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DOI 10.1007/s10706-011-9478-x
ORIGINAL PAPER
Abstract A number of cyclic triaxial tests were Keywords Mine tailings Natural sediments
carried out on mine tailings and natural sediment Void ratio Cyclic stress ratio Cyclic resistance
samples under undrained conditions to investigate
their resistance to cyclic loading. The tests were
performed on more than 100 samples with a cyclic 1 Introduction
shear stress ratio ranging from 0.10 to 0.40 under
varying void ratio and the same confining pressure. It The mining industry produces large quantities of mine
was observed that the axial strain and excess pore tailings every day. Depending on the minerals present
water pressure increased with the number of loading in the parent rock, tailings could adversely affect the
cycles while the effective stress decreased with environment if they are not disposed off properly. One
increasing number of loading cycles. The liquefaction of the most common methods of tailings disposal is
resistance of the tailings was also observed to be transporting them in slurry pipes (or flumes) to
higher than that of natural soils with similar particle suitable disposal ponds retained by tailings dams.
size distribution, void ratio and plasticity index. It was One major concern with such mine tailings deposit is
observed that the influence of specific gravity on the the possibility of the occurrence of liquefaction and
cyclic strength of mine tailings is significant. The the consequent failure of the retaining dams during
results showed that the cyclic resistance of the tailings cyclic loading. In the event of an earthquake, shock
was not strongly influenced by plasticity index for low waves will be generated in the impounded tailings.
plasticity tailings. A boundary relationship between Repeated shocks can cause tailings to liquefy and
void ratio and normalized cyclic resistance ratio was waves to form in the impoundment and increase the
established based on the results. risk of overtopping of the dam.
There are a number of cases where mine tailings
dams have failed due to static and seismic induced
cyclic loading. Examples are: the October 4, 2010
Kolontar bauxite tailings dam in Hungary; August 19,
A. M. Geremew (&) E. K. Yanful 2009 Karamken gold tailings dam in Russia; May 14,
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
2009 Huayuan manganese tailings dam in China;
The University of Western Ontario, 1151 Richmond
Street North, London, ON N6A 5B9, Canada April 30, 2006 Miliang area gold tailings dam in
e-mail: ageremew@uwo.ca China; October 3, 2003 Cerro Negro copper tailings
E. K. Yanful dam in Chile; November 12, 1996 Amatista tailings
e-mail: eyanful@eng.uwo.ca dam in Peru; January 17, 1994 Tapo canyon tailings
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dam in California; April 1958 Mayluu-Suu tailings (1981) studied the cyclic resistance of reconstituted
dam in Kyrgyzstan; 1954 Lengenfeld tailings dam in and undisturbed mine tailings. Moriwaki et al. (1982)
Germany; October 1, 1928 El Teniente copper mine carried out the response of copper mine tailings using
tailings dam in Chile (USCOLD 1994; UNEP 1996; field and laboratory tests. Vick (1983) investigated the
ICOLD 2001; http://www.wise-uranium.org/mdaf. cyclic strength of the different mine tailings. Peters
html). For example, the November 12, 1996 Amatis- and Verdugo (2003) observed that, under the same
ta tailings dam failure in Peru due to seismic-induced void ratio, the cyclic resistance of mine tailings
cyclic loading led to the release of more than decreases with increasing fine content. Based on field
300,000 m3 of tailings. The 1994 Merriespruit tailings and laboratory investigations, Bray et al. (2004)
dam failure, which was triggered by a 50 mm rainfall, demonstrated that soil deposits that showed cyclic
led to the flow of 600,000 m3 of tailings over the dam mobility in the laboratory exhibit significant settle-
and inundated the downstream area up to 3 km (Fourie ment. Sitharam et al. (2004) discussed the variation of
et al. 2001). The flow of the impounded tailings normalized residual strength (i.e., with effective
slime during the January 14, 1978 earthquake near confining pressure) of soils with void ratio. Wijewick-
Izu-Ohshima led to the failure of the tailings dikes reme et al. (2005) observed the variation of post cyclic
(Ishihara 1980). The 1964 devastating earthquakes in maximum shear strength ratio with void ratio for two
Niigata (Japan) and Anchorage (Alaska) led to the mine tailings.
