Barnett R. A. & Fujii J. N. - Vectors (1963) PDF

vectors
rayixiond a. barnett
instructor of matbematics
Oakland city college
jobn n. fujii
instructor of matbematics
Oakland city college
jobn W i l e y & sons, inc., new y o r k •london

Copyright © 1963 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
All Rights Reserved. This book or any part thereof must not be reproduced
in any form without the written permission of the publisher.
Printed in the United States of America

preface
This supplement should be useful to lower-division students

in mathematics, physics, and engineering and, in addition, to
mathematically capable students in high school. We have found,
in teaching the calculus, that students have a need for a supple
mentary source of material on the algebra of vectors devoid of
other complicating topics. We also have reason to believe that
many engineering and physics instructors feel the same way with
regard to certain courses in their field.
The elementary notions of analytic geometry and the standard
high school courses in trigonometry and intermediate algebra
are all th at are necessary for profitable study of the material
presented here. No calculus is required, for the development
stops at the threshold of the vector calculus. The last chapter,
however, includes examples and exercises of a transitional nature
which are designed to prepare the reader for a natural entry into
the vector calculus.
The topics included in this supplement are neither new nor
different but are, we hope, presented with continuity and clarity.
Numerous examples and exercises are included so that readers
will have an opportunity to make the development their own.
Additional features are (a) definitions and theorems are ‘‘set
off” and numbered for easy reference; (b) a brief summary of
VI PREFACE
the important definitions and theorems is included before each

set of problems to provide the reader with an overview of the
preceding topics; (c) the problems and exercises are “paired/^
where possible, into even and odd, with answers given to all
items. In addition, the problems are grouped into general, geo
metric, and physics-engineering types.
Raymond A. Barnett
J ohn. N. Fujii
Oakland^ California
November y 1962
contents
Chapter 1 in t r o d u c t io n
1.1 Vectors and Scalars, 1

1.2 Vector Addition and Multiplication
of a Vector by a Scalar, 4
1.3 Collinear and Coplanar Vectors, 10
Summary, 13
Problem Set #1, 15
Chapter 2 t h e sca la r pr o d u c t, b a s e v ecto rs 22
2.1 The Scalar (Dot) Product, 22

2.2 Applications of the Scalar Product, 26
Summary, 29
Problem Set #2.1, 30
2.3 Base Vectors and Cartesian Coordinate Systems, 32
2.4 Direction Cosines and Direction Numbers, 37
Summary, 39
Vlll CONTENTS
Chapter 3 t h e v ec to r pr o d u c t, t r ip l e
PRODUCTS, VECTOR IDENTITIES 44
3.1 The Vector (Cross) Product, 44

3.2 The Vector Product in Component Form, 46
Summary, 48
3.3 The Triple Products:
a •b X c, a X (b X c), and (a X b) X c, 55
3.4 Vector Identities, 61
Summary, 62
Chapter 4 v e c t o r e q u a t io n s , c u r v e s and
SURFACES 68
4.1 Vector Equations, 68

4.2 Space Curves, 74
4.3 Surfaces, 78
Summary, 79
Problem Set #4, 81
Chapter 5 v e c t o r f u n c t io n s 87
5.1 Vector Functions in a Single

Independent Variable, 87
5.2 Vector and Scalar Point Functions, 91
S u m m a ry 97
Problem Set #5, 97
REFER EN C ES 101
ANSWERS TO PROBLEM SETS 103
INDEX 131
1
introduction
1.1 VECTORS AND SCALARS
Mathematicians and physicists deal with many kinds of quan

tities. Some quantities, such as mass, volume, distance, and
temperature, can be completely characterized by a single real
number. Other quantities, such as force, velocity, displacement,
and acceleration, require a direction and a magnitude for their
specification. The following definitions will distinguish between
these quantities.
D E FIN IT IO N 1.1.1 A scalar is a quantity that can he completely

characterized by a single real number,
D E FIN IT IO N 1.1.2 A (free) vector is a quantity that requires for

its complete specification a magnitude and a direction.
1
INTRODUCTION
Terminal point
FIGURE 1.1.1 Vector notation.
A vector can be represented geometrically by a directed line

segment in space, th at is, if P and Q are distinct points, then the
directed line segment from P to Q is called a vector. The point
P is called the initial point or end and Q the terminal point or end
of the vector. If the initial and terminal ends of a vector are
important in a discussion, a symbol such as ^^PQ” will be used to
denote the vector with initial point P and terminal point Q;
otherwise a single boldface letter, such as a, u, F, will be used to
denote vectors. If a is used to denote the vector with initial
point A and terminal point B (i.e., A P ), then —a will denote the
vector with initial point B and terminal point A (i.e., B A ).
The magnitude of a vector A P is a positive scalar quantity that
is represented by the length of the directed line segment joining
points A and P . ^^jap' or will be used to denote the mag
nitude of the vector a and ^^|AP1^^ will be used to denote the
magnitude of the vector A P . {Note: la| > 0 for all vectors a.)
DEFINITION 1.1.3 Equality of (free) vectors.
r _ r (0 direction o/ a = direction o /b . 1*
[(ii) magnitude of a. = magnitude o /b .J
* The symbol used in Definition 1.1.3 means “if and only if.” It
will be used wherever appropriate for brevity and convenience
VECTORS AND SCALARS 3
The above definition of equality implies that a vector a can be

