ARCHITECTURE

BY

LUKMAN, A. KALLAMU

SUPERISED BY MR TERHEMEN MOAVEGA

A RESEARCH WORK PRESENTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF INTERNATIONAL

FOUNDATION PROGRAM (IFP), GILGAL EDUCATION FOUNDATION, WUSE ZONE 6
ABUJA

MARCH, 2015
 INTRODUCTION

ARCHITECTURE

Architecture (Latin architectura, after the Greek ἀρχιτέκτων – arkhitekton – from ἀρχι-
"chief" and τέκτων "builder, carpenter, mason") is both the process and the product of
planning, designing, and constructing buildings and other physical structures. Architectural
works, in the material form of buildings, are often perceived as cultural symbols and as
works of art. Historical civilizations are often identified with their surviving architectural
achievements.

Architecture has been difined in many ways whch are:

· A general term to describe buildings and other physical structures.

· The art and science of designing buildings and (some) nonbuilding structures.

· The style of design and method of construction of buildings and other physical
structures.

· The knowledge of art, science & technology and humanity.

· The practice of the architect, where architecture means offering or rendering

professional services in connection with the design and construction of buildings, or built
environments.

· The design activity of the architect, from the macro-level (urban design, landscape
architecture) to the micro-level (construction details and furniture).

Architecture has to do with planning, designing and constructing form, space and
ambience to reflect functional, technical, social, environmental and aesthetic
considerations. It requires the creative manipulation and coordination of materials and
technology, and of light and shadow. Often, conflicting requirements must be resolved.
The practise of Architecture also encompasses the pragmatic aspects of realizing buildings
and structures including scheduling, cost estimation and construction administration.
Documentation produced by architects, typically drawings, plans and technical
specifications, defines the structure and/or behavior of a building or other kind of system
that is to be or has been constructed.

To restrict the meaning of architectural formalism for arts sake is not only
reactionary, it can also be a purposeless quest for perfection or originality which degrades
form into a mere instrumentality.

1.

CONTENTS
· Introduction
(Architecture) 1

CHAPTER ONE

· Ancient Architecture 3

· Countries and their ancient buildings 4

CHAPTER TWO

· Modern Architecture 6

· Early Modernism 6

· Early Modernism in US & Italy 7

CHAPTER THREE

· Architects 8

· Requirement 8

· Reward Title & Prices 9

CHAPTER FOUR

· Architectural Technology 10

· History 10

· Practice of Architectural Technology 11

REFERENCE
 CHAPTER ONE

ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE

In many civilization, such as those of Egypt and mesopotamia, architecture and urbanism
reflected the constant engagement with the divine and the supernatural, and many
ancient cultures restored to monucentality in architecture to reperesent symbolically the
political power of the ruler, the ruling elite, or the state it self.

Even at an early stage mankind strove to build higher and higher. We build on a ridiculous
scale and spend thousands or millions of hours of labour on a single piece of structure,
which may or may not be prone to earthquakes and other ravages of time.

Some of our most impressive structures are actually incredibly old and difficult to
determine the precise dates they were built.

We still don't have a clue how the Great Pyramid of Giza was built, or its precise purpose.
Despite what you may have heard, no mummy has ever been found in the Egyptian
pyramids, they were all found in the Valley of the Kings. So the true meaning of the
pyramids is actually a mystery.

As the is technology used and the matter of how multiple cultures in Africa, the Middle
East and Central America all built pyramids around roughly the same time. The matter has
had archeologists both professional and amateur alike scratching their heads and
theorizing why and how this could have happened.
Why do we aspire to such grand heights? Ego perhaps.

In some cases we might not have much choice but to build upwards if the population
grows very dense and land close to water and food is scarce.

We thrive in some of the most inhospitable places on the Earth, and always we build
upwards.

There is no precise beginning for the history of architecture either. Our earliest buildings
date from either the end of the last ice age or during the ice age, which was only 10 to 15
milleniums ago.

Likewise, there was no precise ending of the ice age. We presume it phased out slowly, but
it could have changed quite quickly in a matter of decades or years. We really don't know.
It was a time of dramatic changes, massive floods and earthquakes.

Such dramatic earthquakes that people in two separate parts of the world (Egypt and
Bolivia) started building earthquake resistant structures that still stand today. Elephantine
Island in Egypt and the Ruined City of Tiahuanacu in Bolivia used identical techniques to
securely fasten the stones in their buildings and make the overall structure more
impervious to time.

Pyramids are the prime example of that pioneering human spirit to build something
indestructible, and the earliest pyramids are not Egyptian, but were instead built in
Mesopotamia and Zimbabwe.

The fact the people of Zimbabwe started building pyramids first is incredibly interesting.
Africa was after all the birth of civilization. It is there we find the oldest surviving structures
and the beginning of our aspiration to build higher.

The Greeks spoke of Mount Olympus and strove to emulate the gods by building on top of
mountains.

