model equations lead to a system of
parabolic first-order ordinary differential equations in time
with one initial condition, while the corresponding semi-dis-
cretized dynamic structural model equations lead to a system
of hyperbolic second-order ordinary differential equations in
time with two initial conditions; thus necessitating the use of
altogether totally different algorithmic representations in the
computational analysis of the combined thermomechanical
interactions. As such, improved and/or effective algorithmic
enhancements are of importance for this class of problems~
6) Effective techniques for accurately capturing the propa-
gating thermally-induced stress waves associated with the
classical models are of general interest and of concern, espe-
cially, those which do not disturb the underlying physics.
7) Optimal time step synchronization procedures are of
importance, especially, since the thermal model may need
different time steps to permit an optimal number of steps in a
single analysis while the associated structural model may
need altogether different time steps to permit an optimal
number steps in a single analysis (current practices of em-
I0
a x , ksi 0
0 models appear in literature for the specialized applications
n
x=O
-lO
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
y, in.
0 sical. In contrast to the classical theory, the non-classical
~y, ksi
-I @
I1
Ill
0
-2
x=0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
1 y, in.
Zxy, ksi
- :
x=0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
y, in.
Fig 28. Comparative thermal stresses Ox, Oy,Zxyat x = 0 due to non- are indeed challenging and the development of accurate and
linear properties (thermal conductivity)
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Appl Mech Rev vo150, no 9, September 1997
ploying the smallest time step restriction of the two models
are not optimal in a single combined analysis).
8) Alternatively or concurrently, adaptive time stepping
procedures to provide an optimal number of time steps dur-
ing a single analysis are of continued importance and concern
to the analysts.
9) Need for mathematically rigorous approaches for selec-
tion of the time step estimates as opposed to crude approxi-
mations that tend to be extremely conservative and/or trial
and error based selections.
10) Adaptive automation of mesh refinement procedures.
11) Development of accurate and representative constitu-
tive models for metals, alloys, composites and polymers
(thermal and structural) for the various scales of thermal re-
gimes (the spectrum of scales in heat transfer) encountered in
the various classes of problems in thermomechanical interac-
tions.
12) Developments in computational techniques, proce-
dures, algorithmic/solution strategies, and graphics enhanced
visualization for handling large scale computations of com-
plex geometric configurations on modern high performance
computing platforms, clusters, and parallel computing envi-
ronments.
As evident, whenever feasible, comparisons and bench-
marking with experimental evidence will no doubt provide
further confidence and validation of the issues being ad-
dressed above.
13 CONCLUDING REMARKS
Although the issues involved are not as controversial as the
phenomenon of coM fusion, the notion of a non-classical, hy-
perbolic nature involving finite speeds of thermal distur-
bances dates as far back as Maxwell (1867); however, argu-
ments questioning the validity of employing the classical
involving very short transient durations, sudden high heat
flux situations, and/or for very low temperatures near abso-
lute zero. The dynamical thermoelasticity theory is itself a
fusion of the multidisciplinary areas of heat conduction and
,continuum elasticity and is classified as non-classical or clas-
theories have indeed been motivated by experimental evi-
dence in certain materials and influenced by certain thermal
conditions. Thermal disturbances of a hyperbolic nature in-
volving finite speeds have been derived in the past and de-
scribed employing various approaches, most of which invoke
the general notion of relaxing the heat flux in the classical
Fourier heat conduction model, thereby introducing a non-
Fourier effect. However, contradictions do appear in litera-
ture towards the non-classical propositions, with arguments
questioning the applicability of finite speeds of propagation
in gases to that occurring in solid continua. Arguments have
been made in the literature of the existence of the so-called
second sound effect in solids which exhibit phonon-type ex-
citations, and, non-classical developments have also been
motivated by various experimentally observed evidence. The
non-classical effects in materials and structures encompass-
ing the spectrum of thermal regimes is indeed a subject area
which cannot be simply ignored. The computational issues
efficient numerical approaches does shed light on the be-
 Appl Mech Rev vo150, no 9, September 1997 Tammaand Namburu: Computational approaches for thermomechanical problems
havior o f the response o f materials and structures under such
influences. Nonetheless, in parallel, there is a need to vali-
date the computational progress to-date and the predicted be-
haviors with experimental validations, and therein isolate
precisely the representative materials, their respective ther-
mophysical characteristics and properties, and the spectrum
o f thermal regimes and conditions where these effects are
predominant.
The objective o f the present review was to provide to the
reader, an overview o f non-classical/classical dynamic ther-
moelasticity models and equations governing these situations.
Subsequently, computational methods for the modeling/-
analysis o f various classes o f problems encompassing ther-
mal-structural interactions were reviewed. O f the various
methods and traditional practices, a unified computational
methodology and algorithmic representations for non-classi-
cal/classical thermomechanical problems relevant to thermal
stress wave propagation, thermally-induced structural dy-
namics, and thermal stress problems was described with ap-
plications to various illustrative examples. The numerical
simulations clearly provided an understanding o f the behav-
ior o f the thermal and thermally-induced structural response
characteristics for a variety o f engineering applications. A
needs assessment was conducted to particularly provide to
the reader potential areas o f research directions. It is sin-
cerely hoped that the present synopsis will bring forth future
researchers, scientists and engineers to further enhance and
shed light on the physics and behavior including computa-
tional developments as related to multidisciplinary thermal-
structural interactions.
14 A C K N O W L E D G M E N T
The first author is pleased to acknowledge the contributions
o f several former and current graduate research students. In
particular, the contributions o f SB Railkar, X Chen, and RV
Mohan are duly acknowledged. The second author thanks the
authorities at the Headquarters, US Army Corps o f Engi-
neers, for their support during the preparation o f this article,
and in providing permission to publish it. The support, in
part, o f the muitidisciplinary flow-thermal-structural research
efforts over the years by N A S A - L a n g l e y Research Center,
Hampton VA, NASA-Johnson Space Center, Houston TX,
and Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton OH is greatly
acknowledged. Special thanks are due to several colleagues
and individuals, S Dixon, J Robinson, H Adelman, C Ca-
marda, J Starnes, D Curry, S Williams, J Olson, D Paul, and
VB Venkayya. Acknowledgment is also due to several com-
puter grants from Minnesota Supercomputer Institute, Min-
neapolis MN.
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Kumar K Tamma is Professor of Mechanical Engineering at the University of Minnesota in Minneapo-