represented by infinitely many directed line segments in space
and hence has no fixed position in space. This is the reason for
the word ^^free^^ in the definition. For certain applications in
physics and geometry it is useful to introduce the concepts of
sliding and bound vectors. A sliding vector is restricted to a
line of action; hence two sliding vectors are said to be equal if
and only if they have the same magnitude and direction and lie
on the same line. A bound or fixed vector is restricted to a
special point of application. Two bound vectors are said to be
equal if and only if they have the same magnitude, direction, and
the same initial point.
In the development that is to follow, vectors will be interpreted
as fixed, sliding, or free as is appropriate. Unless otherwise
TABLE 1.1.1
Comparison of Statements in Vector and Nonvector Form
Vector Form Nonvector Form Description
AB = (AP)t X = Xi + (X2 — X i ) t The line through

y = yi + (y2 - yi)t A{xi, yi, zi)
2 = + (22 — 2i)i and
B(x 2 f 2/2, 22)
n •OP = 0 UxX + Uyy + figZ = k A plane perpen

dicular to n
|OPl = k (x - xo)^ + (y - yo)^ + (2 - 2o)^ = k'^ A sphere with

center 0 and
radius k
a •X = a aiXi + a2X2 + 03X3 = a A system of
b •X = biXi + b2X2 + bzxs = linear
c •X = 7 C\X\ + C2X2 + C3X3 = 7 equations
SFi = 0 = 2 7 ^ = 2Zn = 0 The conditions
SMi = 0 and 2(2/n^n n) for static
” ^(2n-^n XfiZn) equilibrium
= ^{XfiYn yn^n) ~ 0
4 INTRODUCTION
stated, however, all vectors will be free vectors, and the word
‘^free’^ will henceforth be omitted from general use.
D E F IN IT IO N 1.1.4 The zero or null vector, denoted by 0, will be

assigned zero magnitude and arbitrary direction.
The reader may wonder about the apparent carelessness in

defining a direction for the zero vector. As will be seen later,
the above definition will eliminate the need for stating exceptional
cases when writing certain relationships in vector form.
Vectors with properties yet to be discussed are of considerable
use. Although an appreciation of their value will only come after
some experience, we note two benefits derived from working
within a vector frameworl^'
a. Vectors provide a concise and easy-to-follow symbolism for

the expression of useful physical relationships and formulas.
(See Table 1.1.1.)
b. Vectors enable one to analyze and solve certain geometric
and physical problems without special reference to a particular
coordinate system.
1.2 VECTOR ADDITION AND MULTIPLICATION

OF A VECTOR BY A SCALAR
The definition of the sum of two vectors given below is equiva

lent to the parallelogram law used in physics for combining forces
and velocities.
FIG U R E 1.2.1 Addition of vectors.

VECTOR ADDITION AND MULTIPLICATION OF A VECTOR
D E F IN IT IO N 1.2.1 Vector Addition. Given two vectors a and b,

the vector c, called the sum (or resultant) of a and b, is obtained by
placing the initial end of b on the terminal end of a and constructing
the vector c so that its initial end
will be at the initial end of a and
its terminal end will be at the
terminal end of b.
The sum (or resultant) of
several vectors can be found
by repeated application of
Definition 1.2.1.
D E F IN IT IO N 1.2.2 Vector Sub

traction. The difference of two
vectors a and b, denoted by
a — b, is a vector c such that
a = b + c, th at is, FIGURE 1.2.3 Vector subtrac-
tion.
[a — b = c] ^ [a = b + c].
Definition 1.2.2 may be more readily understood by recalling

the analogous definition for the difference of two real numbers.
The difference of two vectors is also defined in terms of addition
by the use of the symbol — th at is, a — b = a + ( —b).
Hence subtracting a vector is the same as adding its negative.
Both forms of the definition are useful in applications.
INTRODUCTION
/-2 a
FIGURE 1.2.4 Scalar multiples.
There are several different types of multiplication involving

vectors; each has a distinct geometric interpretation. The first
type of product considered is that of a scalar and a vector. (Two
others types of products will be introduced in Section 2.1 and
Section 3.1.)
DEFINITION 1.2.3 Multiplication of a vector by a scalar. I f

h is a scalar and a is a vector^ then n>a.
ha is a vector with magnitude
Lo u,
f the same as a if h> > 0 I
|/il la| and direction and arbitrary if
\the same as —a a if h < 0}
h = 0.
Vector quantities obey certain algebraic laws. These laws
enable us to manipulate the symbols which represent vector
quantities in much the same way as the symbols that represent
real numbers are manipulated in the algebra of real numbers.
We summarize the important laws which arise as a consequence
of the definitions stated above.
(a, b, c are vectors; m and n are scalars)
A L G E B R A IC L A W S
1.2.1 a + b = b + a commutative law
1.2.2 a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c associative law
1.2.3 a + 0 = a additive identity
1.2.4 a + (-a ) = 0 additive inverse
1.2.5 la = a unit element
1.2.6 Oa = 0 zero element
1.2.7 (mn)a = m(na) associative law
1.2.8 (m + n)a. = ma + na distributive law