start of more focused and organized liquefaction Peters and Verdugo (2003) showed the susceptibil-
mechanism studies. The most widely used procedure ity of mine tailings to liquefaction and the need to
for liquefaction assessment of soils and sediments is further understand the response of tailings to cyclic
the approach proposed by Youd et al. (2001). It was loading. Moreover, unlike the case with natural soils,
originally proposed by Seed and Idriss (1971) and the available published information on the cyclic shear
progressively improved by different researchers (Seed response of mine tailings is limited. It should also be
et al. 1983; Robertson and Wride 1998; Youd et al. noted that there is no clear consensus from the
2001; Juang et al. 2002; Cetin et al. 2004; Moss et al. workshops sponsored by the National Center for
2006; Idriss and Boulanger 2008). Earthquake Engineering Research (NCEER) on the
In the seismic analysis of tailings dams, the liquefaction assessment of fine-grained soils (Youd
mechanical response of mine tailings under seismic et al. 2001). Therefore, the main objective of the
induced cyclic loading must be known. This response present study is to assess the cyclic strength of mine
can be determined from laboratory dynamic tests, such tailings using cyclic triaxial testing.
as cyclic triaxial test. A number of researchers have
studied the response of soils, sediments and mine
tailings to cyclic loading (McKee et al. 1979; Ishihara
et al. 1980, 1981; Moriwaki et al. 1982; Vick 1983; 2 Materials and Methods
Poulos et al. 1985; Alarcon-Guzman et al. 1988;
Marcuson et al. 1990; Finn et al. 1994; Koester 1994; 2.1 Tailings and Soil Samples
Boulanger et al. 1998; Yamamuro and Lade 1998;
Braja et al. 1999; Andrews and Martin 2000; Atukor- The tailings samples used in the present study are
ala et al. 2000; Thevanayagam et al. 2000; Polito and obtained from four mining sites located in Ontario,
Martin 2001; Youd et al. 2001; Bouckovalas et al. Canada: Mattabi near Ignace; Shebandowan located
2003; Bray et al. 2004; Wijewickreme and Sanin approximately 90 km west of Thunder Bay; Mussel-
2004; Wijewickreme et al. 2005; Hyde et al. 2006; white, located on the southern shore of Lake Opapi-
Leon et al. 2006; Sanin and Wijewickreme 2006; miskan, 480 km north of Thunder Bay; and Copper
Bouferra et al. 2007; James et al. 2007; Idriss and Cliff Mine, Sudbury. Kaolinite, obtained from United
Boulanger 2008). For example, Ishihara et al. (1980) Clay Inc., USA, and bentonite (montmorillonite) from
showed that fine-grained tailings with a plasticity Wyoming, USA, were also used in the study. A natural
index of 15–20% have a smaller cyclic strength than soil from London, Ontario, Canada, Casco silty soil,
those that exhibit non-plastic behavior. Ishihara et al. was included in the study for comparison purposes.
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2.2 Physical and Mineralogical Properties and a porous stone covered with a filter paper were
of Tailings and Natural Soil mounted on the base of the cyclic triaxial apparatus
and supported by a split mould. Pre-determined
A series of tests were carried out using standard quantities of air-dried tailings (and natural soil) were
laboratory equipment to obtain the basic physical spread carefully and sequentially in five layers into the
properties of the tailings and natural soil. The particle mould. Each layer was densified by tamping with a
size distributions of the tailings and natural soil were wooden rod that had a thick, hard rubber membrane at
estimated using sieve and hydrometer analysis. ASTM its base. In order to obtain uniform density within the
D 4318 standard was used to estimate the specific entire height of the sample, the number of regular hand
gravity and Atterberg limits. The initial moisture tamping for the bottom layer was kept to half that of
content of air-dried tailings and natural soil samples the top layer. For the intermediate layers, the number
were determined based on ASTM D 4643 procedure of hand tamping varied linearly between the bottom
(Braja 2002). The most commonly used GeoNor fall and top layers. To densify the top layer of the samples,
cone apparatus, Model G-200, was used to estimate a light surcharge was introduced on the top of the
the liquid and plastic limits (GeoNor 2005). The samples to facilitate the tamping. The top of the
mineralogy of the tailings and natural soil was sample was then covered with filter paper and a porous
characterized using X-ray diffraction analysis. stone was placed on top of the filter paper. Using the
