21.

1 a SAFE WORKING PRACTICE USING TOOLS, EQUIPMENT AND CONSUMABLE MATERIALS IN

THE MAINTENANCE AND TESTING OF PETROL OR DIESEL ENGIES AND FUEL SYSTEMS

Introduction

There are hazards associated with the maintenance and testing of vehicle engines and fuel systems.
The engines include accidents and health issues. tools and equipments should be used correctly to
avoid accidents and certain consumables used to avoid contracting diseases, due contact with the
skin, ingestion or inhalation

TOOLS OR EQUIPMENTS

When working under a jacked vehicle ensure th e car is properly jacked

-when jacking a vehicle using jacking points on the vehicle. when only one axle is jacked choke the
wheels on the other axle with chocking blocks

-place axle stands at appropriate points. Making sure the vehicle is horizontal to the floor

-follow manufactures repair procedures

21.1 b SAFE WORKING PRACTICES USING TOOLS, EQUIPMENT AND CONSUMABLE MATERIALS IN
THE MAINTENANCE AND TESTING OF THE VEHICLE SPARK IGNITION AND ELECTRICAL OR
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION

There are various hazards associated with the service and repair of the vehicle ignition electrical and
electronic systems, accidents encountered when working on the listed systems especially
computerized may be costly. The technician must therefore exercise all the necessary safety
precautions.

SAFE USE OF TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT

Jacking the vehicle with any type of jack must be done with caution. Jack all right points and use axle
stands before going underneath to work. When only one axle wheels is jacked, choke the other axle
wheels to avoid the vehicle rolling

Use the right tool for the right job, substituting may result in accidents or poor quality work

Some electrical system repair and testing equipment is expensive, such equipment like oscilloscope,
high rate discharge testers battery chargers, diagnostic computers and many others are expensive
and therefore must be correctly used.

Repair procedure described in workshop manuals must be followed

USE STORAGE AND DISPOSAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS

The following is a list of hazardous materials that need to be handled with care:
-battery acids/electrolyte

-fuels such as fuels and diesel

-used lubricants

-sealants

Asbesros

-refrigerants

-fluorolastomec etc

These substances cause diseases and environmental pollution, diseases are contracted due to skin
contact, ingestion or inhalation

The above listed materials must be stored In designated area and containers

If hazardous materials are to be disposed knowledge about the disposal methods, disposal safety
precautions and disposal laws must be applied. Specialists if available must be engaged

RUNNING ENGINES AND TRANSMISSIONS

When running engines in the workshop exhaust fumes must be extracted or the workshop is
properly ventilated. Inhaling these fumes results in contracting a respiratory diseases such as kidney
failure and suffocation

-when working around running there is danger from moving parts such as fans belts and pulley so
avoid contact with them

-when an engine is running it becomes hot enough to cause injury or fire accidents, so avoid making
contacts with hot parts or spill fuels/inflammables on hot parts such as exhaust system parts

-liquids gases in motor vehicle systems may be hot or under pressure, when released in your
direction may result in scalding and burning

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTROINIC SYESTENM

When electrical work does not involve checking system current, voltage and resistance, the battery
negative terminal must be disconnected to avoid short circuiting it and receiving electrical shock or
shorting to earth systems.

-when connecting electrical circuits make sure the polarity is correct and not reversed to avoid
burning components in some electrical system when ignition is turned on.

When carrying out welding and soldering work on a motor vehicle it is imperative that heat sink be
used in working on be removed and battery earth cable disconnected to avoid damage due to
overloading and heat
Tools

Whatever tool that is used to carry our electrical work has safety precautions to be observed.
Choose the right tools for the job at hand

MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

All measuring instruments must be kept in a cool dry places and in their boxes

All measurements involving the use of precision measuring instruments must be done at room
temperature, vibration free environment and used on clear components or set to right scale such
tools as multimeters

CONSUMABLE MATERIALS

consumable materials are materials that are used once and cannot be kept for reuse . examples of
such materials used in the workshop are:

-engine cleaner

-car burettor cleaner

-quick start

-gaskets

-water papers

Production papers

21.6 a USING VEHICLE MANUFACTURERS SPECIFICATIONS IN THE MAINTENANCE AND TESTING OF

PETROL/ DIESEL ENGINES AND FUEL SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION

Motor vehicle technicians ought to use specifications provided in the form of workshop manuals.
This will help them produce quality work that will keep vehicle systems in good running order. Many
problems will be encountered if specifications are not properly used or not

Some vehicle manufacturers provide technical information in the forms of cd roms, video tapes,
microfilm, microfiche, microprocessors, data sheets, data charts, diagrams and so on. These are
used to collect information used in the repair and servicing of motor vehicles

APPLICATIONS

Some vehicle components have some constructional features and properties vehicle technicians out
to know. Some vehicle component is fitted the other the other way round immediate malfunction
will be encountered. Where clearances are very important, demmesions of standard, oversize or
undersize parts are given
Repair procedures show the dismantling, clearing and inspection of components and condition
description

Assemble and installation details are given the steps to be followed and safety issues are highlighted

PETROL SYSTEMS

Carbureted systems have two or more adjustable screws

Idle speed is adjusted by means of an throttle stop screw to increase or reduce air supply

Mixture strength is adjusted by means of an idle mixture screw on the caburettor throttle body

Fuel pump delivery pressure Is measured with a vacuum gange

Sensor operation is measured by a multimeter set to measure resistance through it

DIESEL SYSTEMS

Smoke emission is measured by a gas analyser

Manifold pressure is measured by a vacuum gange is used to measure fuel pump delivery pressure

Air-lock is corrected by operating a priming pump lever and opening the bleed nipple that may be on
the injection pump and or fuel filter bracket.

25.7 a A REPORT IDENTIFYING CALCULATIONS ASSOCIATED WITH PETROL /DIESEL ENGINES AND
FUEL SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION

These are calculations associated with engines and fuel systems the motor vehicle technician ought
to be able to calculate when servicing and repairing engines and fuel systems such as these shown

1. swept volume or cylinder volume

Vs= l

Diameter of a cylinder=80mm

Stroke which is l =60mm

Vs=l =22/7*80/2*80/2*6/1 =302 cm3

Engine capacity =[size of an engine]vs*number of cylinders the engine has or

ln = 22/7*80/2*60/1*4/1

=1206.8 cm3
 = or 1207 litre

3. Clearance volume = VS – volume above the piston when it is at TDC.

EXAMPLE if the total volume of a cylinder when it is a BDC is 400cm3

The VC = 400-302=98cm3

4. compression ratio is the ratio of the volume of a cylinder with the piston at BDC compared to the
volume above the piston at when it is at TDC.

CR is therefore equal to VS+VC/VC

=302+98/98

=4:1

5. Tourque is the average output tourque [turning power] from the crankshaft when the engine is
running

Tourque =force*radius/60s*rotational speed

21.7 b. INTRODUCTION

A certain quantity of electrons are set in motion by a potential difference is known as a cuhomb. It
represents electrons or charge. For current to flow there must be a potential difference.

Current is universely proportional to resistance also s proportional to the potential difference

applied across its ends. Thi is Ohm’s law

V=IR

V-voltage

I-current

R-resistance

V=IR

V/I R

V/R=

Power =vi or p=v/r

Resistors in series
Diagram

V = IR I =V/R 12/[2+4] = 2amperes

R2=12V-4V=8V

RI = V/R=12/2=6Amperes

Diagram

Series parallel or compound circuit

I/R=1/R+1/R2

R=R1*R2/R1+R2= 16/10 = 1.6Ω

25.7 b.

INTRODUCTION

When carrying service and repairs on spark ignition electrical and electronic systems the technician
may have to do some calculatons for example expressing dwell angle which ought to be determined
and adjusted at the contact breakers and air gaps in electronic and programmed ignition systems

A four cylinder distribuition camshaft has four cam lobes that is four periods of 90 degrees totaling
360 degrees. The ponts will be open and closed for a proportion of each period. The closed period is
the DWELL ANGLE e.g 54

This dwell angle cam be expressed as a percentage 54/90*100/1 =60%

To convert back to degrees = 60/100*90/1 = 54

A three obe cam has 3 periods of 120degrees = 360/3

A six cam distribution shaft has 360/6 = 60%

A one lobe cam for a single cylinder engine has a dwell angle setting desired by the manufacturer e.g
50%

=50/100*360/1=180 egrees

STROBOSCOPIC TIMING LIGHT METER SCALE READINGS

The dwell angle of 180 degrees on a 360 degrees [1cylinder] meter scale reading

On a 90 degree it will rad as 45 degree four cylinder engine

On a 6cylider engine 60 degree the meter scale reading is 3 degre

Diagram
INTRODUCTION[no heading 111]

A motor vehicle is a two, three, four or more wheeled machine that is powered by a motor called
engine. These vehicles are used to transport people and or goods from one place to another. All
engine vehicles are made up of a claster of systems. Each system is there to perform its end
functions in order to make the vehicle user friendly and to enable the vehicle to do its work
effectively. A system is a group of motor vehicle components assembled to work together to
perform one or more functions in a vehicle.

The city and guilds 395 motor vehicle engineering program has motor vehicle systems divided into 2
segments which are as following

Engine systems and chassis

Chassis systems

Engine systems include the engine proper the fuel system the induction system, the ignition system,
the exhaust system, the cooling system, the lubricaton system, the starting system and charging
system. These systems work with altogether to enable the engine to develop the power to propel
the vehicle along the road. Engine systems are vehicle systems which are either combined,
interrelated or are interactive with the engine. This means f anyone of them has developed a
problem the engine is somehow affected in terms of stating, power or perform.

The other category motor vehicle system is the chassis systems. This group has no relationship with
the engine. This means if any of the systems in this group malfunctions the engine is not affected
this group comprise

The braking system

The steering system

Suspension system

The clutch system

The gearbox system

The propeller shaft system

The final drive system

Lighting system

Safely system just to mention a few

This portfolio evidence of practical competences is made of reports on engine systems and chassis
systems.

MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE

INTRODUCTION

The main purpose of the clutch system, the gearbox, the propeller shaft system, the final drive
system and the power from the engine to the driven road wheels.

The torque transmitted by a plate type clutch depends on four factors shown in the formula below
which is used to find the torque carrying capacity

T=SPUR

Where;

T=torque transmitted in Newton meter [NM]

S=number of friction contact

P=total spring thrust N [Newton]

U=coefficient of friction

T=mean radius in meters [M]

Another formula is as follows

T= 0.5UW [R1+R2] n

Where;

T=torque in; [NM or NMM]

W= total spring force [N]

NB: w may be expressed as [FA]

R1 = external radius of the friction disc

R2= internal radius of the friction disc

R1+R2/2 = mean radius of the friction plats

U[MU] = coefficient of friction

N= number of pairs of frictional faces [2for a single plate clutch]

Diagram

Gear ration or movement ratio or velocity ratio governed b;

Ratio = number of teeth on the driven wheel/number of teeth on driving wheel=driven/driver

If a driven gear has 80 teeth and is driven by a gear with 2 teeth

The ratio = druven/driver= 80/20= 4:1

If two gears are involved as the case with all gears I the gearbox direct [top gear]

Therefore the calculation involves the constant mesh pinions and the gear selected mesh driven

Example; constant mesh pinion driver 10 teeth gear selected driven gear 40 teeth

Overall gear ratio = 30/1*40/20=6:1

The reverse gear ratio which involve the gear sets; i.e. constant mesh pinion/constant mesh
pinion*driven/drive*driver/driver

25.7 a. MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE

INTRODUCTION

The power developed by an internal combustion engine depend the amount of air by weight it can
draw into its cylinders. it also depends on the degree to which the air or air fuel is compressed, the
efficiency of the ignition source and its speed

compression ratio = total volume of the cylinder vs added to the volume of the cylinder after
compression vc the divided the sum by vc

cr=vs+vc/vc or 1+vs/vc

indicated power=pm

average indicated pressure w

swept volume

pm=w1/vs

mechanical efficiency

pm-mechanical power loss

pmn-average mechanical power loss pressure

vs-swept volume

u-number of cylinders

n-engine speed in rpm

u-number of strokes
MOTOR VEHICLE ENGINEERING

tyre pressure sensors: purpose is to reduce the highway fertility rate. these determine axle and
wheel alignment, monitor collision alarm, check tyre pressure and tyre balance conditions, measure
and detect load distribution in the vehicle and adjust the braking sytems

the load carrying capability is critically linked to the inflation pressure. if not properly inflated, the
useful service like a tyre and vehicle handling is compromised

ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES OF INCORRECT TYRE PRESSURE

-INCREASE TYRE WEAR

-reduced tyre service life

-reduced fuel consumption

-reduced road calls

-eliminate added systems maintenance

tyre pressure monitor reduce

-replacement procurement costs

-system maintenance costs

-tyre installation costs and associated downtime

-costs from improved safety

-toatal direct costs avoided with properly maintained tyres

SEAT SENSORS

Seat sensor switches are connected to the drivers seat and passengers seat of a vehicle generate
signals indicating when seats are occupied

the passanger seat sensor switch generates an adult presents signal a child or small adult signal or
an infant or small child present signal depending on the size of the occupant

air bags

the airbag propellant is electrified, the air bag is aimed at an upper location and the shoulder belt
anchor is moved to an upper position

chilren do have smaller airbags. the air bag when electrified it moves to the lower position and the
shoulder belt anchor moved to the lower position. the passenger side window and doers are locked

VEHICLE ELECTRONICS
vehicle system sensors are robust enough in design and provide consistently reliable information
needed to control vehicle systems under all operating conditions

classification of sensors

-temperature sensors

-pressure sensors

-position sensors

VEHICLE OCCUPANT SENSOR

a roof mounted passenger position sensor array of capacitive coupling passenger position sensor to
determine the:

-position of a passenger

-motion of apassenger

by analysis of distances of a passenger to various sensors of the array and analysis of the changes of
distances with time

TEMPERATURE SENSORS

measure temperatures in motor vehicles such as

engine coolant temperature

air temperature

oil temperature

exhaust gas temperature

wheel speed sensor or vehicle speed sensor is a type of revolution couter. it is a sender device used
for reading the speed of a vehicles road wheel rotation

consists of toothed ring {reluctor} and pick up

-it may be an analougue sensor or

-digital and both scan toothed wheel on the vehicle drive shaft or gear box

vss sensors mulfunction often due to:

-vibration

-shock
-electro magnetic compatability

digital vss uses the principle of magnetic field modulation and are suitable for ferromagnetic target
wheels

vehicle tyre pressure sensors

-these determine axle and wheel alignment

-monitor collision alarm

-check tyre

-they check tyrebalance conditions

-measure and detect load distributions in the vehicle

-adjust automatic braking systems

21.1 a SAFE WORKING PRATICE USING TOOLS EQUIPMENT AND CONSUMABLE MATERIALS IN THE
MAINTENANCE AND TESTING OF PETROL OR DIESEL ENGINES AND FUEL SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION

there are hazards associated with the maintenance and testing of vehicle engines and fuel systems.
the hazards include accidents and health issues. tools and equipment must be used correctly to
avoid accidents and certain consumables used to avoid contracting diseases, due to contact with
skin, ingestion and inhalation

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT

-when jacking a vehicle use jacking points in the vehicle. when only one axle is jacked choke the
wheels on the other axle with choking blocks

-place axle stands at appropriate points making sure the vehicle is horizontal to the floor

-foolow manufacturers repair procedures

MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE ASSOCIATED WITH THE BRAKING SYSTEM

DYNAMIC FRICTION

once the vehicle has started to move, it it will be found that the magnitude of the applied engine
force can be reduced slightly to keep the vehicle moving at steed speed along the road. this is
because dynamic friction {friction motion}
OTHER SOURCE

on a front engined rear- wheel drive car. the final drive unit does three jobs

1. it gears down the engine speed so that it can it can turn the road wheel at a suitable speed into
gear

2. it takes the drive from the propeller shaft trough a right angle and transmits it to the rear wheel

3. it drives the wheels at different speed when cornering to prevent inside wheels from skiding

4. both the gearing down and turning of the drive at night angles are achieved by the crown wheel
and pinion

5. the pinion is directly driven by the pro shaft on a small car it may have ten teeth wherease the
crown wheel has perhaps 40 teeth giving a gear ratio of 4:1. the crown wheel teeth on the side of
the wheel are believed to mesh with the pinion teeth so that the drive is transmitted through 90
degrees
6. on the rear axles the pinion is below the couter line of the crown wheel. this is known as the
hypoid drive and is designed to keep more teeth in mesh, making the final drive stronger

7. it also reduces noise and allow the shallower propeller tunel to be used inside the car. on car with
transverses engines, the drive does not have to be turned to 90 degrees and the crown wheel and
pinion are replaced by two spur gears. which mesh in the same way the constant mesh gears

FINAL DRIVE

functions of the final drive

- to provide a right angled drive from the propeller shaft to the driven wheels longitudinally
arranged

- to gear down the speed of the shaft to suit the road wheels

- on transversely mounted engines it provide a parallel drive from gear box layshaft to the drive
wheels. it is where final increase in toque and decrease in engine speed take place.

- it drives the wheels of the dipper speed when concerning to prevent wheel scrubbing

TYPES OF FINAL REDUCTION GEAR

BEVEL DRIVE-bevel gears are conical with teeth that tapes in both thickners and height

the number of teeth on the crown wheel divided the number of teeth on the pinion gives the axle
ration

a high axle ratio has a low numerical value eg 4:10:1 higher than 4.56:1

bevel drive is:

-lighter

-more efficient

-less expensive

-quiter in operation

in every motor vehicle arrangement straight level gears were used but were a sit noise in operation.
the straight bevel were super seeded two types of bevel gear ie spiral bevel and hypoid bevel

SPIRAL BEVEL GEARS

These have a lengthwise auvature of their teeth which makes an angle with the axis of the crown
wheel

the axis of the bevel pinion is aligned with the axis of the crown wheel
advantages

1 one pair of the teeth begins to engage before another pair disengage

2 the pressure on the gear teeth surface is reduced because the transmitted load is shared by more
than one pair of insimatious

3 the pressure on the gear teeth surface is also reduced by the curved teeth having carges contact
areas

HYPOID BEVEL GEARS

these differs from the spiral bevel gears by having the axis of the bevel pinion off set from the axis of
the crown wheel

advantages

1 allow a lowering of the propeller shaft and this contribute to aflat vehicle floor and reduced overall
body height

2 stronger, smoother and quiter gears than the spiral bevel gears

the advantage are as an result of the following features

1 the hypoid gear combines the rolling and sliding tooth action taking the form of a screw thread

2 the pressure on the tooth surface is further reduced by virue of the creater spiral of the pinion
teeth

3 more durable that spiral bevel gears

-hypoid requires an extreme pressure lubricant on overcome the sliding action that occurs under
pressure between their teeth

-service replacement crown wheel and pinions are supplied in matched sets

CROWN Wheel

is bolted to the flanged different cage which inturn is supported by two tappered roller bearings
mounted face to face{small end of the roller pointing outwards}

pinion-is made integral to the shaft. is supportedby an tappered bearing mounted face to face {small
end of the rollers pointing inwards}

CROWN WHEEL AND PINION

-thes are mathed pair of bevel gear with the necessary gear reduction, transmit the drive 90 degrees
from pro=shaft to the rear wheels

-the tooth contact position, as well as clearance for backlash is of crucial importance
to determine correct tooth contact. coat the teeth with prussion blue or white load compound

-the gears are revowed in both directions of contact parten becomes visible

-the drive side is side that contact when the pinion is driving the crown wheel

-the coost partern is when the crown wheel is driving the pinion

-backlash is adjusted by moving the crown wheel into meshwith the pinion

-spacer rings or slims are incooperated to adjust backlash

-tooth contact

-correct meshing between crown wheel on pinion teeth is when the tooth contact at the centre of
the drive side or coast

-to correct low contact move pinion away from crown wheel {subtract slim}

-to correct toe contact move crown wheel away from pinion

-to correct heel contact move crown wheel towards pinion

-toe is small part of the gear tooth that force inwards

-heel is longer part of the gear toot that forces outwards

DIFFERENT GEARS

Invention of the differential gear is attributed to the frenchman onesphone peccquer in 1829.
-when a vehicle is cornering the inner wheel moves through a shorter distance than the outer wheel

This means that the inner wheel must show down and the outer wheel must speed up

-During this period each driving must transmit equal toque

-To achive this a differential gear is incorporated within the final drive assembly

-Without a differ= gear assembly the wheels will srub when cornering

-This cause rapid wearing of the tyre for difficult control of the vehicle

-Driven wheels are coupledto the final drive sepearte driving shaft of a differential gear assembly,
makes possible the differing speed of the driven wheel and also equalise the axle toque distributed
between them

CONSTRUCTION OF BEVEL GEAR DIFFERENTIALS

Most common used type is known as the straight tooth bevel and comprises of the following parts

1. Different cage

is the one with the crown bolted and is produced from an iron casting. it is supported in differentials
bearings

-THE BEVEL PINIONS ARE PRODUCED FROM STEEL

-THEY ARE FREE TO ROTATE ON THE SHAFT LOCATED ON THE DIFFERENTIAL cage

the thrust faces of the planet pinion part spherical form

SUN PINION GEARS

These are bevel toothed and have internally spunned hub which locates in recess in slide ball on
differ cage

- their thrust face are flat and have larger diameter than the planet pinion. the inner spunned ends
of the driving shaft engage with the hub of the sum pinion

OPERATION

-The propeller turns the final drive pinion which in turn, turns the crown wheel

-the crown wheel is bottled is bolted to the differ= caged and therefore the differ=cage turns
together with the crown wheel

when the different cage turns the spider pm turns with its planet

-as the different = pinion are mounted on the spider pm they are forced to revolve with the cage
- being meshed with the sungeoures the planet pinion will pull the sungeon along with them

-when the vehicle is moving in straight line the crown wheel is spining the cage

-the planet pinions- sungeons are moving around with the cage with no movement between the
teeth of the planet pinion and sungeons

-the interior movement is linked a solid unit

- when concerning the cage continues to revolve pulling the planet pinions around on the shaft. the
outer sum gears moves faster than inner sungeons

-the revowing planet pinions not only pulls on both axles sides but now begins to rotate on their
shaft as well as rotating around sum gears

this allow the planet pinion to pull on both gears while at the same time cmopesating for different
speed they are rotating around their shaft

-if one wheel begins to ship the drive shaft on firm ground with stop

-the cage will continue to spin the planner pinions but they will have revolve around the stopped
sun gear and import the toque to the spining axle

AXILE SHAFT AND REAR HUB ASSEMBLY

REAR AXLE CONSTRUCTION

TYPES OF REARS

1. dead axile- it is a beam of light weight construction to mount the trailing wheel of a front wheel
driven vehicle. or most commonly on heavy vehicle trailers

it does not transmit any toque

2. live axles- peforms to basic functions

a. it provide bearing mounting for the rear wheel

b. it support the rotating component of the final drive assembly

functions of rear axle casting

1. they provde a single rigidity means of mounting

a. road wheel

b. final drive assembly

c. break assembly

preload- lightening extreme hard and become stiff then unsacu it a 1/4 turn with normal toque

2. it carries the rear load of the vehicle

3. is part of the suspension systen as it contain forces from the transference of road shock

4. absorb the driving force of wheels and transmit it to the frame, spring and control rod etc

5. it provides anchorage for spring

REQUIREMENT OF AXLE CASTING

-It must be nigidly to avoid any destruction of final drive assebly under the most differ operation
conditions

2. must be rigid enough to maintain half shaft into alignment with the final drive unit

TYPES OF AXLE

two main type are in common use

BANJCI TYPE

is of one piece construction with an open center section which accommodate a flange for the final
drive housing

-Rear part has a doomed cover which is permanently welded to the casing

-Resist vertical bending load but is affected by atractive and braking forces that act in the horizontal
plane

SPLIT TYPE/TRUMPET TYPE

is a tree piece unit with a center scerion two trumpet shaped axile housing which are bolted to the
centre section on both ends. it provide a rigid support to the final drive gears

AXLE SHAFT

-are made from steel and are placed inside the axle casing

-their inner ends are spunned and supported by the differential assembly

-the half shaft spunesmeshes with the internal spunned different = sum gear

-the outer and protude out of the housing and from a base upon which the wheels, hubs etc are
attached

REAR HUB ARRANGEMENTS

are classified according to the type of bearing mounting used to suppport the hub