1.2.9 m(a + b) = ma + wb distributive law
Note that no distributive law involving vector quantities only

(i.e., a(b + c) = ab + ac) is included in the preceding list.
The reason is that a product of two vectors has not as yet been
defined. The proof of Laws 1.2.1 and 1.2.9 will be left as exer
cises. Law 1.2.2 can be established by a construction. The
remaining laws follow directly from the given definitions.
The magnitudes (i.e., the absolute values) of vectors also have
certain properties which are summarized below.
for the
A L G E B R A IC L A W S magnitude of vectors (a and b are vec
tors, m a scalar)
1.2.10 |a| > 0, [|al = 0] [a = 0]
1.2.11 |al + |b| > la + b| triangle inequality
1.2.12 |a| - |b| < |a — b| triangle inequality
1.2.13 jmal = \m\ |a|
The following examples illustrate how the laws and properties
just stated are utilized. The reader is encouraged to read each
example carefully, identifying the appropriate law or definition
that justifies each step of the procedure.
EXA M PLE 1.2.1 If M is the midpoint of the segment AB and 0 is any
point in space, show that OM — ^ 0 A — ÔB.
FIG U R E 1.2.5 The associative law.

INTRODUCTION
FIGURE 1.2.6 Midpoint of AB.
Solution
a. BA = OA — OB Definition 1,2.2
h. 6 m = OB + Definition 1.2.1
c. 6 m = OB + - OB) a., b.
d. 6 m = OB + (|(M - ^ 6 b ) Law 1.2.9
e. OM = (OR - iOB) + ÔA Laws 1.2.1, 1.2.2
L OM = (1 - i)OR + ^ 6 a Laws 1.2.5, 1.2.8
g. Therefore OM = |OA + ÔB Law 1.2.1
EXA M PLE 1.2.2 Show that the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each
other.
FIG U R E 1.2.7 Diagonals of a parallelogram.

Discussion
Let the parallelogram have vertices By C, D, as shown in Figure
1.2.7. Let M and N be the midpoints of AC and BD, respectively.
We must show that M and N coincide. Two methods are presented
here, and it is suggested that the reader try both methods in one or two
other problems.
Solution (method I, Figure 1.2.7)
a. AN = ^d + hh Example 1.2.1
b. AM = ÂC Definition 1.2.3
c. AC = h + d Definition 1.2.1
d. A~M = i(b + d) b., c.
e. AM id Law 1.2.9
f. AM = itlV a., e., Law 1.2.1
g. Therefore since AM and AN have the same initial point, M and N
must coincide. Definition 1.1.3
Solution (method II, Figure 1.2.8)
D C
a. Let Q be an arbitrary point, a = QA, b = QB, c = QC, and

d = QD. Definition 1.1.2
b. QN = l^d + ^b Example 1.2.1
c. ^ = i(d + b) Law 1.2.9
10 INTRODUCTION
d. A B = DC Given
e. A B = b — a Definition 1.2.2
f. DC = c - d Definition 1.2.2
g. b — a = c — d d., e., f.
h. b + d = a + c Add a + d to both
sides in step g,
Laws 1.2.1, 1.2.4
i. ^ = -Ka + c) c., h.
j. QN = â + -J-c Law 1.2.9
k. OM = |a + ic Example 1.2.1
l. QN = eM j., k.
m. Therefore since QM and QN have the same initial point, M and N
must coincide. Definition 1.1.3
The reader should note how vectors are introduced into the
solutions of problems in two distinct ways. In method I of
Example 1.2.2, the line segments forming the figure were used
directly to introduce vectors. The point A was arbitrarily
chosen as an initial point, and appropriate vectors were defined
accordingly. In method II of the example, an arbitrary initial
point Q was chosen and connected to the critical points of the
figure to form suitable vectors.
In practice one does not usually proceed as formally as above.
However, it would be worthwhile for the reader to follow the
more formal procedures in a few exercises so th at the algebraic
laws may be more clearly understood. No attem pt should
be made to memorize the above proofs. After some experience
has been gained, the reader should be able to construct his
own proofs. In carrying out the proof of a given theorem
it is unlikely that the sequence of steps would be the same for
two different individuals.
1.3 COLLINEAR AND COPLANAR VECTORS
D E F IN IT IO N 1.3.1 Two vectors are said to he collinear if they are

parallel to the same line,
D E F IN IT IO N 1.3.2 Three vectors are said to be coplanar if they are
parallel to the same plane.
COLLINEAR AND COPLANAR VECTORS 11
FIGURE 1.3.1 c = /bia + /cob.
T H EO R EM 1.3.1 If vectors a and b are noncollinear, then any

vector c coplanar with a and b can be represented as a linear
combination of a and b. That is, there are scalars k\ and k 2 such
that
c = fcia + k 2 h.
FIGURE 1.3.2 d = /cia + k^h + k-^c.