The peoples of the Middle East built massive Ziggurat step pyramids and inspired the story
of the Tower of Babel.
We can only assume that the early people who built towers of stone in Zimbabwe had
some kind of religious or even scientific reasoning behind what they were building.

When we talk of such structures we cannot ignore the scientific aspect. These were
obviously cultures with an interest in engineering, science and exploring the boundaries of
what they could build.

Regardless of whether it was a temple, a palace, a coliseum for games, an amphitheatre

for dramatic performances and politics, there was always that underlying engineering and
creative spirit.

All they needed in truth was the hands to carry the stones, the tools to cut the stones, the
brilliance of their engineers and above all else, the will to build it.

ANCIENT AFRICA

Conical Tower, Great Zimbabwe - 11-16th Century BC

Mosque at Djenne - 14th Century AD (not actually ancient, but we included it anyway).

ANCIENT BABYLON AND PERSIA

Achaemenid Tombs, Naksh-Rutsam, Iran - 5th Century BC

Ishtar Gate, Babylon - 605-563 BC

Shibam, Desert City, Yemen - 16th Century BC

Terrace Stairway at Persepolis, Iran - c.518-460 BC

Ziggurat of Ur, Iraq - c.2125 BC.

ANCIENT EGYPT

Great Temple of Amun, Karnak - 1530-323 BC

Step Pyramid of Zoser, Sakkara - 2778 BC

Pyramid of Chephren/Khafre - 4th Dynasty

Temple of Amun, Luxor - c.1408-1300 BC

Temple of Queen Hatshepsut, Der El-Bahari - 1520 BC.

ANCIENT GREECE

Acropolis, Athens - 19th Century BC

Parthenon, Athens - 447-436 BC

Epidaurus Theater, Epidaurus - c.350-330 BC.

ANCIENT INCAN

Machu Picchu, Peru

Ollantaytambo Terraces, Peru.

ANCIENT MAYAN

Chic'hen Itza Temple of a Thousand Warriors, Yucatan

Uxmal Pyramid of the Magician, Yucatan

Tikal Temple #1, Yucatan

The Ruins of Palenque, Yucatan

Calakmul Pyramid #2, Yucatan.

ANCIENT ROME

Amphitheater, Del Djam, Tunisia - Early 3rd Century AD

Arch of Septmius Serverus - AD 203

Basilica of Constantine At Trier, Germany - Late 4th Cen.

Hadrian's Villa, Near Rome, c.AD 118-134

Interior of the Pantheon, Rome - 1734 - Giovanni Paolo Paini

Pont Du Gard, Nimes, France - Late 1st Century BC

Trajan's Column - AD 112 .

CHAPTER TWO

MODERN ARCHITECTURE

Modern architecture or modernist architecture is a term applied to an overarching

movement, with its exact definition and scope varying widely. The term is often applied to
modernist movements at the turn of the 20th century, with efforts to reconcile the
principles underlying architectural design with rapid technological advancement and the
modernization of society. It would take the form of numerous movements, schools of
design, and architectural styles, some in tension with one another, and often equally
defying such classification. The term Modern architecture may be used to differentiate
from classical architecture following vitruvian ideals, while it is also applied to various
contemporary architecture styles such as postmodern, high-tech or even New Classical,
depending on the context. In art history, the revolutionary and neoclassical styles that
evolved around 1800 are also called modern.

The concept of modernism is a central theme in the efforts of 20th century modern
architecture. Gaining global popularity especially after the Second World War, architectural
modernism was adopted by many architects and architectural educators, and continued as
a dominant architectural style for institutional and corporate buildings into the 21st
century. Modernism eventually generated reactions, most notably Post modernism which
sought to preserve pre-modern elements, while ''neo-modernism has emerged as a
reaction to Post-modernism.

Notable architects important to the history and development of the modernist movement
include Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Le Corbusier, Walter Gropius, Erich Mendelsohn, Frank
Lloyd Wrigt, Louis Sullivan, Gerrit Rieveld, Bruno Taut, Arne Jacobsen, Oscar Niemeyer and
Alver Aalto.

EARLY MODERNISM

Around 1900 a number of architects and designers around the world began developing
new solutions to integrate traditional precedents (classism or Gothic, for instance) with
new technological possibilities. The work of Louis Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright in
Chicago, Victor Horta in Brussels, Antoni Gaudi in Barcelona, Otto Wanger and the Vienna
Secession in Austria, and Charles Rennie Mackintosh in Glasgow, among many others, can
be seen as a common struggle between old and new. The work of some of these were a
part of what is broadly categorized as Art Nouveau ("New Art"). Note that the Russian
word for Art Nouveau, "Модерн", and the Spanish word for Art Nouveau, "Modernismo"
are cognates of the English word "Modern" though they carry different meanings. An early
use of the term in print around this time, approaching its later meaning, was in the title of
a book by Otto Wanger. The fallout of the First World War resulted in additional
experimentation and ideas. Following out of the experiments in Art Nouveau and its
related movements around the world, modernism in architecture and design grew out of
stylistic threads originating throughout the world.