-the nature of load upon the half shaft and hub bearings, varies according to the arrangement used

there are three types

-semi floating

-3/4 floating

-fully floating
SEMI FLOATING HUB {PICK UP TRUCK}

It is commonly used on light vehicles

-the hub is intergral with the outer end of half shaft

-is supported by single bearing betcom shaft is outer and of axle end of the half is supported on
differential cage bearing

LOAD ACTING ON A SEMI FLOATING HUB

HALF SHAFT

-Torsinal due to rotating moments

-bending loads due to side thrust imposed on the wheel during cornering

-shear loads as a result of traction and breaking forces

3/4 FLOATING

is no longer widely used today

-has a flange at its outer end which is bolted to the similarflange on the hub bearing housing

-is supported by a single bearing between a hub and casing

-this arrangement relieves the half shuff of bending loads due to weight of vehicle, traction and
braking forces

LOAD ACTING ON 3/4 FLOATING HUB HALF SHAFT

-Torsconal load due to rotating movements subjected to slide bending due to cornering

-its main advantage over the same float is that the wheel could not become detarched as a result of
fracture of the spunned end of the half shaft

- a ball bearing has its outer ringdamped with the hub bearing housing and its inner ring retained on
the end of axle tube by locking nut

fully floating

-widely used on commercial vehicles

-theouter end of end halfshaft is provided with a flange which is joined with a similar flange on the
hub bearing housing

-it is supported on two bearing widely spaced between hub and axle tube
-in this arrangement the half shaft are wholly relieved of bending loads due to vehicle weight,
tractional braccking forces and cornering thrust forces

-its main advantage is that:

a broken half shft can be with drawn without moving wheels or jacking up the vehicle

-also the vehicle remain towable in the circumstances

roller bearings are used on this arrangements because they are able to carry greater loads than ball
bearings used on semi quater floating hub

hub's oil seal

-are generally of radial up type

-the hipped side points or fuel outwards bears against the axile tube
SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

the suspension system sepsrstes axles from the vehicle chases or body as well as occupants and
goods

-when the wheel rise and falls over the road irreguates, the spring acts as energy storage devices
and thereby reduces greatly the impact shock transmission to the vehicle structure

TYPES OF SUSPENSION

THEY ARE BASICALLY TWO TYPES OF suspension systems;

a. depandant or beam axle front and rear suspension systems

b. independant front and rear suspension systems

BEAM AXLE FRONT SUSPENSION

commonly used on almost all commercial vehicle. it consists of beam type axle used to support stub
axle pivots fixed as at distant apart front suspension system allows front wheel to move up and
down and absorbs road shocks, but the system allow also the front wheel to swing from side to side
so the car can be steere, coil, leap and up towards bar spring are used in seven basic arrangements

1. coil spring between lower control arm and a seat in the car frame

2. coil spring between theu pper control arm for a seat in the car body

3. coil spring between a i beam axle for a seat in the frame

4. coil between a seat on a strut road which is attached to the lower control arm and a seat in the
car body. there is no upper control arm. this is called mac-pherson strut suspension

5. torsion bar connected longitudinally between the lower control arm for the car frame

6. torsion bar connected transversely between the lower control arm for the car body

7. leaf springs between an i beam axle for a seat in the frame

COIL SPRING ON LOWER CONTROL ARM INDEPENDANT FRONT SUSPENSION

-The coil springs are between the lower arm and the car frame

- the control arm are pivoted on the car frame so that they can swing up and down. on their outer
ends, the control arms are connected by ball joints to seeing jnuckles which support thefront
wheels. the wheel is attached to thespindle on one steering knuckles
- the ball joints supports the weight of the car. they allow the wheels to move up and down and
swing from side to side

the diagram below shows what happens when a front wheel hits a bump in the road. the wheel
moves up as shown by dashed lines
as the wheel moves up the two control arm pivot towards, this action compresS THE RING BETWEEN
THE Lower control arm and the car frame

-when a front wheel meet a hole in the road the wheel will move down. the control arms pivot
downwards. this allows the spring to expand in both expansion a compression

notice how far the spring can allow the wheel to travel, but how little movements is carried to the
frame. the passengers have a relatively smooth ride

COIL SPRING ON UPPER

this arrangement is shown in the diagram. the coil spring is between the upper control and arm for a
spring tower which is part of the car body. the action is the same as for the coil, spring front-
suspension system which has the spring sitting on the lower control arm. when the lower control
arm has one pointed of attachment to the car body frame, a strut rod is used. it prevent the outer
end of lower control arm from swinging foward or backward. the strut rod also provides a means of
adjusting caster in this tyre os suspension

MACPHERSON STRUT FRONT SUSPENSION

-in this suspension system no upper control arms are used. the upper end of the assembly resting a
spring tower in the front end of the body. the strut assembly includes a coil spring and a shock
absorbs. the lower control arm are protected on 2 points to the car frame

-the outer end of the control arms are attached to the bottom of the strut

-the strut carries the wheel spindle as the wheel meets hole or bumps in the rod the springs expands
and compress to allow the wheels to move up and down.

the diagram below shows MACPHERSON STRUT rear suspension systems

torsion barfront suspension

in one torsion bar, front suspension system , too long steel bar serves as the springs. the rear ends
of the bars are attached to the lower control arms pivot up and down twisting the lower control
arms. in operation the lower control arms pivot up and down twisting the torsion bar. the effect is
very similar to the action of coil and leaf springs

-the car weight places on initial twisting on torsion bars, just as it places an initial compression on
coil springs of cars with coil spring suspension

-the turning the height adjustment bolt cause the hub and anchor assembly to turn. they rotates the
rear end of the torsion bar so that the front end of the car is raised or lowered

torsion bars that are mounted from front rear end or the long way of the car are called longitudinal
torsion bars. some torsion bars on smaller car are mounted sideways in either position. they twist
moreless as the wheels meets bump or holes

LEAF SPRING FRONT SUSPENSION

-are used at rear for some passenger cars

-the truck often have a leaf springs at the front

-the leaf spring is made up of several long plates on leaves {diagram shows} how a leaf spring is
attached front and back to the car frame

-because the leaf spring is made up of a series, thin leaves one ontop of another, it does not break
when bent

-the plate or leaves are held together at the conter by a centre bolt which passes through holes in
the leaves

-clips are placed at intervals along the spring

-they keep the leaves in alignment and prevents separation during rebound

-main leafspring have special insets between the leaves to clip over one another more usually when
the {beney}

-some vehicles use single leaf spring at the rear

-they aretappered from the centre of the ends so that they wook in this same way as mult leaf
spring

REAR SUSPENSION

the wheels must be allowed to move up and down but must be prevented from moving sideway or
back forth
new notes

25.1 b. SAFE WORKING PRACTICES USING TOOLS EQUIPMENT AND CONSUMABLE MATERIAL IN THE
MAINTENANCE AND TESTING OF VEHICLE SPARK IGNITION AND ELECTRICAL OR ELECTRONIC
SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION

Always switch off the ignition before doing the following:

i connecting motor testing instruments

ii connecting ignition system components

iii connecting the battery or electrical and electronic wires and components

when carrying out tests avoid the instruments making contact with hot rotating or parts that may
creat short circuits

When dealing with these systems while the engine is running avoid working in enclosed areas where
thereis no exhaust extracting equipment or adequate ventilation exhaust gases from engines
contain carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen, carbon and hydrocarbons all of which are very
poisonous when inhaled

MULTIMETERS

Multimeters are used to check current resistance and voltage in electrical ignition and electronic
systems. when using this intrunment, avoid using wrong scales eg using the voltage scale instead of
current scale

TIMING LIGHT

Ignition timing light can easily be rendered inoperative if allowed to make contact with hot and or
rotating engine components such as belts and pulleys. these will cut timing light leads

Before using this light ensure the zero point adjustment is checked. the pointer must stand at zero
then test terminals are connected to the vehicle. if the zero pointer is not at zero, use a small screw
slightly to the left or to the right until the needle comes to rest exactly on zero.

Ignition timing must always be done on an engine at its optimum opearating temperature

connecting the timing is as follows.

i connect the red chip to battery positive terminal

ii connect the black chip to battery negative terminal

iii connect the green chip to ignition coil negative terminal

iv connect the pick up sensor to the ht lead for cylinder number one

NB: All these connections are done with the engine off

TACHOMETER

When an engine is not fitted with a revolution counter a tachometer is connected to the ignition coil
negative terminal in order to read engine revolution per minute. this enables checks and
adjustments to be done on engine ignition and fuel systems. a tachometer can be built in the engine
ignition timing light

The tachometer should be connected and disconected with the engine off to avoid damage to the
machine

22.2 b. OPERATIONAL PRINCIPLES, MAIN CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES AND OPERATION OF MAIN

COMPONENTS FOR VEHICLE, CLUTCH, GEARBOX, PROPELLER AND DRIVE SHAFTS, FINAL OR
DIFFERENTIAL UNITS

INTRODUCTION

Power transmission systems work together to relay engine power to the driven road wheels. each
sytems performs its own functions and put together the vehicle becomes usable

THE CLUTCH SYSTEM

When the clutch pedal is depressed the clutch is disengaged and transmission of power from the
engine to the gearbox is stopped. when this has taken place there is no load to the gearbox and gear
chaning takes place smoothly without grab or chatter

When the clutch pedal is released, the pressure plate moves into sand whith the clutch plate. when
the clutch plate is filthy engaged drive is taken from the engine flywheel via pressure plate bolts to
pressure plate cover via spring straps to the pressure plate, fly wheel and clutch plate friction linings
down to the clutch hub and then finally the gearbox clutch shaft

THE GEARBOX

The gearbox boost up the strength of power from the engine. it also chanes rotational speed of
driven road wheels. it provides a permenant neutral and the direction of rotation of the gearbox
outputshaft and driven road wheels.

When the gear shift lever is operated moved from neutral to gear engaged position, selector shaft
and fork press the synchromesh unit ring against gear causing gear rotation speed to increase or
decrease accordingly. this disrupts the shift gear rotation function. gear engages.
consequently, the friction between the gear cone and ring gradually wears down the inner wall of
the synchonizer ring. as the wear increase, the gap between the gears decreases causingthe
synchonizer to ship and disrupt smooth gear meshing {selection}

THE PROPELLER SHAFT

This sytem links the gearbox and the final drive on convectional vehicles and four wheel drive
vehicles. its main function is to transmit torque from the gear box to the final drive unit. it also
allows for suspension movement and is therefore fitted with universal joints so that it can transmit
drive through varying angles.

if this shaft is a two or more piece design must have a centre bearing which is there to reduce whip
and sagging due to weight

THE FINAL DRIVE

The main purpose of the formal drive unit is to allow for the employment of top gear box. top gear
does not increase engine power but takes drive direct at the same speed with the engine to the final
drive unit. if engine revolutions are not geared down the engine will not run well during overrun
{coasting}

A small gear {opinion gear} is used to drive a large gear {the crown wheel}. torque is increased
further

drive is relayed to the driven rad wheels at degrees angle.

DIFFERENTIAL UNIT

tHIS SYSTEM SAVES TYRES, WHEEL BEARINGS, RIMS AND STEERING SYSTEM PARTS from rapid wear.
this is achieved by allowing driven road wheels to be turned with the same torque but different
speeds. the inner wheel shows down while the outer wheel accelerate since it has to travel long
distance

When the vehicle is cornering. the system eliminates tyre ship and therefore stress on the tyres,
wheel bearings and the steering is made light

this sytem also comes into action when there axle misalignment due to suspension system
component wear. this again reduces tyre wear when the vehicle is crabbing

This system does not work when the vehicle is moving in the straight ahead position

25.4 a. USE,CARE AND CALIBRATION AND STORAGE OF PETROL OR DIESEL ENGINES AND FUEL
SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION

Almost every tool used in precision measuring of engines and fuel systems has safety precautions to
be observed. if these precautions are not observed, the service life of the tools is greatly reduced
and or the measurements obtained from an exercise become incorrect
OSCOLOSCOPE

An osciloscope is used to measure the performance of the ignition system, cooling system sensors,
abs inductive, position sensors, pressure sensor in the fuel system etc. this tool is kept in dust free,
cool and dry arear

ENGINE ANALYSER

Engine analyser must not be used in an arear sensitive electronic equipment. exhaust gas is very
poisonous. do not work on vehicles indoors or confined space with the engne running.

high voltages from the ignition system are very dangerous, can accelerate heart problems and also
cause involuntary movement which can result in injury, possible damage to some engine part or fire
{burnt components}

when using engine and gasanalyser warm up the equipment by connecting it to the exhaust

to adjust fuel systems so that carbon monoxide content in the exhaust is 2 percent will require

i air filter renewal

ii tapper adjustment

iii carburrettor maintenance {fuel injection equipment adjustment}

iv ignition system maintenance including ignition timing to be done first

The engine analyser should be placed on a flat surface

When connecting the equipment the engine must be off

i connect the red chip to battery positive terminal

ii connect the black clip to battery negative terminal

iii connect the blue pick up lead to the ignition coil negative terminal to obtain engine speed in rpm

-start the engine run itfor 8 minutes

-set the calibration control to read 2.0%

-insert the probe into the exhaust pipe

-check engine idle speed, adjust if necessary.