12 INTRODUCTION
Discussion
Consider representative vectors a, b, and c with a common initial
point. Construct a parallelogram with diagonal c and sides parallel to
a and b. kia. and are represented by the sides of the parallelogram.
THEOREM 1.3.2 If vectors a, b, and c are noncoplanar, every

vector d in 3-space can be represented as a linear combination of
a, b, and c, that is, there are scalars k\^ k 2 , and ks such that
d — kiB. 4“ /c2b -f- k^c.
Discussion
Consider representative vectors a, b, c, and d with a common initial
point. Construct a parallelepiped with diagonal d and edges parallel
to a, b, and c. ki&, k^hj and k^c are represented by the edges of the
parallelepiped.
DEFINITION 1.3.3 A set of n vectors Vi, V2, . . . , Vn is said to he

linearly dependent if there are scalars A;i, A:2, kn, not all
zero, such that kiYi + k 2 V2 + • • ' + knVn = 0 ; otherwise the
set of vectors is said to he linearly independent.*
[
THEOREM 1.3.3 fv i and V2 are 1 Vi and V2 arel
[linearly dependent] collinear J
THEOREM 1.3.4 fVi and V2 are ] ^ ^2 arel
[ linearly independent J
[ noncollinear
TH EO REM 1.3.5 [ v i , V2 , and V3 a re l [ v i , V2 , and V3 a re l
[lin early dependent] [co p lan ar ]
THEOREM 1.3.6 [ v i , V2 , and V3 are ] [ v i , V2 , and V3 a re ]

[lin early independent] [noncoplanar ]
Question: Which of the above theorems are equivalent?
THEOREM 1.3.7 Three or more vectors in 2-dimensional space
are linearly dependent.
THEOREM 1.3.8 Four or more vectors in 3-dimensional space are
linearly dependent.
* In a more general development of vectors the notion of linear depend
ence and independence is introduced and utilized to a considerable extent in
the further development of the subject. The definition of linear dependence
and its relationship to collinear and coplanar vectors are stated here mainly
for the benefit of those who will pursue the subject further.
SU M M A RY 13
SUMMARY
I. I Vectors and Scalars
D E F IN IT IO N 1.1.1 A scalar zs a quantity that can he completely

characterized by a single real number,
D E F IN IT IO N 1.1.2 A vector is a quantity that requires for its
complete specification a magnitude and a direction.
D E F IN IT IO N 1.1.3 Equality of vectors.
r _ -, r (i) direction of a = direction o / b 1

^ L (ii) '^dgnitude of a = magnitude o f h \
1.1.4 The zero or null vector, denoted by 0, will he

D E F IN IT IO N
assigned zero magnitude and arbitrary direction.
1.2 Vector Addition and M ultiplication

of a V ector by a Scalar
D E F IN IT IO N 1.2.1 Vector Addition. Given two vectors a and b

the vector c, called the sum of a and b, is obtained by placing the
initial end of b on the terminal end of a and constructing the vector
c so that its initial end will be at the initial end of a and its terminal
end will be at the terminal end of b.
D E F IN IT IO N 1.2.2 Vector Subtraction. The difference of two
vectors a and b, denoted 6?/ a — b, is a vector c such that a = b + c.
Alternatively^ we can write: Subtracting a vector is the same as
adding its negative^ that is, a. — h = a + ( —b).
D E F IN IT IO N 1.2.3 Multiplication of a vector by a scalar. I f h is a
scalar and a is a vector, then ha, is a vector with magnitude \h\ |a| and
the same as a. if h > 0
direction { r l ^ 1 arbitrary if h = 0.
[the same as —a zf h < 0}
A L G E B R A IC L A W S (a, b, c a r e v e c t o r s ; m and n a re sca la rs )

1.2.1 a + b = b + a com m utative law
1.2.2 a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c associative law
1.2.3 a + 0 = a additive identity
1.2.4 a + (-a ) = 0 additive inverse
1.2.5 la = a unit element
1.2.6 Oa = 0 zero element
1.2.7 (mn)a = m(na) associative law
14 IN T RO D U C TIO N
1.2.8 (m + n)a = ma + na distributive law

1.2.9 m(a + b) = ma 4- mb distributive law
1.2.10 |a| > 0, [lal = 0] [a - 0]
1.2.11 |a| + lb| > |a + b| triangle inequality
1.2.12 la| - |b| < |a — b| triangle inequality
1.2.13 Imal = \m\ |a|
1.3 Collinear and C oplanar Vectors
D F F iN iT iO N 1.3.1 Two vcctoTS are said to be collinear i f they are