In the United States

Wright's Larkin building (1904) in Buffalo,New York, Unity Temple (1905) in Oak
Park,Illinois, and the Robie House (1910) in Chicago, Illinois were some of the first
examples of modern architecture in the United States. Frank Lloyd Wright was a major
influence on European architects, including both Walter Gropius (founder of the Bauhaus)
and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, as well as on the whole of organic architecture. Gropius
claimed that his "bible" for forming the Bauhaus was 100 Frank Lloyd Wright drawings that
the architect shared with Germany over a decade prior to this point, the Wasmuth
 Portfolio. While Wright's career would parallel that of European architects, he refused to
be categorized with them, claiming that they copied his ideas. Many architects in Germany
believed that Wright's life would be wasted in the United States, since the US was not
ready for his newer architecture. During the 1930s, Wright would experiment with his
Usonia ideas for a uniquely U.S. American (i.e. "US-onian") take on modernism. It would be
several decades before European architects would in turn bring their version of modern
architecture to the United States.
In Italy
Futurist architecture began in the early 20th century, characterized by anti-historicism and
long horizontal lines suggesting speed, motion and urgency. Technology and even violence
were among the themes of the Futurists. The movement was founded by the poet
FillipoTommaso Marinetti , who produced its first manifesto, the Manifesto of Futurism in
1909. The movement attracted not only poets, musicians artist (such as Umberto Boccioni,
Giacomo Balla, Fortunato Depero, and Enrico Pranpolini) but also a number of architects.
Among the latter there was Antonio Sant'Elia, who, though he built little (being killed in
WWI), translated the Futurist vision into bold urban form. The unbuilt designs and theories
of Futurists went on to influence both the Constructivists and a branch of Italian Fascist
Architecture.

CHAPTER THREE

ARCHITECTS

An architect is a person who plans, designs, and oversees the construction of buildings. To
practice architecture means to provide services in connection with the design and
construction of buildings and the space within the site surrounding the buildings, that
have as their principal purpose human occupancy or use. Etymologically, architect derives
from the Latin architectus, which derives from the Greek arkhitekton (arkhi-, chief +
tekton, builder), i.e; chief builder.
Professionally, an architect's decisions affect public safety, and thus an architect must
undergo specialized training consisting of advanced education and a practicum (or
internship) for practical experience to earn a licence to practice architecture. Practical,
technical, and academic requirements for becoming an architect vary by jurisdiction (see
below).
The terms architect and architecture are also used in the disciplines of land-scape
architecture, naval architecture and often information technology (for example a network
architect or software architect). In most jurisdictions, the professional and commercial
uses of the terms "architect" and "landscape architect" are legally protected.
 REQUIREMENT

Although there are variations from place to place, most of the world's architects are
required to register with the appropriate jurisdiction. To do so, architects are typically
required to meet three common requirements: education, experience, and examination.
Educational requirements generally consist of a university degree in architecture. The
experience requirement for degree candidates is usually satisfied by a practicum or
internship (usually two to three years, depending on jurisdiction). Finally, a Registration
Examination or a series of exams is required prior to licensure.
Professionals engaged in the design and supervision of construction projects prior to the
late 19th century were not necessarily trained in a separate architecture program in an
academic setting. Instead, they often trained under established architects. Prior to modern
times, there was no distinction between architects, engineers and often artists, and the
title used varied depending on geographical location. They often carried the title of master
builder, or surveyor, after serving a number of years as an apprentice (such as Sir
Christopher Wren). The formal study of architecture in academic institutions played a
pivotal role in the development of the profession as a whole, serving as a focal point for
advances in architectural technology and theory.
CHAPTER FOUR
 ARCHITECTURAL TECHNOLOGY

Architectural technology, or building technology, is the application of technology to the

design of buildings. It is a component of architecture and building engineering and is
sometimes viewed as a distinct discipline or sub-category. New materials and technologies
generated new design challenges and construction methods throughout the evolution of
building, especially since the advent of industrialisation in the 19th century. Architectural
technology is related to the different elements of a building and their interactions, and is
closely aligned with advances in building science.

Architectural technology can be summarised as the "technical design and expertise

used in the application and integration of construction technologies in the building design
process." or as "The ability to analyse, synthesise and evaluate building design factors in
order to produce efficient and effective technical design solutions which satisfy
performance, production and procurement criteria.

HISTORY-:

Many specialists and professionals, consider Vitruvius's theories as the foundations of

architectural technology. Vitruvius's attempt to classify building types, styles, materials
and construction methods influenced the creation of many disciplines such as civil
engineering, structural engineering, architectural technology and other practices which
are now and since the 19th century, forming a conceptual framework for architectural
design.

In his published research, Stephen Emmitt explains that in our modern society, "The
relationship between building technology and design can be traced back to the
Enlightenment and the industrial revolution, period when advances in technology and
science were seen as the way forward, and times of solid faith in progress. As technologies
multiply in number and complexity the building profession started to fragment. Increases
in building activities brought about social and cultural changes".