above technique, the tailings and natural soil samples
2.3 Description of Monotonic and Cyclic Triaxial with different target initial void ratios were prepared.
Testing Apparatus After the samples were prepared, a small vacuum
pressure was applied to the specimens to reduce
The cyclic triaxial testing equipment used in this study disturbance during the removal of split mould and
was a general-purpose automated triaxial testing triaxial cell installation. As explained in Sects. 2.4.2
system (Wykeham Farrance, Model No. 12492, Hert- and 2.4.3, the samples were saturated, consolidated
fordshire, United Kingdom) with various transducers. and then cyclically loaded using the built-in hydrau-
There were 10 transducers; namely, WF 17070 lic actuator system of the cyclic triaxial testing
displacement transducers (vertical actuator, on-sam- equipment.
ple radial and two on-sample axial displacement Using the same sample preparation techniques,
transducers), pressure transducers (cell pressure, back additional samples of Mattabi tailings with different
pressure, pore and mid-height pore water pressure void ratio were prepared. From these samples, sub-
transducers), volume change transducer and load cell samples were prepared and one-dimensional consol-
transducer. The loading system consisted of a load idation tests were carried out based on ASTM D 2435
frame and hydraulic actuator capable of performing procedure to estimate the pre-consolidation pressure
stress and strain controlled triaxial tests with a for the corresponding initial void ratio (ASTM Des-
frequency of 0.01–10 Hz. The frame was large enough ignation: D 2435 1996). ‘‘It shall be noted that similar
for testing specimens of size between 70 and 100 mm tamping load during sample preparation resulted in
in diameter, and 140 and 200 mm in height with similar initial void ratio.’’
confining stresses up to 2000 kPa (Wykeham Farrance
2008). 2.4.2 Saturation and Consolidation
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Table 1 Basic physical characteristics and cyclic strength of mine tailings and natural soils
Sample description Percentage of fines Gs Consistency index Cyclic strength
(\2 lm) (\5 lm) LL PL PI ec CRR
(%) (%) (-) (%) (%) (%) (-) (-)
Mattabi mine tailings 2.56 3.20 3.29 20.1 7.5 12.6 0.65 0.345
(MAT tailings) 0.70 0.312
0.80 0.250
0.85 0.195
0.92 0.141
Shebandowan East Cell mine tailings 1.29 1.29 3.22 12.0 11.0 1.0 0.70 0.305
(SHEEC tailings) 0.75 0.267
0.80 0.207
1.00 0.144
Shebandowan West Cell mine tailings 4.31 5.70 3.3 23.0 15.3 7.7 1.02 0.147
(SHEWC tailings) 0.89 0.197
0.85 0.238
Sudbury mine tailings 1.77 3.06 3.88 23.61 19.32 4.3 0.99 0.227
(SHEEC tailings) 1.03 0.166
1.16 0.139
Musselwhite mine tailings 2.02 5.96 3.32 24.48 20.13 4.3 0.85 0.262
(MW tailings) 0.90 0.208
0.70 0.344
0.95 0.173
Musselwhite-5% kaolinite mix 6.52 10.40 3.2 20.7 15.2 5.5 0.82 0.170
(MW tailings—5K) 0.77 0.186
Musselwhite-5% bentonite mix 6.88 8.00 3.23 29.5 21.3 8.2 0.991 0.158
(MW tailings—5B) 0.775 0.274
Musselwhite-15% bentonite mix 14.09 15.89 3.2 44.5 21.3 23.2 Not liquefied
(MW tailings—15B)
London-Casco silty sand (LC silty sand) 4.00 15.0 2.74 20.6 15.5 5.1 0.668 0.224
Gs, specific gravity; LL, liquid limit PL, plastic limit; PI, plasticity index; ec, void ratio after consolidation; CRR, cyclic resistance
ratio that corresponds to 20 cycles required to produce 5% double amplitude axial strain
80 kPa. The comparison between the pre-consolida- Robertson 1994; Kramer 1996). Cyclic mobility
tion and effective consolidation pressures showed that results in deformation and can be induced by cyclic
the specimens were not highly over consolidated with loading.