-wait for 15minutes and one more minute to stabilise the reading, which may overshoot before
returning to normal

-if carbon content is more than 2 %, reduce fuel supply by adjustimg in the idle mixture screw
MULTIMETER

A multimeter cotains the following meters

i ameter for current flow measurement

ii volmeter for voltage measurement

iii ohmeter for measuring resistance to the flow of electricity in electrical systems

A multimeter does not need to be calibrated before use. it is merely switched to the correct scale
and range. readings are displayed digitally

All of the instrunment stated in this report are kept in cool, dry, dust free environment

ELECTRONIC DIAGNOSTIC EQUIPMENT

This is a computer connected to a vehicle with registered faults. this computer retrives faults
registered by the onboard diagnostic computer fitted in the vehicle. it is connected to the OBD by a
socket. the diagnostic computer is the set to the specifications of the vehicle being worked on. it is
then set to collect information on the registered fault

The diagnostic will display some written information about the fault and or make a print out
document

25.5 a ENGINE OVERHAUL PROCEDURE

INTRODUCTION

There are steps involved in engine overhaul

i confirm symptoms or fault

ii remove and disassemble

iii clean and inspect

iv assemble or reinstall

Engines are overhauled when there are parts worn out damaged or seized. before removing an
engine from the vehicle or working on it insitu various tests such as

i compression test

ii vacuum test

iii cylinder leakage test are carried out to confirm the fault

COMPRESSION TEST-DRY TEST

The engine is run to optimum operating temperature to improve cylinder sealing. the engine is then
disabled and spark plugs or injections removed. the compression tester is connected and engine
cranked with the throttle valve fully open to ensure maximum induction occurs. the measurement is
taken and recorded. all the other cylinder are checked in the same way. results arechecked against
specifications. if compression is about 9 bars, engine overhaul is recommended

WET COMPRESSION TEST

A recommended measure of engine oil is put to each cylinder and the throttle valve fully open. this
isolates the top assembly. if there is rise in compression, wear is in the sub-assembly. if compression
does not change that is rise the problem causing low compression could be a bent cylinder head
that is no longer maintaining airtight sealing or valve nor sealing properly

VACUUM TEST WITH A VACUUM GAUGE

A vacuum test is used to determine manifold pressure with the engine at operating temperature

the gange is connected to the inlet manifold or carburettor vacuum connection pipe or carburettor
vacuum connection pipe. the engine is cranked with the throttle valve fully open. a reading is taken
and compared with the workshop mannual compared with the workshop mannual specifications.
the depression is supposed to range from 0.2 bar to 0.4 bar if the engine is in good condition

CYLINDER LEAKAGE TEST

This test gives precise information on engine condition in terms of a particular component that will
not be sealing properly due to wear, defects orpresence of foreign matter on sealing faces

theengine is turned until each cylinder to be tested is on top dead center. a cylinder leakage tester is
connected and compressed air connected to draw air through itinto the cylinder. the same is done
to all the other cylinders

-a hissing sound from the intake manifold shows a leaking inlet valve

-a hissing sound heard from the exhaust pipe tail piece shows a leaking exhaust valve

-a hissing sound from the breather or dipstick tube or engine top cover shows a leak of gas from the
cylinder due to wear on the cylinder walls, piston or piston rings

-with the radiator pressure cap removed if bubbles are seen means the cylinder head gasket is
blown between the cylinder and water jacket.

if results are negative an engine overhaul is recommended. the engine is removed from the vehicle
or part concerned is removed from the engine for repair.

ELECTRONIC IGNITION SYSTEM

JAPAN

TOKYO: A CITY STRUGGLING TO BREATHE

In the summer season of 1970 tokyo's long suffering citizens experienced their first taste of a new
and most unpleasant hazard. photochemical smog. this phenomenon that affects most of the
developed coutries, occurs when unburnt hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides contained in car
exhaust gases {fumes} are subjected to strong sunlight. it is invisible or very nearby but deadly

the tokyo version, shrpened by noxious sulphur gases bone on southerly summer winds from the
coastal industrial zones of kawasaki and yokohama, proved particularly vicious. the winds are
seldom strong enough to clear the still, humid air of the capital itself.

the first evidence of the disagreable properties of the new hazard was a report that a group of
children playing in a school yard had found trouble breathing and begun falling down. in the days
and weeks that followed thousands of people had to betreated in tokyo hospitals for painfully
smarting eyes and sore throats

a system of smog warnings was quickly established on bad days radio and television announcesrs,
and touring loudspeaker vans, exhorted residents to stay indoors and motorists to leave their cars at
home. Children were advised to play in the open air. It was all rather reminiscent, as some older
japanesse remarked of the air raid warnings of world war II

pollution is now another aspect of living in tokyo. Pollution research center foresees the day when
the pedestrain will carry a gas mask as naturally as an umbrella. It is predicted that air pollution will
increase 500 times in the next 10 years

some department stores in tokyo are already doing brisk business in small, portable oxygen
generators. They sell at about €15

many of tokyo’s justly famous cedars and pines are dying in the city’s polluted air. Even the well
tended flora in the grounds of the imperial palace are not immune. Animals and birds that have died
at tokyo zoo have been found to have completely blackened lungs

the effects human health have been under study since 1996. Many cases of bronchial asthma,
chronic bronchitis, pulmonary emphysema and other respiratory diseases are thought to be closely
related to air pollution

Air pollution HAS posed a problem in tokyo since 1960. When cheap sulphur laden middle tast oil
replaced coal as the main fuel. Factories burn oil all year round, office buildings and private homes
use it in winter for heating together they pump some 1.7 million tons of noxious gases mainly
sulphur dioxide into the atmosphere every year

To this must be added the exhaust fumes of the two million or so vehicles clogging tokyo’s streets.
The whole unpleasant mess is frequently compounded by a combination of atmospheric factors that
prevent the pollutants in the air from rising and dispersing in the normal way

The government has only very belatedly began to take any action. Early in 1970 limits were set on
the discharge of sulphur dioxide factories. But industry is being allowed a leisurely ten years to
comform to the new standards. Office buildings are not affected at all though this winter measures
may be taken against them for the first time.
In february 1970 the government of japan approved a recommendation by the transport ministry
that the carbon monoxide content of car exhaust fumes should be kept to 4.5% in new cars and
5.5% in old cars. However little or no pressure has been brought on the car manufacturers
themselves to help reduce pollution. Significally only export car models are fitted with exhaust
emission controls egr pcv catalytic converters

Electronic components

Semiconductor materials areused in the manufacture of electronic components. Their electrical

conducting is lower than that of insulating materials their behaviour in this respect depends greatly
on temperature. The most important semic conductor materials are silicon and gemanium

The voltage required to render semiconductors conductive is called switching {threshold} voltage.
Germanium needs approximately 0.3 v silicon a threshold of 0.7 v

TRANSITORS

Consist of three semiconducting layers each with an electrical connection. The layers can be
arranged as PNP ie positive negative positive arrangementor it can be of the NPN negative positive
negative. Connctions to these semiconductors layers are designated E{emittor} C{collector} and B
{base}

PNP TRANSISTOR SYMBOL –

NPN TRANSISTOR SYMBOL-

Transistors in motor vehicle systems are used as switches or relays and as signal amplifiers

When used as a switch, the transistor fulfils the following requirements:

Contactless switching of a large working current with only a small control current
Freedom from wear since there are no moving parts
Freedom from noise since there are no moving mechanical parts
The switching action takes place without delay in a few microseconds
No spark gaps are present to cause arcing

PNP transistor- the base and collector are always negative in polarity in relation to the emitter when
operated
If a direct current input is applied between the emitter and the base, a small base{control} current
flows and therefore permit a large collector {working} current. The base current is limited by a
resistor

If the base current is interupted the collector current ceases to flow as well. The same happens
when the base current is switched to positive

If the base current is increased by raising the voltage between emitter and base the collector
current in other words the base current can be used to control the collector current. This
relationship between base and collector current variation is reffered to as the amplifaication factor

NPN transistor-when this transistor is operated base and collector are always positive in polarity
compared with the emitter. The collector current or by rendering the base polarity negative. All
other processes take place in the PNP transistor

THYRISTORS-is a controllable electronic switch with the character of a rectifier. Has four
semiconductor layers arranged behind the other. Three of them are provided with connections:
ANODE A CATHODE and GATE G. the gate is the control electrode. Depending on the order of the
semiconductor layers, the thyristors are described as p-gate or n-gate thyristors

P gate

n-gate

when a thyristor is wired into a direct current circuit as a switch, it is fired by the control current as
shown in the diagram above. This makes it conductive between anode and cathode. The thyristor
can then pass very high load current. After firing, the control current is no longer needed as the
thyristor remains conductive. A single control pulse is sufficient to fire it. It is required to extiguish
the thyristor so that it becomes non-conductive again, an extiguisher pulse can be transmitted to it
or the voltage can bereduced to a very low value

TRANSISTORISED COIL IGNITION

On a convetional coil ignition system, the strength and voltage of the ignition spark are limited by
the electrical and mechanical switching performance of the contact breaker. Transistorised coil
ignition use low voltage devices that run cool throught driving periods arefast in switch on and off
the primary circuit
26.3 c FAULT TESTING PROCEDURES USING TEST EQUIPMENT AND DIAGNOSTIC TECHNIQUES FOR
VEHICLE TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION

This report covers the following transmisssion faults:

1 abnormal mechanical noises

2 oil and grease leaks

3 vibration

4 loss of drive

Mechanical noises

Mechanical noises in the transmission system are caused by wear, excessive or insufficient
clearances between parts that must have gaps or no gaps between them

Oil and grease leaks are as a result of wear, insecurity of grease boots wear on grease and oil seals
or blockage of breathers in the gearbox and final drive unit

Vibration is caused by distorted clutch and or pressure plate or wear in the propeller shaft, final
drive gear system bearings

Loss of drive is often due to work clutch plate, broken gears or shafts

Abnormal mechanical noise

Check for correct operation of the clutch using a ruler measure clutch pedal free-play. Excessive play
causes incomplete disengagement and therefore noisy gear engagement

If the noise occurs when the clutch pedal is depressed it is the clutch release bearing that is
wornout. If noise occurs when the clutch is okay, then the noise is from the gearbox or propeller
shaft and final drive unit. Listen to the noise using a stethoscope. This should be done with one
driving wheel off the ground

OIL/GREASE LEAKS

Check breathers that they are open. Use compressed air to blow them

VIBRATION

Vibration on take off from rest is a clutch judder problem.