'parallel to the same line.
D E F IN IT IO N 1.3.2 Three vectors are said to be coplanar if they are
parallel to the same plane.
D E F IN IT IO N 1.3.3 A set of n vectors Vi, V2, . . . , is said to be
linearly dependent if there are scalars hi, A;2, . . . , hn, not all
zero^ such that AîVi + ^2V2 + * • • + kn'Vn = 0 ; otherwise the set
of vectors is said to be linearly independent.
T H E O R E M 1.3.1 If vectors a and b are noncollinear, any vector c
coplanar with a and b can be represented as a linear combination
of a and b, that is, there are scalars ki and k 2 such that
c = kiB. -f“ /c2b.
T H E O R E M 1.3.2 If vectors a , b , and c are noncoplanar, every

vector d in 3-space can be represented as a linear combination of
a , b , and c, that is, there are scalars /?i, k 2 y and k^ such that
d = /cia + k2b + ksc.
Vi and V2 are 1 r v i and V2 are]
]
THEOREM 1.3.3
linearly dependent] Lcollinear
[
Vi and V2 are 1 Vi and V2 are
T H E O R E M 1.3.4
linearly independent] noncollinear
Vi, V2, and V3 are ] fv i, V2, and V3l
T H E O R E M 1.3.5
linearly dependent] [a re coplanar ]
Vi, V2, and V3 are ] ^ rv i, V2, and V3 ]
T H E O R E M 1.3.6
linearly independent] ^ Lare noncoplanar]
T H E O R E M 1.3.7 Three or more vectors in 2-dimensional space are
linearly dependent.
T H E O R E M 1.3.8 Four or more vectors in 3-dimensional space are
linearly dependent.
PROBLEM SET f \ 15
PROBLEM SET #1
A. General
I. Copy the coplanar vectors given in Figure # 1-1 and construct the
vectors
FIGURE #1-1
2. Copy the coplanar vectors given in Figure # 1-2 and construct the
vectors
b + 2c (c) ma and nb such
(a) a + 2b — 3c (b) 2a - that c = TTia + nb
3. If 0(0, 0), A(3, 5), R( —1, 3), 0(1, —4) are points in a Cartesian coor
dinate plane and a = OA, b = OB, c = 0 0 , construct the vectors
(a) a + c (b) (a + b) + c (c) a + 2c — b
^^b + c
(d) (a - b) + (c - b) (e) —X------ a
4. If A (2, 3), B(5, 1), 0(0, —2), 0 ( —2, 2) are points in a Cartesian
coordinate plane and a = AB, b = BO, c = 0 0 , and d = OA, con
struct the vectors
(a) a + c (b) a — d (c) (a + d) — (c + d)
(d) (a - c) + (b - d) (e) i(c - 3d)
5. What are the magnitude and direction of the vector t—r?

n
16 INTRODUCTION
FIGURE #1-2
6. If A(2, 3), 7) are points in a Cartesian coordinate plane, what is

the magnitude of A B and what is its direction with respect to the posi
AB.
tive x-axis? What is the magnitude of
\AB\
7. Let Ay By Cy D be vertices of a tetrahedron. Let b = ABy c = ACy
d = AD. Express the directed edges BCy BDy CD in terms of b, c,
and d. /
8 . Let Ay By Cy D he vertices of a tetrahedron with 0 an arbitrary point
not in the planes of the faces. Let a = OAy b = OBy c = 0(7, and
d = OD. Express the directed edges ABy ACy and AD in terms of
a, b, and c.
9. Let Ay By Cy and D be the vertices of a parallelogram ABCD. Let
M be the point of intersection of the diagonals AC and BD. Let N be
the midpoint of side AB. If a = AD and b = BCy then find expressions
for the vectors
(a) AC (b) AM (c) ^ (d) ^
(e) AN (f) DN (g) MN
in terms of a and b.
10. Given a cube with unit edges, find the magnitude of the sum of the
three diagonal vectors drawn on the faces from one vertex of the cube.
PROBLEM SET # 1 17
11. Prove that for any two noncollinear vectors a and b

[xsi + yh = za + wh] [x = z and y = w]
12. Show by construction that
(a) a d" b = b -j- a (b) m(a + b) = ma + mb
13. Show graphically that
(a) |a| + |b| > |a + b| (b) |a| - |b| < |a - bl
14. Prove Theorems 1.3.4 and 1.3.6.
B. G eom etric Applications