lis. His research interests encompass the development and applicability of computational methods for
multi-disciplinary thermal-structural and fluid-thermal-structural problems in the general areas o f com-
putational mechanics,'.finite element methods; computational structural dynamics and contact-impact;
computational thermal sciences encompassing non-classical/classical models," manufacturing applica-
tions in materials processing and prediction of residual stresses in composites manufacturing and soli-
dification problems," and development of transient algorithms and modeling analysis approaches for
applications to large-scale computational problems and high performance computing environments. He
has authored~co-authored over 150 research articles in various journals and proceedings, and book
chapters. Tamma is a member of ASME, AIAA, the lhternational Association for Computational
Mechanics, and the US Associationfor Computational Mechanics.

Raju R Namburu received his BS in Mechanical Engineering and MS in Marine Engineering and Me-
chanical Handling from Andhra University, and his PhD in Mechanical Engineering from the Univer-
sity of Minnesota (]990). He is presently a research engineer at the US Army Engineer Waterways Ex-
periment Station and leads R&D activities in the areas of computational mechanics and high-perfor-
mance computing. He also leads a number of Army projects as a principal investigator including the
DoD High-Performance Computing Sqftware Support Initiative (CHSSI) project on large deformation
computational structural mechanics. His research interests include computational structural mechanics,
blast effects, contact-impact, large deformation problems, coupled thermal-structural methods, and
high-performance computing. He has published over 40 research articles in various journals and
proceedings. Namburu is a member of ASME and US Association for Computational Mechanics.

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