Continous power train is due to worn universal joints or center bearing on the propeller shaft. Check
york alignment if are not align them. The propeller shaft can bent in service. If this is suspected,
remove the propeller shaft and measure for its straightness using a dial gauge and vee-blocks
LOSS OF DRIVE

If loss of drive is between the engine and gearbox the problem could be worn clutch plate and
pressure plate or broken pressure plate bolts. Check if gears are selecting well. Switch off engine
and select a gear then start engine if check selection of other gears if selecting well, the clutch
plate/hub is work. Check if the propeller shaft turns when in gear if it doesn’t the constant mesh
pinion gears are broken. If the propeller shaft turns the problem is in the final drive unit gears or
drive shafts are broken

26.4 c USE,CARE,CALIBRATION AND STORAGE OF VEHICLE TRANSMISSION SYSTEM DIAGNOSTIC

EQUIPMENT

INTRODUCTION

Correct use, care, calibration and storage of measuring instrunment will ensure accuracy of
measurements and longer service life of the measuring tools

DIAL TEST INDICATOE GAUGE

This measuring instrument is used to check for straightness of shafts, wear or bearing surfaces play
in gears end-float of gears end float of shafts, radial and lateral runout of gears, cam lift and flatness
of surfaces. To carry out all these measurements the dial gauge must be firmly by mounted on its
magnetic stand, avoid vibration and dirty workpieces

Before using a dial gauge, it must be zeroed by loosening the clamp screw and turning the bezel
until the pointerlines up with the zero graduation. Lock the bezel

Care of the tool involves avoiding bumping the spindle, dropping it. Keep the instrunment clean

Dial gauge must be cleaned before storage. Keep it in its casing, in a dry cool and dust free
environment

STRAIGHT EDGE

A straight edge is used to check flatness of surfaces. It is used in conjuction with a feeler gauge

The straight-edge must not be kept in wet area. Keep theinstrunment clean. Avoid dropping or
hitting it against hard objects

Store straight-edge in a cool, dry, dust free environment

PRE-LOAD GAUGE

Preload gauge is an instrunment for measuring bearing preload, for example checking hub-bearing
slacness, final drive bearings, crown wheel bearings and pinion shaft bearings

Preload gauge must be zeroed before taking measurements

The gauge must be kept in an environment at room temperature, dry and dust free
25.3 a FAULT TESTING PROCEDURES USING TEST EQUIPMENT AND DIAGNOSTIC TECHNIQUES FOR
PETROL AND DIESEL ENGINES AND FUEL SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION

Symptoms are outwards signs of a problem in any vehicle system. Symptoms are detected using our
five senses eg

-hearing for noises

-seeing for signs

-smelling for ordours

Feeling for temperatures and surface state

Various measuring tools such as osciloscope, stroboscopic timing, compression tester, cylinder
leakage tester and so on

Symptom Diagnostic procedure Test equipment

-Non-starting Carryout a compression test Compression tester

-detenation Adjust ignition timing Stroboscopic timinglight

-cutting out Carryout fuel pump pressure Vacuum gauge

test
-coolant leaks Radiator pressure tester
Carryout a pressure test
-under reving Stroboscopic timing light
Check ignition timing
-black smoke/white smoke Injector tester
Carryout injector test
Excessive fuel consumption Vacuum gauge
Carryout fuel pressure test
-blue smoke Sand blast
Carryout a sand blast test
-pinking Osciloscope
Ignition timing test
-overheating Vacuum gauge
Check fuel pump pressure

Before using a vernier caliper check the jaws and depyh bar for wear evidenced by sagging of the
jaws. If worn, never use it

When taking readings the eye must be at 90 degrees to the scales to avoid paralax error
Before with drawing the vernier to take a reading from it, lock the curssor first to avoid any slight
movement of the jaws

Vernier must be kept in their pocket in an environment at room temperature, dust free and dry

DIAL TEST INDICATOR

Is a precision measuring instrunment used to carry out end float of shafts gear backlash, shaft
straightness, cam lift, flatness of shafts, lateral and radial runout of rotating vehicle parts such as
crown wheels in final drive units

The tool is checked for free movement of the phunger before zeroing to start measuring

The instrunment should not be used in a vibrating environment

When carry out measurements, parts being measured must be moved gently. The component being
measured for defects are placed on vee-block mounted on surface plate or are measured in-situ

After use, the dial ganges must be place in their boxes and kept in cool, dry and dust free
environment

Micrometers

Micrometers have a degree of accuracy of 0.01 mm. They are used to measure both internal and
external dimensions of components to check for wear and their fit

All micrometers are zeroed before using them

All parts must be thoroughly cleaned and placed in n environment at normal temperature

During use avoid dropping these instrunments or handle them carelessly by not holding the
insulated part of the frame. This will result in frame. This will result in frame distortion oe expansion
leading getting wrong measurements

After use the instrunment are placed in their boxes and stored in clean and cool envoronment

Pressure gauges

Pressure gauges are used to check pressures in vehicle wheels, pressures in hydraulic and pneumatic
systems in the vehicle

Before using pressure gauges check that the pointer reads zero. Adjust as necessary if out of zero

Connect pressure gauge in a way that avoids leaks. The connection is done when there is no gas or
liquid movement, the system must be off.

After use the gauges are placed in their pockets or boxes and stored in cool dry place

26.5 c SYSTEMATIC OVERHAUL PROCEDURES FOR VEHICLE TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION

Power transmission systems include the following

The clutch system

The gearbox system
The propeller shaft system
The final drive gear system
The differential gear system
Drive shafts
Driven road wheels

During service, that is the life of the vehicle, these system wear out and repairs are done to
recondition them in order to maintain their efficiency

THE CLUTCH SYSTEM

Clutch overhaul include checking with a dial gauge for the flatness of clutch friction linings, checking
the pressure plate fingers for alignment and flywheel friction face for flatness (lateral runout)

The dial gauge is mounted on magnetic stand and it plunger brought into contact with the surface
being measured. The gauge is zeroed and the component rotated gently. A reading on the amount
of deflection is taken and compared with specifications

THE GEAR BOX

gearbox overhaul includes checking its shafts for straightness and bearing surfaces for wear,
checking gear end-play and gaps between gears and their blocker rings and shafts end-play.

When a dial gauge is used, it is mounted on a magnetic stand on a surfaceplate and the gauge
plunger brought into contact with a smooth surface and the gauge zeroed. Then the component is
rotated or moved towards the gauge to read-end float in gears shafts.

When a blocker ring is worn out there is no gap found between the coneface end and the blocker
ring. This gap is measured with a feeler gauge

Gear internal diameter is measured with a cylinder gauge

PROPELLER SHAFT

Overhaul of the propeller shaft includes checking straightness of the shaft, sliding joint wear, shaft
balance and wear on the universal joints.

Remove the propeller shaft and place it on vee-blocks and mount the dial gauge, zero the gauge
and rotate the shaft to read the amount of out of round

Balancing involves mounting the shaft on a balancing machine and the shaft is rotated by the
machine and light parts are noted. These are the areas where patches are spot welded on

Removal of universal joints involves mounting the shaft on a vice and remove circlips holding the
outside end or inside end of bearing cups. Pressout the cups, press in the new universal joint in the
opposite way

FINAL DRIVE
Final drive overhaul involves adjusting pinion height, pinion preload, crown wheel bearing
preload,crown wheel backlash,tooth contact pattern lateral and radial run-out

To adjust pinion height pinion height shims are placed between the pinion gear and the inner
bearing. The height is measured using a distance piece and vernier caliper depth rod and straight
edge placed across crown bearing webs.

Pinion bearing preload is done by tightening the flang nut to specified torque and checking the
amount of force in newtons needed to rotate the shaft.

Crown wheel bearing pre-load is done by adjusting the cap adjusting screws to specified load and
then checking the force required to rotate the pinion shaft. Crown wheel bearing pre-load will be
crown wheel bearing preload overall less pinion bearing preload

Crown wheel bearing is done by loosening the screw opposite the pinion and equally tightening the
screw on the crown wheel away from the pinion without altering the crownwheel bearing preload

Crown wheel backlash is measured using a dial gauge. The dial gauge is mounted on one gear tooth
with the crown wheel pushed one side with the pinion held so as not to rotate. The dial gauge is
zeroed and crown wheel moved towards the gauge. The amount of movement shown shows the
backlash.

Tooth contact pattern shows the position of the crown wheel in relation to the pinion and vice-
versa. The pinions center line must coincide with the crown wheel center line at any point. Root,
heel, toe and crest shown incorrect position of the crown wheel and pinion

25.4 b USE,CARE,CALIBRATION AND STORAGE OF VEHICLE SPARK IGNITION AND ELECTRICAL OR

ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS DIAGNOSTIC EQUIPMENT

INTRODUCTION

It is essential to obtain full understanding on correct measuring methods for each measuring
methods foe each measuring instrument.

Effective use, care, calibration and storage of each measuring tool presupposes sufficient knowledge
on its correct measuring methods.

Tools use in the repair and maintenance of the systems listed above include:

Stroboscopic timing light

Oscilloscope
Diagnostic computers
Multimeters
Code readers

Stroboscopic timing light

The stroboscobic timing light is supposed to be connected to the ignition system when the engine is
not running, this is to avoid some of its parts making contact with hot and or rotating components.
The pick-up sensor must not be snatch connected to the ht cable . the spring must be released
gradually to avoid damaging the sensor. Once damaged, the flashing light stops operating

OSCILOSCOPE TESTER

An oscilloscope is a high speed meter that uses a television like picture tube to show ignition
voltages. When using this tool all the connections to the ignition system must be done with the
engine off to avoid short circuits

The tester must be calibrated to read zero before running the engine to check ignition timing

The tester should be stored in an area that cool, dry and dust free and free from any objects that
may fall on the screen

DIAGNOSTIC COMPUTERS

Must be used carefully, that is put on a seared mounting on the vehicle before making any
operations

The tool must be calibrated connecting it to the vehicle with the engine off

The engine is then turned on or run to collect information on registed faults in the vehicle computer

Diagnostic computers must be kept in their casing and stored in a safe area that is cool, dry and dust
free

MULTIMETERS

A multimeter is a tool that is used to make various electrical measurements and verifications

Multimeters are just set to the correct scale that is suitable for the voltage currentresistance and so
on being measured

Multimeters can be used with the engine running or off

The tools must be kept in cool, dust free and dry places

CODE READER

This is an instrument that can read fault codes from the onboard diagnostic computer in the vehicle

The tool does need to be connected to the vehicle and set to read information from the vehicles
OBD computer

25.3 a FAULT TESTING PROCEDURES USING TEST EQUIPMENT AND DIAGNOSTIC TECHNIQUES FOR
ENGINE AUXILLARY SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION
Engine anxillary systems cover range systems involved include the following; emission, controls,
positive crankcase ventilation, catalytic converters, exhaust gas recirculation, cold start devices,
engine management systems. Intercoolers and so on. The following are some of the diagnostic
procedures done to diagnose the faults in the above stated systems.

SYMPTOM TESTING PROCEDURE DIAGNOSTIC EQUIPMENT

Poor/non starting Check fuel cut off valve or Multimeter

solenoid

Compression test dry/wet

Lack of power cylinder leakage test Compression tester/cylinder
leakage tester

Running on/cutting out Check solenoid cut off switch

Multimeter

Detoration/penging knocking Check ignition timing

Oscilloscope/stroboscopic
timing light

Misfire Flame out the cylinders Morse tester

Pollutants Check exhaust emissions Gas analyser

Overheating Pressure test the cooling Radiator pressure tester

system

Injector test
Excessive fuel consumption Injector tester

Check throttle position

sensor
Hesitation Diagnostic computer

Check engine vacuum

Vacuum leaks Vacuum tester

Check oil pressure

Excessive oil leak Pressure gauge

Morse test the cylinders

Uneven running Morse tester

Check high tension cable and

Radio interference distributor cap for tracking ohmeter
THE GEARBOX

Gear box overhaul includes checking its shafts for straightness and bearing surfaces for wear,
checking gear end-play and gaps between gears and their blocker rings and shaft endply

When a dial gauge is used it is mounted on a magnetic stand on a surface plate and the gauge
plunger brought into contact with a smooth surface and the gauge zeroed. Then the component is
rotated or moved towards the gauge to read-end float in gears or shafts

When a blocker ring is worn out there is no gap found between the coneface end and the blocker
ring. This gap is measured with a feeler gauge.