an OCR (over consolidation ratio) of around unity. From the results of strain-controlled monotonic
Indeed, there were slight variations in the OCR values triaxial tests on Mattabi tailings samples, the relation-
for the different tailings layers. ship between the effective mean principal stress and
critical void ratio (i.e., the critical state line) was
3.2 Strain-Controlled Monotonic Triaxial Test established (Fig. 2a). This line can be used to identify
the susceptibility of Mattabi tailings to flow liquefac-
Liquefaction can be classified as either flow liquefac- tion and to differentiate between loose and dense state
tion or cyclic mobility. Flow liquefaction is a process of Mattabi tailings. If the state of Mattabi tailings
of strain-softening; it occurs only in loose (or deposit in the field plots above this critical state line,
contractive) cohesionless soils. It can be induced by then the deposit is considered susceptible to flow
static or seismic undrained loading (Casagrande 1976; liquefaction provided that the static shear stress
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10.0
0.0
0.00001 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Particle size, D (mm)
exceeds the residual strength of the tailings deposit. pressure ratio, total pore water pressure and effective
However, if it plots below this line, it will not be stress with the number of loading cycles for Mattabi
susceptible to flow liquefaction (Poulos et al. 1985). tailings is presented in Fig. 3a and b. The results show
Typical stress paths for Mattabi tailings samples are that as the number of cycles increases, the excess pore
shown in Fig. 2b and c. water pressure increases and, at initiation of liquefac-
tion, it reaches a value approximately equal to the
confining pressure; a stage at which the effective stress
3.3 Stress-Controlled Cyclic Triaxial Test becomes negligible. The loading cycles corresponding
to a 5% double amplitude axial strain were determined
In cyclic strength studies of soils, it is common to from these plots to obtain the corresponding applied
express the developed cyclic shear stress due to the cyclic stress ratio (CSR) given by Eq. 1.
applied axial cyclic loading by plotting the non- rd
dimensional cyclic stress ratio (CSR) against the CSR ¼ ð1Þ
2r0c
number of loading cycles (N) to failure. The most
0
commonly adopted failure criterion for isotropically where rd is cyclic deviator stress in kPa and rc is
consolidated samples is the cyclic stress ratio that effective consolidation pressure in kPa.
corresponds to the number of loading cycles required From laboratory cyclic triaxial tests, Thammathiwat
to achieve 100% pore pressure ratio (a stage at which and Chim-oye (2004) verified that, for a given cyclic
the gradually developed pore water pressure reaches shear stress ratio, the variation in the excess pore water
the initially applied effective confining stress) or 5% pressure during cyclic loading shows nearly similar
double amplitude axial strain (Perlea 2000). trends for different effective confining pressure. In the
In the present study, for the sake of consistency and present study, it was observed that the loading cycle that
within the limits of the precision of the pressure gave 5% double amplitude axial strain was comparable
transducers under high frequency cyclic loading, to the loading cycle that gave a pore pressure ratio of
failure was assumed to occur when the double unity. Indeed, there were slight variations between the
amplitude axial strain reached 5%. The tests were two; the variations were different for different types of
terminated when the pore pressure ratio reached unity tailings. As explained by Boulanger and Idriss (2006,
as liquefaction failure would occur when the effective 2007), this could be dependent on the frequency of
stress reached zero. A typical plot showing the loading, the plasticity index, and the type and amount of
variations of double amplitude axial strain, pore clay minerals present in the tailings.