(Use vector methods in the following problems unless otherwise stated.)
1. Do Example 1.2.2 with a different vector assignment than that used
in the two solutions given in the text.
2. Let P be an arbitrary point and the triangle A BC be given. Prove
that \PA + P B + PC\ = \PMi + PM i + PM^l, where Mi, M .
and Mz are the midpoints to the respective sides of the triangle.
PB
3. Let a point P divide a segment AB so that - = -• Show that for
AP 13
13
any point 0 , OP = - ^, a 4-, ■ , where a = OA and b = OB.
■ b,
a + 0 oc + P
{Note: This is a generalization of Example 1.2.1.)
4. Prove that the line segment joining the midpoints of two sides of a
triangle is parallel to and has a length one half that of the third side.
5. Prove that a line joining one vertex of a parallelogram to the mid
point of an opposite side trisects a diagonal of the parallelogram.
6. Prove that the medians of a triangle intersect at a point two thirds
of the way from each vertex to its opposite side.
7. Let A BCD be an arbitrary quadrilateral in 2-dimensional space.
Let M l, Ma, Mz, and M 4 be successive midpoints of its sides. Prove
that M iM z and M 2M 4 bisect each other. What kind of a figure is
formed when Mi, M 2, M 3, and M 4 are connected by straight line
segments?
8. Let A BCD be an arbitrary quadrilateral in 3-dimensional space (not
necessarily planar). Let Mi, M 2, Mz, and M 4 be successive midpoints
of its sides. Prove that M 1M 3 and M 2M 4 meet and bisect each other.
What kind of a figure is formed when Mi, Mo, Mz, and M 4 are con
nected by straight lino segments?
Preface to problems 9 through 18
Vector equations may often be useful in describing loci. Recall that
DEFINITION A locus IS a collccHon o f all points that satisfy one or more
given conditions and which contains no point that does not satisfy these
conditions.
18 INTRODUCTION
9. Let 0 be a fixed point and P be a variable point. What is the locus

of all points P such that
(a) 1 ^ 1 = 2 (b) |OPl < 2 (c) \6p \ < 2
(d) \OP\ > 2 ? (Note: Answer each part for 1-space, 2-space, and
3-space.)
10. Given point 0 and a positive scalar A; > 1, find the locus of all
points Q such that \OP\ = k and \PQ\ < 1. Find the locus for 1-space,
2-space, and 3-space.
11. Let A and B be fixed points in a plane. Find the locus of all points
P in the plane such that
(a) \AP\ = 1 ^ 1 ^ (b) \AP\ + = 2 | iP l
(c) IAPI - 1PP| = 2 |ylPl
12. Given triangle ABC with P any point on BC. Find the locus of all
points Q such that PQ = AP + PB + PC.
13. If 0 , A, and B are three fixed points not all on one line, then find a
vector equation for the line determined by A and B in terms of the
vectors OA and OB.
14. Find a vector equation for the bisector of the angle between two
intersecting lines. (Hint: Let a and b be vectors on the lines. Note
that there are two bisectors.)
15. Given 0 , A, and B not all on one line, find a vector equation defin
ing the locus of all points P on the plane determined by 0 , A, and B.
16. Let A and B be given points. Find a vector equation of the locus
of all points P such that
(a) P is on the line segment defined by AB.
(b) P is on the plane perpendicular to AB through A.
(c) P is on the lateral surface of a right circular cylinder with axis
AB and radius 1 unit.
17. Given points A and P, find the equation of the locus of all points P
lying on a circle with diameter AB. (Hint: Recall that a triangle
inscribed in a semicircle is a right triangle.)
18. Given points A and B, find the equation of the locus of all points P
lying on a sphere with diameter AB.
C. Physics Applications
1. Classify the following into vector or scalar quantities:
(a) velocity (b) density (c) temperature
(d) directed line segment (e) mass (f) force
2. Classify the following into vector or scalar quantities:
(a) speed (b) acceleration (c) length
(d) displacement (e) pressure (f) wind velocity
PROBLEM SET #1 19
3. An airplane flies East for a distance of 10 miles, then turns and flies
northeast for a distance of 5 miles. Construct the resultant dis
placement vector and state its direction and magnitude.
4. A ship travels successively 5 miles southeast, 3 miles northeast,
and 4 miles North. Construct the resultant displacement vector and
state its direction and magnitude.
5. A plane, after flying for 2^ hours at 800 mph in a direction which is
30° east of North, is forced down. Determine graphically and also by
calculation how far North and how far East the plane is from its initial
starting point.
6. A plane, after flying for 3:^ hours at 1200 mph in a direction which is
60° south of West, is forced down. Find the coordinates of its position
if the positive y-axis is in the direction of North and the positive x-axis is
pointed to the East, with the origin of the coordinate system at the
starting point of the plane.
Preface to problems 7 through 10
Study the solution of the following illustrative example before working
problems 7 through 10.
A boat capable of traveling 12 miles per hour on still water main
tains a westward compass reading in crossing a river. If the river is
flowing southward at 4 miles per hour, what is the velocity of the boat
with respect to the land? (Figure #1-3.)
Solution
(i) Construct separate vectors representing the boat^s motion and
the river^s flow, respectively. Label the terminal ends as shown
and the initial ends with reference to the fixed element.
(ii) Form the vector resultant by placing the “like” labels together
and drawing the vector represented by the segment connecting
the ^‘unlike” labels. The vector L B represents the velocity of
the boat with respect to the land. Its magnitude is 12.65 mph
and its direction 18°26' south of West. (Figure #1-4.)
7. A plane, after flying for 3 hours at 400 mph in a compass direction
of 30° north of West, is forced down. If there has been a steady cross
wind of 60 mph in a northward direction, find the location of the plane
with respect to its starting point. First determine the answer graph
ically using protractor and ruler, then calculate the location algebraicly,
using the necessary trigonometric functions.
8. A plane with a cruising speed of 300 mph maintains a compass head
ing of 30° west of North. A tailwind of 40 mph is coming from the
Southeast. Determine graphically and algebraicly the velocity of the
airplane with respect to the ground. (Remember that velocity is a
vector quantity.)
20 INTRODUCTION
FIGURE #1-3
9. Two piers are directly opposite each other on a river that flows South.
A man wishes to go (in a straight line) from one pier to the other in a
boat with a cruising speed of 8 knots. If the river^s current is 2.5 knots,
what compass heading should be maintained while crossing the river?
What is the actual velocity of the boat with respect to the land?
10. A ship is sailing due South at a speed of 20 knots with respect to the
land. An 8-knot wind blows from the West. What angle will a smoke
screen sent out by the ship make with the ship’s course? How long will
the smoke screen be after 20 minutes of generation?
PROBLEM SET # 1 21
Preface to Problems 11 through 16