Gear internal diameter is measured with a cylinder gauge

INTRODUCTION
Automotive motor vehicles are land based vehicles moving by its own power obtained from burning
air fuel mixture inside the engine cylinders. The burning changes chemicals energy stored in the fuel
to heat energy and then into mechanical energy in order to propel the vehicle

Types of automotive motor vehicles include the followings:

Motor cycles
Motor bikes
Scooters

2 motor cars

Sedans
Coupes
Roadster
Carbiriolet
Station wagon

3 panel trucks and microbuses

Trucks
Buses

4 tractors

Wheeled tractors
-track laying vehicles etc

In order for any vehicle to move, a number of systems are employed to parform various functions. A
system is a cluster of vehicle components that are connected to work together to perform one or
more functions. A motor vehicle is a cluster of these systems. The systems that make up a motor
vehicle include engine systems and chasis systems

Engine systems are vehicle systems that are either combined, interrelated or are interactive with the
engine. These systems perform different functions but all in all are to enable the engine to produce
the power need to propell the vehicle. Engine systems comprise the following:

The engine proper

The fuel system
The ignition system
The air intake system
The exhaust system
The lubrication system
The starting system
The cooling system
The charging system

Chassis system are vehicle system which have no relationship with the engine. These system include
the following:
 The braking system
The steering system
The suspension system
The lightning system
The driver information system
The clutch system
The gearbox system
The propeller shaft system
The differential gear system
Vehicle layout
Supplementary restraint system etc

The reports in this file cover both engine systems and chasis systems from a total os seven modules
in the motor vehicle engineering 3905 certificate syllabus. Each erport begins with an introduction
related to the subject and is followed by brief description of each report areas and short discussions

22.1 c SAFE WORKING PRACTICES USING TOOLS, EQUIPMENT AND CONSUMABLE MATERIALS IN THE
MAINTENANCE AND TESTING OF VEHICLE BODY WORK AND CONSTRUCTIONAL ALIGNMENT

INTRODUCTION

There are many dangers associated with the repair of vehicle bodies. Working on motor vehicles
require knowledge and safety precaution that ought to be observed regarding the use of tools and
equipment. The following are some of the tools, equipment and consumable materials used in the
repair of vehicle bodies

Engineers rule

An engineers rule can measure up to 0.5 mm. so when using it avoid any work that may scratch its
surfaces or bent it. When carrying out measurements use a flat block at its end or use any flat face
of the item being measured if it hollowed

Internal and external calipers

When using these make sure their joints are firm. Loose joints may allow the jaws to move as the
instrunment is withdrawn in order to measure the gap between the jaws

Internal and external micrometers

Micrometers measure to a degree of accuracy of 0.01 mm or 0.001 mm. This calls for proper
handling of these instrunments. Both of these micrometers are calibrated to read zero when the
spindle is moved to starting point. Hold the insulated part of the instrunments to avoid expanding
them due to transfer of heat from the user.

When moving the thimble do not continue turning it when the anvils contact the surfaces of the
component being measured. After taking measurements the instrunments must be put back into
their boxes and kept in a designated, cool, dry and dust free environment

Dial gauge
Dial gauges are used to measure end-play, lateral run-out, radial run out, straightness of shafts, play
in gears, flatness os surfaces and many more. When using the dial gauge, avoid hot and vibrating
environment.

The gauge plunger is checked for free movement in and out.

The plunger is supposed to be in contact with the workpiece before every measurement is done

The workpiece is moved or rotated gently in order for the pointer stopping point to be noted.

After using the gauge must be put in its pocket and kept in designated area in the workshop tool
room

Spangers

Choose the right spanner for the right job. Any work at hand need the use of suitable spanners

Spanners must be pulled nor pushed this is to avoid injuries should the spanner slip from the bolt or
nut

Where possible avoid using the open-ended spanner or worn spanners on very tight blotsor nuts.
Blot heads and nuts are damaged when wrong spanners are used

Hammers

All metal hammers mushroom during use. Avoid using a mushroomed hammers as chips may fly off
and cause serious injury to the user or colleagues nearby. Chamfer off the mushroom. Where
components must not be dented soft hammers must be used

Hammer head fitting loosely on handles must not be used unless firmly secured. The head may fly
off when hammering and this may result in serious injury, death or damage to vehicles and other
items in the vicinity

Screw drivers

Must be used on parts they fit without play otherwise the screws will be damaged resulting in
failure to remove them without having to damage or destroy them

Where screws are very tight an impact screw driver is used

Damaged or worn screw drivers must not be used. Mushroomed impact screw driver must be
chamfered to remove the distorted face.

22.6 b VEHICLE MANUFACTURERS SPECIFICATIONS USED IN THE TESTING AND MAINTENANCE OF

GEAR BOX, CLUTCH, PROPELLER SHAFT, DRIVE SHAFTS, FINAL DRIVE AND DIFFERENTIAL SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION

Vehicle specifications come in various ways and sorces. The information is presented by
manufacturers in the form of diagrams, written information, operations schedules, data sheets,
tables, microfilm microfiche, cd rom, video tapes, microprocessors, repair schedules and many
others

Written information

Steps followed servicing and repairing vehicles is given in the workshop manual. This information
tells the technician what to do and what not to do, and also gives warning information in order to
avoid accidents or damage to components. The information also gives the procedure for
overhauling.

Diagrams

Diagrams are very important in that they enable the technician to see how parts fit in aunit. The
information also help disassembly and assembling parts in a unit

Tables

Are often used to provide information on trobleshootong, items that need attention at given
intervals and torque specifications

Cd rom

Information given on cd rom is user friendly . A big number of people can access the information at
the same time. The information can be presented audio visually

Microfiche

Is used to identify systems parts and part numbers. It makes diagrams that are crowded appear very
clear and enlarged on the screen. It Is very useful when in the spares shop to identify

Video tapes

Used inconjuction with computer or television with a video cassette recorder. The information
provided can be accessed by all technicians at the same time

These machines provide data on parts, how they are fitted, their part numbers, defects that develop
on them, repairs that can be done on them when worn, adjusted and manymore.

The clutch

Information covered involves:

Fault diagnosis
Pedal height adjustment value eg 151 mm
Push rod play eg 1.0mm - 5.0mm
Removal procedure
Clutch disc run out eg 0.8mm
Flywheel runout eg 0.2mm
Diaphragm spring wear eg 0.6 depth 6.0mm width
 Clutch cover bolts torque eg 19nm

Gear box

Fault diagnosis
Removal, disassembling and assembling procedures
Shaft straightness eg 0.05mm
Synchronizer ring clearance 1mm -2mm maximum 0.8 minimum
Clearance of shift forks and hub sleeves
Torque loading of bolts and units eg 20NM
Oils recommended eg EP80 W 90

PROPELLER SHAFT

Fault diagnosis
Service and repair procedures
Shaft run-out eg 0.8mm
Bolt and nut torque

FINAL DRIVE

Fault diagnosis
Service and repair information
Drive shaft run-out
Crown wheel run-out lateral and radial
Pinion height
Bearing preload
Gear backlash
Bolt and nut torque specifications eg 70 NM
Tooth contact pattern sketches
Companion flange runout 0.10mm

22.4 c IDENTIFYING MISALIGNMENT OF VEHICLE BODY PARTS

INTRODUCTION

All technicians must comply with personal environmental safety practices associated with clothing
and the use of gloves, respiratory protection, eye protection, hand tools, power tools, proper
ventilation, handling, storage and disposal of harmful chemicals, in accordance with local and
international safety regulations

Misalignment of vehicle steering, suspension power train, body, frame, doors, gates must be
checked for alignment. Misalignment causes the vehicle to be difficult to handle and lead to rapid
wear of parts, vehicle pull to side and body distortion and transmission vibration. Structural damage
is measured with a train gauge

Check body parts for water leaks, sagging, dust leaks and wind noise

Chassis frame
Vehicle bodies are checked for misalignment using the drop test (plumb line test) drop lines from
every suspension securing point. The lines drawn from the same point is opposite each other must
converge at the same point along the vehicle center line

SUSPENSION AND STEERING ALIGNMENT

Any misalignment of parts in these systems is checked using a tape measure, wheel alignment
gauges or computerized equipment

The tape measure is used to check wheel base, trim height and distance between centers of road
wheels on the same axle

Wheel alignment gauges are used to check steering geometry:

Camber angle (tyre wearing angle)

Caster angle
Toe in or toe out angle
Swivel axis inclination

HEAD LIGHT ALIGNMENT

Check that when switched on head light strike the road surface 10 meters infront of the vehicle, if
the light is less or more than 10 meters, adjust misalignment using a beam setter or board

Doors or tail gate

Sagging door allow dust, water and wind into the vehicle. Check that doors close and open with
difficulty and sagging. Measure the gaps on each side. Any difference means there is misalignment

WINDOWS

When opened or closed must not move out of their rail. If the window can not close or moves out of
its rail, there is misalignment caused by bent door

PULLEYS

Check alignment of pulleys on the engine if steering feels hard when it is power assisted.
Misalignment causes the belt to pull hard on the pulley resulting in its premature failure and noisy
operation of the pulleys.

21.4 a THE EFFECT OF INCORRECT ADJUSTMENTS AND FAULTS ON PETROL AND PETROL FUEL
SYSTEMS

Introduction

When an adjustment is said to be incorrect means the adjustment was overdone or under adjusted.
When an adjustment is either overdone or underdone problems in terms of fuel supply will arise.
The fuel system will cause the engine to run on a lean mixture or rich mixture. Exhaust gases
become harmful and fuel consumption increases. Engine power is reduced.
Some engines have adjustable valves. The working clearances of these valves must be kept within
manufacturers specifications. Over adjusting or under adjusting the valves reduces engine
performance

VALVE CLEARANCES

Excessive valve working clearances due to under adjustment cause the following engine problems:

Lack of power
Uneven engine (erractic) running
Misfire
Excessive fuel consumption and
Harmful exhaust emission

FUEL SYSTEMS

Incorrect adjustment (under or over) cause the following effects to take place:

Hard starting hot or cold

Non-starting
Lack of power due to incomplete combustion
Erratic or uneven engine running,
Stalling of engine
Hesitation
Popping back (back fire)
Running on (dieseling)
Detonation
Heavy fuel consumption
Knocking (combustion knocking)
Overheating
Fuel leaks and ordours

Some of these problems and effects reduces the service life on the engine and fuel system
components. Frequent down times and high running and maintenance costs, environmental
pollution and health hazards associated with inhalation of harmful exhaust, leading to contracting
pneumoconiosis such as cancer of the lungs

21.5 a TESTING PROCEDURES USING TEST EQUIPMENT ON PETROL AND DIESEL ENGINES AND FUEL
SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION

Tests are carried out to determine the serviceability and condition of a component or system and to
find out and confirm a fault or symptom before overhauling a system or unit. The procedure can be
visual and testing using special tools and equipment

Engine and fuel system faults range from:

Hard starting hot or cold

 Non-starting
High resistance to engine cranking
Missing or misfire
Erractic running
Detonation
Pre-ignition
Knocking
Excessive fuel consumption
Oil and coolant contamination
Excessive oil consumption
Engine overheating and so on

TEST EQUIPMENT

Used to confirm faults and symptoms includes:

Compression tester
Cylinder leakage tester
Morse tester (cylinder balance tester)
Feeler gauge
Oil pressure gauges
Gas analyser
Osciloscope
Stethoscope

symptoms Rectification procedures

Misfire Check injector operation with an injector

tester
Uneven running
Adjust idling speed and idle mixture screws
Cutting out
Clean carburettor
Hesitation
Adjust throttle by pas to increase air
Detonation
Adjust fuel mixture screw to improve fuel
Pinking supply

Lack of power Adjust fuel mixture screw to increase supply

Running on Adjust valve working clearances

overheating Check operation of anti-running on solenoid

-adjust idle mixture screw to increase fuel

-check and add coolant

25.4 c USE, CARE, CALIBRATION AND STORAGE OF ENGINE AUXILLARY SYSTEMS DIAGNOSTIC
EQUIPMENT

INTRODUCTION

Automotive engineering measuring tools if not cared for before, during and after use will have a
very short life span and will cease to be accurate. Listed span and will cease to be accurate. Listed
below under each instrunment are some of the precautions observed when handling them

GAS ANALYSER

Gas analyser checks the amount of harmful gases in the exhaust.

To use this instrunment calibrate it by warming it up with the exhaust for atleast 8-10 mins. Connect
the probe

The sensor is calibrated atleast four times a year by the tool supplier to avoid getting wrong
measurements.

Connect the instrunment with engine off to avoid damage.

After use let the sensor in air for 10 mins with power on

DIAGNOSTIC COMPUTER

Used to retrive faults stored in the on board diagnostic computer in the vehicle.