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MAT - 12 MAT - 13
MAT - 16 MAT - 17
0.0
10 100 1000
Effective mean normal stress, p' (kPa)
Axial strain, εa (%)
0 5 10 15 20
(b) 300
200
150 εa versus q
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Stress (kPa)
(c) 700
600
Deviator stress , q (kPa)
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Effective mean principal stress, p' (kPa)
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3.0 0.3
2.0 0.2
Double amplitude axial strain
1.0 0.1
0.0 0.0
105
120
135
150
165
180
195
210
225
15
30
45
60
75
90
0
(b) 210
ec = 0.647
180
Cell pressure
150
Pressure (kPa)
90
60 Effective stress
30
0
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225
Number of cycles (-)
3.4 Resistance of Tailings and Natural Soil cyclic failure (i.e., cyclic resistance) of a given soil
to Cyclic Loading from the plot of cyclic stress ratio (CSR) versus
number of loading cycles required to produce 5%
At present, in general, the Youd et al. (2001) double amplitude axial strain (N5%) relationship as the
procedure is the recommended approach for the cyclic stress ratio corresponding to 20 cycles. Even
estimation of the cyclic resistance of soils. The cyclic though this criterion is location specific, it was used in
strength of soils is known to vary with void ratio the present laboratory investigation to estimate the
(Sitharam et al. 2004, 2005). In the present study, an cyclic resistance ratio (CRR) of the tailings and natural
attempt was made to establish a relationship between sediments. A plot of cyclic stress ratio versus the
the cyclic resistance ratio (CRR) and void ratio (e) for number of cycles required to reach 5% double
the tailings investigated. Ishihara (1993) specified the amplitude axial strain has been produced for different
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void ratios (Fig. 4). The cyclic resistance ratio that Fig. 5, the influence of specific gravity on the cyclic
corresponds to 20 cycles was determined from strength of mine tailings is significant. In the present
the established relationship between CSR and N5%. study, as a means of accounting for the effect of
Typical plots for Mattabi tailings and other natural specific gravity, the cyclic resistance ratio (CRR) of
soils are shown in Fig. 4 while the details are shown in the tailings was normalized by dividing CRR by the
Fig. 5 and Table 1. The results show that, for the respective specific gravity (Gs). The relationship
tailings and natural soil investigated in the present between the normalized CRR (i.e. CRR/Gs) and void
study, the cyclic strength decreases and approaches a ratio (e) is shown in Fig. 6. The calculated regression
single value as the void ratio increases. coefficient (R2 value) for the relation between CRR
The cyclic strength of mine tailings is influenced and ec, and CRR/Gs and ec were 0.73 (Fig. 5) and
by their specific gravity, among other parameters and 0.90 (Fig. 7) respectively. These results show that the
accounting for this effect would increase the accuracy normalized relationship (between CRR/Gs and ec)
of prediction. The mode of failure in cyclic tests is provides a better accuracy than the original relation-
different from that in monotonic tests. In monotonic ship (between CRR and ec) for the mine tailings
tests, failure is associated with failure planes. In investigated in this study. Based on more than 100
cyclic tests, failure is not related to a specific failure samples of tailings acquired from four mining sites in
plane; it occurs when the double amplitude axial Canada, a boundary relationship between void ratio
strain reaches 5%. The internal pore water pressure and normalized cyclic resistance ratio was established
acts on the tailings solids; with their high specific (Eqs. 2 and 3, Fig. 7).
gravity the tailings provide great resistance. This
suggests that, in cyclic mobility assessment of mine CRR
¼ 0:047e1:95
c Average cyclic strength curve
tailings, specific gravity would play a prominent role, Gs
which may not necessarily be the case with natural ð2Þ
sediments. Specific gravity is typically quite high for CRR
mine tailings (compared to that of natural sediments) 0:037e1:87
c 0:059e1:92
c
Gs ð3Þ
and depends on the nature of the parent ore from Boundary cyclic resistance curves
which the minerals were extracted. Thus, accounting
for this parameter could facilitate the development of where Gs is the specific gravity, ec is the initial void
a boundary relationship between the resistance of the ratio after consolidation, CSR is the cyclic stress ratio
tailings to cyclic loading and void ratio. As shown in and CRR is the cyclic resistance ratio.