Forces are vector quantities that are subject to the rules of vector
addition; that is, two forces F i and F 2 acting on a body are equivalent to
the single force (Fi + F 2) acting on that body. (Figure #1-5.)
11. Construct the following vectors graphically:
(Note: Indicate the scale of measurement used.)
(a) A force of 12 lb in a direction 30° south of East.
(b) A force of 15 lb in a direction 45° west of North.
(c) The sum of the forces given in (a) and (b).
(d) The difference of the forces given in (a) and (b).
12. Construct the following vectors graphically:
(Note: All angles are measured in a counterclockwise direction with
respect to the positive x-axis.)
(a) A force F i of 350 lb at 60°.
(b) A force F 2 of 200 lb at 120°.
(c) A force F 3 of 500 lb at 210°.
(d) F 4 = F i -b F 2 + F 3.
(e) F 5 = (Fi -h F 2) — F 3.
13. Three forces act simultaneous!}^ on the same object; 10 gm at 30°,
20 gm at 330°, and 15 \ /S gm at 180° where the angles are measured in a
counterclockwise direction with respect to the positive x-axis. Find
their resultant graphically and also by calculation.
14. Two forces act on the same object: 25 dynes at 40° and 43 dynes
at 100°. Find the resultant of the forces both graphically and by
calculation.
15. A force of 76 lb acts at an angle of 60° on an object located at the
origin. What two forces in the x- and y-s,xis directions, respectively,
will have an equivalent effect on the object?
16. A force of 200 lb acts at an angle of 150° on an object located at the
origin. What two forces in the x- and y-Sixis directions, respectively,
will have an equivalent effect on the object?
2
the scalar product
base vectors
2.1 T H E SCALAR (DOT) PRODUCT
In Section 1.2 the multiplication of a vector by a scalar was

defined (Definition 1.2.3). There are two further common types
of products involving vectors: “scalar products’^ and “vector
products.^’ In this section we will define and discuss the notion
of a scalar product. The notion of a vector product will be
developed in Chapter 3. The reasons for having two distinct
notions for the product of vectors will become apparent as new
concepts are developed and new applications considered.
D E F IN IT IO N 2.1.1 The angle between two arbitrary vectors a

and b, denoted by 6 or ^ ( a , b), is the angle between the two vectors
when taken from a common initial point. The angle 6 is restricted
to the interval 0 < 6 < w.
22
THE SCALAR ( d OT) PRODUCT 23
FIGURE 2.1.1 The angle between two vectors.
The quantities |a| cos |b| cos 6^ and |a| |b| cos 6 arise fre
quently in applications. Thus it is useful to give these quantities
names and to observe a few of their special properties.
D E F I N I T I O N 2.1.2 Let vectors a and b he drawn from a common

initial point with 6 = <^(a, b). The component of a in the
direction of b, denoted hy comp^ a, and the component of b in the
direction of a, denoted hy compa b, are defined hy the following:
(i) comp?, a = |a| cos 6

(ii) compab = \b\ cos 6*
We observe the following:

If 0 < ^ < x /2 , then comp?, a and compa b are positive.
If ^ = 7t/ 2, then compt a = comp^ b = 0.
If 7t/ 2 < ^ < 7T, then comp?, a and comp^ b are negative.
THEOREM 2.1.1 Given any three vectors a, b, and c, then

compa (b + c) = compa b + compa c.
A method for the proof of this theorem is suggested by Figure
2.1.3.
D E F IN IT IO N 2.1.3 The scalar product (also called the ^^dof^
or ^Hnner^^ product) of two vectors, denoted hy a •b, is the scalar
quantity given hy: a •b = \a\ lb| cos 6 where 6 = ^ ( a , b ).t
* Note that comp?, a and compa b are both scalar quantities.
I Note that it does not matter whether 6 is taken positive or negative, for
c o s ( —0) = cos 6.
FIGURE 2.1.2 compb a and compo b.
(negative)
FIGURE 2.1.3 compa (b -f c) = compo b + compa c.