Before use the machine is switched on and allowed recommended period of calibration then the
make of the car is selected

Store the instrunment in its pocket and box

Multimeter

Used to measure voltage amperage and resistance to current flow in a circuit. It is also used to check
for ground and open circuits. Each measurement and values expected has a scale and measurement
range to be selected

Store multimeters in designated area in the storeroom

TACHOMETER

Also known as revolution counter is a tool used to measure engine speed when carryout adjusted on
the ignition or injection or fuel systems. This meter may be part of the stroboscopic engine ignition
timing light

Before using a tachometer, check that it reads zero and connect it to the ignition negative terminal
with the engine off to avoid damage to the instrunment
Store the tachometer in safe, cool and dry area in the storeroom (tool room)

25.1 c SAFE WORKING PRACTICES USING TOOLS, EQUIPMENT AND CONSUMABLE MATERIALS IN THE
MAINTENANCE AND TESTING OF ENGINE AUXILLARY

INTRODUCTION

Tools and equipment must be used with care. Every job must be done with the right tools and or
equipment. These are kept in good working order if they are properly used and cared for

ENGINEERS RULE

An engineers rule is used to measure line demensions both internal such as drums for wear and
external dimensions such as the thickness of a component. It has an accuracy of 0.5mm. these
graduations are very close to each other such that any scratches may render them unreadable when
using the rule place it against a flat edge. Rock the rule if measuring round objects

Calipers

Measure up to a degree of accuracy of 0.02mm. it is used to measure external dimensions with the
sliding external jaws, internal dimensions with the sliding knife-edge jaws and depth of objects with
the depth gauge.

Power tools

Use electricity and care must be taken whenever using them

Do not use power tools with broken cables or on wet ground.

Hand held power tools must be switched on while holding them with two hands, one hand may not
withstand torque reaction from tools such as disc senders drilling machines

-wear goggles

-use gaurds if the tools should be guarded.

-floor mounted or bench mounted tools should be

Press

Is a machine that is used to fit or remove closely fitting components

-care must be taken to avoid overlopading components, as this machine can exert a load of up to
ten tonne load, parts may fructure should the load become undue

-components must be properly secured on the stand bars

Consumable materials
Used in the service and repair of vehicles fall into different categories. Some of these are harmful
such as cleaning agents

Cleaning agents leave the skin dry after removing natural fats. This exposes the technicisn to skin
cancer

Do not use cleaning substances to wash off dirty from hands

Dyres or markers

These substances are used to indicate contact pattern in components such as final drive so small
that they can not be easily seen by a naked eye

Penetrating oils

These are usedto lubricate rusty parts such as nuts and bolts

Avoid contact with rust. Rust causes tatanus.

THE ENGINE

The engine used on a motor vehicle is made up of over 150 components are combined, interrelated
or are interactive with each other to enable the engine to produce the power needed to propel the
vehicle. Part of the power is used to operate various ancillaries, such as the alternator, water pump,
vacuum assisted brakes, compressor for air vrakes, pneumatic gearbox and pneumatic suspension,
cooling system fan, air conditioning etc. however when the accelerator pedal is released and the
road wheels are made to turn the engine (overun or coasting) it provides a useful amount of vehicle
retardation without the use of the brakes.

There are three kinds of engine used in motor vehicles. The engine may be reffered to as(i)two-
stroke (clerk cylce), running on petrol or diesel fuel (ii) four-stroke (otto-cycle), running on petrol or
diese fuel and (iii) engines.

There are four phases (events) which make up a cycle. The four phases are;
Induction (intake, inlet or suction)
Compression
Power (ignition, firing, expansion combustion)
Exhaust (scavenge)

These four phases must take place in the cylinder repeatedly and alternatively

The term stroke refers to the movement of the piston from one dead centre to the other dead
centre.

The highest point reached by the piston reached by the piston crown (top) during its travel up the
cylinder is called TOP DEAD CENTRE (TDC) and the lowest point reached by the piston top during its
travel down the cylinder is called BOTTOM DEAD CENTRE (BDC)
A two stroke engine is one in which the for phases are completed in four piston strokes and two
crankshaft rotaions (revolutions)

The rotary engine has a rotor with three combustion chambers. As the rotor turns, the four phases
take place in each combustion chamber.

THE PETROL ENGINE

In a petrol engine (spark ignition engine) S.I the air-fuel ixturer is exploded in the engine cylinders.
The force of expanding gases is converted in a rotational movement to propel the vehicle.

26.5.C. SYSTEMATIC OVERHAUL PROCEDURER FOR VEHICLE TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION

This report outlines the systematic procedurer for overhauling transmission system gearbox.

Whenever a technician is overhauling any vehicle system or unit, there are several safety
precautions to be observed failurer of which may result ina n accident causing injury or damage of
the vehicle or part with job at hand.

Procedurer

Remove all parts surrounding the gearbox case. Remove bellhousing bolts and propellers shaft.
Remove gear selector lever dismantle the gearbox.
Inspect gearbox shafts, gears, selector forks, seletor shafts, synchromesh units using measuring
instruments such as feeler gauges, micrometers dial guages vernier calipers e.t.c.
Replace all parts that show excessive wear
Inspect gear clearance with a feeler gauge
Inspect all shafts for straightness using dial gauge
Inspect synchromesh units for wear on dogs teeth and between gears and synchronizing ring
Inspect selector detent grooves for wear
Check gear radial clerance with DTI
Check gear thrust clearance using a dial test indicator gauge
Check with feeler gauge clearance between shift fork and sliding sleever clearance
Shift to all gears and check the positions of all gears before dissassembling the gearbox gear
arrangement

REASSEMBLE

Gears are re assembled in the following order;

EL gear 2, synchromesh unit gear 1

EL gear 3, synchromesh unit and gear3
Place layshaft gears to line with thsese on the main shaft
EL selector shaft and forks onto centre place
EL selector detents and inter look unit
EL the whole assembly into the gearbox causing
EL gear 5 and synchromesh unit
 EL reverse gears and fit fork and loc in
EL speedo drive gear onto mainshaft
EL gearbox tail piece
EL speedo driven gear
Secure the bell housing bolts
EL gearbox front cover
EL clutch release bearing and fork
EL gearbox tower
Clerk operation of all gears

21.4.B. TH EFFECTS OF INCORRECT ADJUSTMENTS/ FAULTS ON SPARK IGNITION

ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION

Poor starting cold or hot, poor engine perfomance, high fuel consumption. Pre-ignition, missing
backfiring and many other problems result from incorrect adjustments done on vehicle spark
ignition electrical and electronic systems.

The ignition system must be timed so that the electrical sparks from spark plugs occur at the right
time in the cycle

Retarded ignition timing results in te engine bakfiring In the induction system while over advanced
ignition timing results in detonation of the air fuel mixturer, engine pinging and rapid wear and taer
of the engine parts. The oil in the engine is oxidize and forms thicky and sticky susbsatnce theat
setles at the base of the sump. The oil fails to effectively lubricate the engine. The cooling system
may be rendered inefective.

SPARK PLUGS

Spark plug gap should be set to suit engine operating requirements In terms of firing voltage.

If the firing voltage is incorrect that is too small or too wide poor starting or non-starting problems,
lack of power, hesitation, uneven running, misfirer and emission oxides of nitrogen NOX, carbon C,
carbon monoxide CO are heavly emitted into the atmosphere. These gase are a health hazard and
also destroy the ozone layer, resulting in increased global warming

Alternator belt drive if adjusted too tight will result in premature alternator bearing wear. This
causes noisy operation of the alternator and subsquent damage if parts that must not make contact
with each other. If the belt tension is too lose, the belt make noise intermittently or continously,
poor charging and engine undercooling due to reduced speed of the water pump.

25.1.A. SAFE WORKING PRACTICES USING TOOLS, EQUIPMENTS AND CONSUMABLE MATERIALS IN
THE MAINTAINANCE AND TESTING OF PETROL/DIESEL ENGINES AND FUEL SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION
Tools and equipment use in the servie repair of motor vehicle engines and fuel systems are quite
many. Every tool and equipment has its own recommended method of using it. The safety
precations state in the workshop manual must be observed.

Jacks- all types of jacks can fail without warning, so every technician must not work under any
vehicle that is suspenedeed on a jack. Axle stands must be used to hold the vehicle

Axle stands- axle stands must be horizontal to the body and legs firmly in contact with the floor.

Choking blocks- these are used when only one axle is suspended. They block the vehicle so that it
does not roll forawrd or backward.

Equipment- used in the repair of engines including, hoist, crane and trolleys.

Harmful substances- extra care must be taken when doing work that involves working with harmful
substances such as;

- Batery electrolyte
- Fuels
- Lubricants
- Sealants
- Asbestos
- Refrigerants
- Fluorolastomec

Prolonged or mere contsct with skin can lead to infection causing cancer, iritation or dermatitis.

These materials must e used, stored and disposed as reommende by their manufacturers. The
dangers asociated with harmful sustances must be known.

Running engines- gase s fro engines contain element harmful to health and to the ozone layer. Avoid
concentraion of exhaust gases in the workshop. Ensure adquate ventilation or exhaust gas
extraction is done.

Electrical an electronic system- when working on electrical and electronic systems care must be
taken t avoid short circuits or ovrloading. Damage occur to electrical and electronic system parts
costly to repair or replace

Measuring instruments- enable an engineer to match parts, measure tolerance, size, play and gaps
in components.

Most measuring instruments need to be used in an environment at room temperaturer in oreder to

avoid expansion due to heat and obtain wrong readings.

Spanners- when using spaner it is advisable to pull them than pushing. Pushing may cause injury if
the spanner slips. Choose the right spanner for the job

Power tools – using power tools can be very dangerous if the wires for electrical connection are
broken and naked. There is a fire short circuiting and electrocution risk
Hammers- when working on vehcle units with bearing surfaces, using steel hammers must be
avoided because it dents such surfaces and lead to rapid premature failure of bearings or cause fuel
gas or oil leak. Where flying chips may be presnt, wear gogles to protect eyes.

Special tools- expensive to replace. When using these tools and or equipment need adquate skill and
knowledge so that they are applied corectly.

Consumables- most consumables materials used in garages are harmful to the skin. They may cause
skin dryness that may lead to contracting skin cancer.

Consumables such as dyes and markers are used to check for cracks and contact parten between
two parts.

21.3.B. ROUTINE MAITAINCE AND RUNNING ADJUSTMENTS NECESSARY ON VEHICLE SPARK

IGNITION AND ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION

Motor vehicles have various system components tat are adjusted and or maintained in oreder to
reduce breakdowns due to system failure or mulfunction. Braekdowns are costly to repair and cause
unnecessary inconvinience to vehicle users.

The ignition system

The ignition system must boost battery voltage In order to craete adquate firing voltage at the spark
plugs. The voltage must be high enough to overcome the resistance to current flow across the spark
plug eectrodes caused by air highly compressed

When engine speed is increased the time the spark ought to take place must be advanced and when
it is reduced retarded to take into account of the constant ignition delay period of the fuel.

STATIC IGNITION TIMING

When the distributor is removed for adjustment of the contact break point gap or for repairs. After
refitting it, static ignition timing must be done.

The following are the steps followed when carrying out static ignition timing.

1. Thoroughly claen timing marks on the crakshaft pulley and timing scale plate.
2. Align the timing marks to read ‘0’ (TDC)
3. Fit distributor with rotor pointing to segment for cylinder number one spark plug. (distributor
cap must be removed first)
4. Conect a 12v test light between the distributor low tension terminal (negative) side of the
ignition coil and ground (earth)
5. Turn crankshaft clockwise until rotor arm is pointing between segment one and the next
cylinder to fire from the cap
6. Switch on igntion at this point
7. Rotate the crankshaft until the light lights
8. Connect high tension leads acording to the order
Dynamic ignition timing

This is ignition timing carried out with the engine runing. This timing accurately sets the actual point the
spark plugs ougt to fire the air-fuel mixture

The procedure

1. Connect the engine timing light pick up sensor to cylinder 1 HT lead

2. Onnect the red stroboscopic timing light cable to batery positive terminal and the black lead to
batery negative terminal.
3. Connect the green timing cable to ignition coil negative terminal to read engine speed –
disconnect vacuum advance hose
4. Point the light at the timing marks
5. Start the engine at the timing notch on the crankshaft is stroboscopic illuminated every time the
cylinder number one fires. The notch appears stationary.
6. Turn the distributor body clockwise or anti-clockwise as necessary intil the ark lines up with the
advance timing mark recommended
7. Clamp the distributor body and switch off engine
8. Disconnect the timing light

Gaps angles

Contact break point gap spark plug air gap, reluctor air gap, dwell angle must be checked.