soil samples
e = 0.80 (0.78 - 0.82)
0.40
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0.25
0.20 y = 0.202x-2.68
Best fit line R² = 0.83
0.15 y = 0.162x-1.76
R² = 0.73 y = 0.141x-2.09
y = 0.153x-2.57
R² = 0.97
R² = 0.96
0.10
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
Void ratio (e)
0.12 y = 0.05x-2.14
R² = 0.93
0.10
0.08
y = 0.042x-2.09
0.06 R² = 0.97 y = 0.052x-2.68
R² = 0.83
0.04
y = 0.046x-2.57
R² = 0.96
0.02
0.00
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
Void ratio (e)
3.5 Validity of the Boundary Cyclic Resistance shear tests. Wijewickreme et al. (2005) also used a
Curves constant-volume, cyclic direct simple shear apparatus
to determine the cyclic resistance of undisturbed
As a means of verifying the validity of the established samples of laterite, copper–gold tailings, copper–gold-
boundary relationship between void ratio and normal- zinc tailings and reconstituted copper–gold-zinc tail-
ized cyclic resistance ratio, results of laboratory ings. Sitharam et al. (2004) investigated the cyclic
studies published by different investigators were used. resistance of liquefied silty sand samples using stress-
Sanin and Wijewickreme (2006) estimated the cyclic controlled undrained cyclic triaxial tests. The cyclic
resistance of undisturbed samples of Fraser River strength of El Cobre old dike sand, El Cobre No. 4 dike
Delta silt using constant-volume cyclic direct simple sand and quartz sand were also carried out using
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0.08
0.06 y = 0.059x-1.92
y = 0.037x-1.87
0.04
0.02
0.00
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
Void ratio (e)
stress-controlled cyclic triaxial shear test apparatus in From Fig. 8, it can be seen that the void ratio versus
undrained condition (Ishihara et al. 1980). normalized cyclic resistance ratio data obtained by
Based on CRR results from Cyclic Direct Simple Sanin and Wijewickreme (2006); Wijewickreme et al.
Shear (DSS) and isotropically consolidated undrained (2005) and Ishihara et al. (1980) fall within the
Cyclic Triaxial (TRX) tests performed by a number of established boundaries in the present study. The CRR
researchers (Seed and Peacock 1971; Finn et al. 1971; results from Cyclic Direct Simple Shear (DSS) tests
Ishibashi and Sherif 1974; Castro 1975; Seed 1979), obtained from other researchers were transformed into
the following relationship (Eq. 4) is recommended by an equivalent Cyclic Triaxial values using Eq. 5. The
Idriss and Boulanger (2008). data from Sitharam et al. (2004) fall below the lower
boundary and this is due to the fact that the investi-
1 þ 2ðKo ÞSS
CRRDSS ¼ CRRTRX ð4Þ gated samples were liquefied silty sand during the
3
Bhuj earthquake. Even though its void ratio is beyond
where CRRDSS is the cyclic resistance ratio obtained the range proposed in the present study, the laterite
using cyclic direct simple shear device, CRRTRX is the tailings sample (Wijewickreme et al. 2005) shows a
cyclic resistance ratio obtained using cyclic triaxial higher value of cyclic resistance to liquefaction than
device and (Ko)DSS is the coefficient of earth pressure the other samples (Fig. 8). This discrepancy is due to
at rest in a cyclic direct simple shear device. For the the fact that the laterite tailings contained 35% clay
present study, as explained in the sample preparation (\2 lm) whereas the other tailings have a much lower
section, the tailings samples were normally consoli- clay content (Table 2). Such good agreement with
dated. For such normally consolidated tailings and published data from different researchers suggests that
natural sediments, the value of (Ko)DSS, can be taken the established boundary relationships are promising
between 0.45 and 0.50. Hence, Eq. 4 reduces to Eq. 5. and that similar investigations could be carried out to
further validate them.
CRRDSS ¼ ð0:63 to 0:67ÞCRRTRX ð5Þ
As shown in Fig. 8, the data from these other 3.6 Suitability of the Empirical Liquefaction
investigations have been plotted on the established Susceptibility Criteria for Tailings and Natural
boundary relationship between void ratio and normal- Soil
ized cyclic resistance ratio (derived in Fig. 7). More-
over, the physical properties of the samples and the Apart from the intensity, duration and frequency of
cyclic shear resistance results are as shown in Table 2. cyclic loading, the response of soils to shear and
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Fig. 8 Plots of data from 0.20 #3-Fraser River Delta Silt (Sanin and Wijewickreme 2006)
different investigators on the Laterite tailings, Clayey silt (Wijewickreme et al. 2005)
0.08
y = 0.059x-1.92
0.06
0.04 y = 0.037x-1.87
0.02
0.00
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
Void ratio (ec)
Table 2 Physical characteristics and cyclic shear resistance of different samples investigated by other researchers
Description Clay content ec CRR Gs CRR/Gs Test type References
(%) (-) (-) (-) (-)
#3-Fraser River Delta silt, II (a) 10 0.931 0.145 2.690 0.054 Cyclic direct Sanin and
#3-Fraser River Delta silt, III (a) 10 0.912 0.170 2.690 0.063 simple shear Wijewickreme
(2006)
Laterite tailings, silty clay 35 1.393 0.238 4.100 0.058 Cyclic direct Wijewickreme et al.
Copper–gold tailings, silt 6–11 0.556 0.309 2.780 0.111 simple shear (2005)
Reconstituted copper–gold-zinc 8.1 0.860 0.194 3.670 0.053
tailings
Copper–gold-zinc tailings, silt *0 0.980 0.186 3.620 0.051
El Cobre old dike sand tailings \5 0.779 0.190 2.694 0.071 Cyclic triaxial Ishihara et al. (1980)
0.674 0.230 2.694 0.085
0.625 0.300 2.694 0.111
El Cobre no.4 dike sand tailings 5 0.921 0.175 2.735 0.064 Cyclic triaxial Ishihara et al. (1980)
0.743 0.240 2.735 0.088
Quartz sand 0 0.845 0.133 2.644 0.050 Cyclic triaxial Ishihara et al. (1980)
0.775 0.170 2.644 0.064
0.715 0.250 2.644 0.095
Bhuj silty sand 2 0.547 0.075 2.670 0.028 Cyclic triaxial Sitharam et al.
0.524 0.090 2.670 0.034 (2004)
0.500 0.182 2.670 0.068
Gs, specific gravity; ec, void ratio after consolidation; CRR, cyclic resistance ratio that corresponds to 20 cycles required to produce
5% double amplitude axial strain
deformation is influenced by many other factors Puri 1982; Sandoval 1989; Guo and Prakash 1999).
including mineralogy, grain size/shape, plasticity, However, current practice sometimes uses empirical
particle arrangement (fabric), microstructure, packing criteria that are based on only simple soil indices for
density, initial stress conditions, and age (Prakash and the evaluation of liquefaction potential of fine grained
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15
25 10
Susceptible to liquefaction
5
0 0
0 30 60 90
Water content , WC (%)
15
25 10
Susceptible to liquefaction
5
0 0
0 30 59 89
Water content , W (%)
C
soils. The Chinese criterion is one of the oldest when cyclic load (like earthquake) is applied and
empirical methods for the evaluation of liquefaction therefore increase the vulnerability to liquefaction
susceptibility of fine grained soils (Wang 1979). This (Seed et al. 1983) (Fig. 9). Accounting for the
method states that for soils with a percentage of fines variation in estimating the Atterberg limits from
(\5 lm) less than 15%, liquid limit (LL) less than ASTM procedures, Finn (1991, 1993) and Perlea
35% and a gravimetric water content greater than 90% et al. (1999) proposed the following adjustment to the
of the liquid limit, significant strength loss will occur Chinese criterion: decrease the fines content by 5%,
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28
Not susceptible to liquefaction
24
20
16 To be tested
12
8
Potentially liquefiable
4
0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
wc/LL (-)
increase the liquid limit (LL) by 1% and increase the may not be suitable for determining the liquefaction
water content (Wc) by 2% (Fig. 10). susceptibility of mine tailings. Indeed, further
Bray et al. (2004) have proposed an empirical investigation needs to be carried out to verify the
cyclic mobility criterion basing their laboratory work applicability of the Chinese and modified Chinese
and observations after the Kocaeli earthquake in criteria.