Resistance check

High tension leads and other cables are measured for high resistance and must be replaced if the
multimeter reading is not within specifications.

Electrical and electronic systems

Check electrical systems for security and cleanliness and connections for electro-chemical corossion and
other problems that may cause mulfunctions.

Gauges and dashboard warning and indicator lights are checked for correct operation

Alternator belt and other drive belts must be checked for;

- tension
- cracks
- swelling
- early failure
- abrasion
- excessive stretch
- lose in speed

battery
batteries must be kept fully charged for the starting system to fully enable the engine to draw in air or
air-fuel mixture and to compress fully the fresh charge when the engine is being started.

-Electrolyte level should be maintained at corect level. Top up with mineral free(distilled/ water only)

-clean terminals and wipe dry the top of the batery

-when checking batteries using high rate discharge tester ensure the battery is fully charged to avoid
damage

-when fash charging batteries the electrolyte may boil be careful –wear goggles to protect eyes and do
not do this for more than 15 seconds. Going beyond this will damage the batery

Headlamps

Headlamps are adjusted using a beam settler or board. The adjustment must ensure the centre of light
strikes the road surface 10 meters in front of the vehicle.

Check the lences for craks and ingres of moisture or water.

22.1.B. SAFE WORKING PRACTICES USING TOOLS EQUIPMENT AND CONSUMABLE MATERIALS IN THE
MAINTAINANCE AND TESTING OF VEHICLE CLUTCH, GEARBOX, PROPELLER SHAFTS DRIVE SHAFTS AND
FINAL DRIVE/DIFFERENTIAL UNITS

INTRODUCTION

Power transmission systems must be efficient in their operation to avoid power loses due to friction or
torsional problems and transmission noises. Tools and equipment used in the garages to carry out
services and repairs include the following

1. VEE-BLOCKS- used to hold components to be measured especially shafts for starightness. These
must be placed on a surface that is completely flat such as surface plate
2. DIAL GAUGES- these are precision measuring instruments that must not be used in an area
subjected to vibrations. Measurements taken on components vibrating will be obviously
incorrect. The dial gauge is used to measure ;
i. Straightness of shafts
ii. End-float of shafts
iii. Backlash in a meshing gears
iv. Flatness of surfaces
v. Radial and lateral run out of gears

Every time the dial gauge is mounted on a component to be measured must be zeroed

3. JACKS- used in the maitainance and repair of transmission units have a base and are hydraulic
types. These must be checked for correct operation and oil leaks
4. FEELER GAUGES- used to measure clearance between two components that must touch or not
touch. It is also used to check flatness of parts that must be flat. When used in a conjuction with
a spring balance it can be used to measure clearances in closely filling components.
 5. MICROMETERS- there are two kinds of micrometers. The external and internal micrometers. For
each kind there are several types but all are used almost in the same way and to carry out the
same measurements.
Micrometers measre up to a degree of accuracy of 0.01m or 0.001mm therefore must not be
used in or on hot parts. The parts must be very clean and dry.
All micro meters are zeroed prior to carrying out measurements. Excessive force on turning the
thimble must be avoided. When the spindles are almost touching the surfaces of part being
measured, the ratchet must be turned to allow for light touch evidenced by a click sound hear
from the tool
6. VERNIER CALPERS- must be checked for jaw and depth bar wear. If or when the cursor is moved
to close jaws any sagging seen means the jaws are worn. When the beam is made to rest on a
flat surface and jaws sag, the depth bar is worn and must not be used.
Vernier calipers measure up to a degree of accuracy of 0.02mm and is used to measure the
following dimensions;
i. Depth of grooves, steps
ii. Internal line measurement and
iii. External line measurement

MOTOR VEHICLE ENGINEERING

VEHICLE SYSTEM SENSOR

Tyre pressure sensors purpose is to reduce the highway flattening rate. These determines axle and
wheel alignment, monitor collision alarm, check tyre pressures and tyre balance conditions, measure
and detect load distribution in the vehicle and adjust the braking system.

The load carrying capability is critically linked to the inflation pressure if not properly inflated, the useful
service life a tyre as well as safety and vehicle handling is compromised.

ECONOMIC CONSQUENCES OF INCORECT TYRE TYRE PRESSURE MONITORS REDUCE

PRESSURE
- Replacement procurement costs
- increase tyre wear - System maintenance costs
- reduced tyre service life - Tyre installation costs and associated
- Reduced fuel consumption(economy) downtime
- Reduced road calls - Costs from improved safety
- Eliminate added systems maintenance - Total direct costs avoided with properly
maintained tyres

Seat sensors

Seat sensors switches are connected to the drivers seat and passengers seat of a vehicle generate
signals indicating when seats are occupied

The passengers seat sensor switch generates an adult presnt signal, a child or small adult signal or an
infant/small child presnt signal depending on the size of the occupant.
Air bags

The air bag propellant is electrified, the air bag is aimed at an upper location and the shoulders belt
anchor is moved to an upper position

Children do have smaller air bags. The air bag when electrified moves to the lower position and the
shoulder belt anchor moved to the lower position. The passengers side window and doors are locked.

VEHICLE ELECTRONICS

SENSORS

Vehicle systema sensors are robust enough in design and provide consistently reliable information
needed to control vehicle systems under all operating conditions

CLASIFICATION OF SENSORS

1. Temperature
2. Pressure
3. Position

Vehicle occupant sensors

A roof mounted passenger positin sensor array of capacitive coupling passenger position sensor to
determine the

i. Position of a passenger
ii. Motion of a passenger

By analysis of distances of the passenger to the various sensors of the array and analysis of the changes
of i. and ii distances with time

TEMPERATURE SENSORS

Measure temperatures in motor vehicles such as;

- Engine coolant temperature

- Air temperature
- Oil temperature
- Exhaust gas temperature

Wheel speed sensor or vehicle speed sensor is a type of revolution counter (tachometer). It is a
sender device used for reading the speed of vehicle’s road wheel roatation.

Consists of a toothed ring (reluctor) and pick up

It may be an analogue sensor or

 Digital and both san toothed wheel on the vehicle drive shaft or gearbox

VSS sensors malfunction often due to;

i. Shock
ii. Vibration
iii. Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC0

Digital VSS use the principle of magnetic field modulation and are suitable for ferromagnetic target
wheels

Vehicle tyre pressure sensors

- These determines axle and wheel alignment

- Monitor alarm
- Check tyre and also
- They check tyre balance conditions
- Measure and detect load distribution in the vehicle
- Adjust automatic braking system

22.4 a INSPECTIONS IDENTIFYING THE EFFECTS OF INCORRECT ADJUSTMENTS/ FAULTS ON VEHICLE

BRAKING STEERING AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION

If the braking system, the steering system and suspension systems are not adjusted according to
manufacturers specifications the followed effects will take place:

1. Vehicle components in the systems will wear out sooner

2. The systems will be less efficient, resulting in loss of positive response and high repair costs
3. Chances of breakdowns will increase, again resulting in loss of power
4. The vehicle will beome unsafe to use
5. The chances of incidents and accidents will increase
6. Problems will also develop as aresult

The purpose of manufacturers specifications in the workshop manual is to give technicians vital
technical data and safety information about the vehicles. It contains parts list and detailed drawing of
the components in various systems. It gives information on adjustments, maintenance and about special
safety precautions that need to be taken when servicing and repairing vehicles.

BRAKING SYSTEM

Excessive brake pedal travel will cause brakes not to hold well while insufficient freeplay causes brakes
to bind the same applies to park brake. If drum to shoe-clearances are not the same the vehicle will pull
to one side due to unbalanced braking

Braking system faults include

i. Spongy pedal due to air in the system

 ii. Defective linings will cause squealing during braking
iii. Oil contamination on linings will cause ship and unequal braking on axles
iv. Seizes wheel cylinders will cause binding and or unequal braking
v. Leaking wheel cylinders and caliper is due worn drums, shoes, pad and discs causing
excessive piston travel
vi. Moisture contamination is caused by humid

STEERING SYSTEm

Faults include

- Abnormal tyre wear is caused by tyres that are not statistically and dynamically balanced
- Inadequate self-centering is due to incorrect caster angle
- Misalignment of the steering wheel is due to unequally adjusted track rod end
- Steering vibration is due to work ball joints worn steering gearbox, dynamic wheel inbalance and
worn tie-rod and rock-ends
- Knocking is cause by worn gear or broken gear teeth in the gearbox

SUSPENSION SYSTEM

Faults in this system include:

 Suspension wear often is due to faults in the steering system eg incorrect camber wheels
 Overinflation of road wheels cause center tyre wear
 Under inflation of road wheels cause shoulder wear on tyres
 Incorrect trim height causes sagging of the vehicle
 Abnormal wear in suspension parts may be due to no or not enough lubrication

22.7 c MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE ASSOCIATED WITH VEHICLE BODYWORK

INTRODUCTION

Concerning modern vehicle body designs in terms of aerodynamics, comfort and so on manufacturers
had to include the structural requirements suspension and drive line arrangements. These must
maintain parts in their relative positions

SYNCHROMESH

CONSTANT LOAD TYPE

CONSTRUCTION-AS SHOWN BY THE SKETCH

OPERATION

When the gear lever is shifted, initial movement of the lever enables the sychro hub and the outer
member (the sliding member) to move as a unit (due to the spring loaded ball action) on the splined
shaft
The conical surface of the synchro-hub contacts the conical surface of the gear pinion. Clutch action
takes place due to friction between the two surfaces.

The shaft and the pinion gear now revolve at the same speed

When the gear leever is moved further the outer member (sliding sleeve) overcon the spring load and
therefore moves along the hub to make contact with the sychromesh teeth mounted on the pinion

The pinion is now connected to the mainshaft via the supplies of the outer member (sliding sleeve) and
the hub respectively
THE BAULK RING TYRE

CONSTRUCTION-as shown by sketch

Operation: when the gear lever is moved, the outer member (sliding sleeve) moves with it. This
movement carries the shifting plate to bring the baulk ring into light engagement with the mating cone

The baulk ring then rotates slightly by friction to the extent permitted by a clearane between the shifting
plate and the synchrohub (inner member)

Further movement of the gear lever enables, the baulk ring teeth to move into the path of the
advancing outer member teeth which in turn tries to push the obstruction out of the way. Positive
pressure is then applied to the cone members thereby increasing the frictional effort between the cones

When further pressure is applied the gear lever, the same speed as the outer member. The frictional
drag on the baulk ring is then zero or dimminished and the chamfered teeth of the outer member and
the ring, acting on each other, force the baulk ring out of the way; thus allowing unrestricted movement
into engagement with dog clutch teeth

INERTIA LOCK BAULK RING SYNCHROMESH UNIT

CONSTRUCTION; the unit consists of baulk ring with conical surface and three fingers spaced at equal
interval; selector with external dog clutch; plate springs (3) located between the mainshaft and the
selector

Operation

As the pinion revolves a slight drag between the surface causes the baulk ring to move so that the
fingers of the baulk ring are set up to one side of the grooves in the mainshaft

When the gear lever is operated and the selector moves towards the pinion the drag is increased due to
the deflection of the plate springs

As the selector passes over the springs it makes contact with the baulk ring because of a slight overlap
which exists between the baulk ring fingers and the selector abutments

Any increase of pressure on the gear lever brings about synchronization due to increase of pressure on
the conical surfaces of the bulk ring and the pinion

At the point of synchronization the baulk ring fingers leave one side of the groove to pass over to the
other side

The overlap between the fingers and the selector is reduced to zero and the selector moves through the
baulk ring to engage the internal splines of the pinion

The pinion (gear) is at this stage connected to the mainshaft via the splines of the selectors

22.3 a ROUTINE MAINTENANCE AND RUNNING ADJUSTMENTS NECESSARY ON VEHICLE BRAKING,

STEERING AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS
INTRODUCTION

Braking, steering and suspension systems play a pivotal role in vehicle handling. Any simple fault in the
three system may make a vehicle a hazard on the road. The majority of road accidents are as a result of
failure of any of the systems. Proper maintenance of these system is therefore of paramount
importance

Braking system

It is important to check brake fluid level, condition and for leaks in the master cylinder and wheel
brakes.