Turkey as follows: a soil deposit with a water content The cyclic mobility criterion formulated by Bray
(Wc) greater than or equal to 85% of the liquid limit et al. (2004) was also used to evaluate the liquefaction
(LL) and plasticity index (PI) less than or equal to 12% susceptibility of the mine tailings investigated in the
is susceptible to cyclic mobility under the application present study. As shown in Fig. 11, the results showed
of cyclic loading. They also proposed an empirical that all of the tailings fall in the ‘‘potentially liquefi-
criterion for soil deposits moderately susceptible to able’’ zone which agreed with the experimental
cyclic mobility as follows: water content to liquid results. However, experimental studies for samples
limit ratio between 0.80 and 0.85 (0.80 \ Wc/ falling on the boundary zone (i.e., ‘‘to be tested’’)
LL \ 0.85) and plasticity index between 12 and 20 should be carried out to provide a conclusive case for
(12 \ PI \ 20). the adaptability of the empirical cyclic mobility
The Chinese criterion was applied to evaluate the criterion proposed by Bray et al. (2004).
liquefaction potential of the tailings (Fig. 9). The
results showed that some of the tailings samples were
either not susceptible or at the borderline to liquefac- 4 Summary and Conclusions
tion even though the experimental results showed the
tailings were liquefied. The suitability of the modified In the present study, a series of stress-controlled
Chinese criterion following Finn et al. (1994) was isotropic and undrained cyclic triaxial tests were
evaluated as shown in Fig. 10. Some of the tailings fall carried out on mine tailings and natural soil samples to
in the category of ‘‘not susceptible to liquefaction’’ or examine the liquefaction potential and dynamic prop-
at the borderline which contradicts the results of the erties of tailings from four mine sites in Canada. In
present experimental investigation. Therefore, accord- addition, other standard laboratory experimental
ing to the present study, the Chinese criterion and the investigations were carried out. Based on the results
modified Chinese criterion by Finn et al. (1994) of the study, the following conclusions are drawn.
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• The axial strain and excess pore water pressure earthquake engineering research, Auckland, New Zealand,
increased with the number of cycles, while the 30 January–4 February 2000. New Zealand Society for
Earthquake Engineering, Upper Hutt, New Zealand,
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of cycles. ASTM Designation: D 2435 (1996) Standard test methods for
• The number of loading cycles that gave 5% double one-dimensional consolidation properties of soils using
amplitude axial strain showed a slight variation incremental loading, annual book of ASTM standards.
ASTM International, West Conshohocken
from the number of loading cycles that gave a pore ASTM Designation: D 4767 (1996) Standard test methods for
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• As the void ratio increased, the cyclic strength cohesive soils, annual book of ASTM standards. ASTM
decreased and approached each other at high void International, West Conshohocken
ASTM Standard: D 5311-92 (1996) Test method for load
ratios. controlled cyclic triaxial strength of soil, annual
• The liquefaction resistance of the tailings was not book of ASTM standards. ASTM International, West
strongly influenced by the plasticity index, for low Conshohocken
plasticity tailings. Atukorala UD, Wijewickreme D, McCammon NR (2000) Some
observations related to liquefaction susceptibility of silty
• For the range of samples investigated, the mine soils. In: Proceedings of the 12th world conference on
tailings showed higher resistance to liquefaction earthquake engineering, Auckland, New Zealand, 30 Jan-
than natural soil with similar particle size distri- uary–4 February 2000. New Zealand Society for Earth-
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