24
THE SCALAR ( d Ot ) PRODUCT 25
The notion of the scalar product has its historical roots in

physics, where the concept arises rather naturally. It has also
been found to be of considerable use in many other fields. It will
play an important role in much of the discussion and development
that follow.
Observe that the definition of the scalar product is inde
pendent of any coordinate system. The basis for the use of
the scalar product in many applications is given in the following
two theorems.
TH EO REM 2.1.2 a •b = a(compa b) = 6(comp?> a)
TH EO REM 2.1.3 If a and b are nonzero vectors, then
(i) [ a - b > 0] « [ o < ^ ( a , b ) < ^ j
(ii) [a •b = 0] a perpendicular to b]
(iii) [a •b < 0] <=> ^ < ^ ( a , b ) < , r j
Theorem 2.1.2 follows immediately from Definition 2.1.2 and

2.1.3; the proof of Theorem 2.1.3 will be left as an exercise for the
reader. P art (ii) of Theorem 2.1.3 will be found to be a particu
larly useful property of the scalar product.
FIGURE 2.1.4 a •b = 0.
26 THE SCALAR PRODUCT BASE VECTORS
Algebraic operations involving the scalar product are based on

the following laws.
ALGEBRAIC LAWS (a, b, and c are vectors; /i is a scalar)
2.1.1 a •b = b •a commutative law
2.1.2 a*(b + c) = a * b + a * c distributive law
2.1.3 a • (/lb) = Qi&) •b = A(a •b) associative law
2.1.4 a •a = lap =
Laws 2.1.1, 2.1.3, and 2.1.4 are direct consequences of the defi
nition of a •b. The distributive law is proved using Theorems
2.1.2 and 2.1.1.
If a •b = a •c, we might ask, “does b necessarily equal
That is, does the “cancellation law^^ hold for vector quantities?
The “cancellation law^^ does not hold for vector quantities.
Suppose a •b = a •c; then
(i) a •b — a •c = 0 (Definition 1.2.2)
(ii) a • (b — c) = 0 (Algebraic Law 2.1.2)
(iii) a is perpendicular to (b — c) (Theorem 2.1.3)
(iv) Hence we see that a •b can equal a •c without b being
equal to c. (Figure 2.1.5.)
2.2 APPLICATIONS O F T H E SCALAR PRODUCT
The notion of projections or components is useful in many

applications. For example, the work done by a constant force
APPLICATIONS OF THE SCALAR PRODUCT 27
on a moving object is defined in physics to be the product of the

component of the force in the direction of motion of the object
and the distance the object is displaced, th at is,
Work done = (component of force in direction of motion)

X (displacement of object)
= (co n ^^B F ) ( 1 4 B 1 ) ^
= |F||.HJ|[cos ^ ( F , Z b )]
= F- AB
EXA M PLE 2.2.1 If a force of 10 lb is applied at 30° to the direction of

motion of an object and the object is moved 12 ft, find the work done
by the force.
FIGURE 2.2.1 Work done = F •
Solution
Work done = Y • AB
= (10) (12) cos 30°
= 60 V s
= 103.9 ft lb (approx.)
One of the important applications of scalar products, as men

tioned earlier, is their use to express perpendicularity between two
vectors.
EXA M PLE 2.2.2 Show that the angle inscribed in a semicircle is a right
angle.
FIGURE 2.2.2
Solution
Let vectors be assigned as indicated in Figure 2.2.2. We then have

(i) |a| = |c| = |—a| = radius of the circle (r).
(ii) A B -C B = ( c - a ) - (c + a )
= c •c — a •a
=
— ^2 _ j,2
= 0
(iii) Therefore AB is perpendicular to CB and ^ ABC is a right angle.
Another application of the scalar product is illustrated in the

following derivation of the law of cosines for triangles.
SU M M A RY 29
EXA M PLE 2.2.3 Prove the law of cosines for plane triangles.
Solution
TiCt ABC be an arbitrary triangle with vectors assigned as shown in
Figure 2.2.3. We then have
(i) b = a — c
(ii) b •b = ( a — c) •( a — c)
(iii) b ' b = a * a + c*c — 2 ( a •c )
(iv) Therefore 6- = -h — 2ac cos 6
SUMMARY
2.1 The S calar P rod u ct
DEFINITION 2 . 1 . 1 The angle between two arbitrary vectors a

and b is the angle between the two vectors when taken from a common
initial point. The angle 6 is restricted to the interval 0 < 6 < tt.
D E F IN IT IO N 2.1.2 The component of a in the direction of b is
defined by the following:
compb a = |a| cos d
THEOREM 2.1.1 Given any three vectors a, b, and c, then
compa (b + c) = compa b + compa c
D E F IN IT IO N 2.1.3 The scalar product of two vectors a and b is the
scalar quantity given by
a •b = |a| tb| cos 6 where 6 = <):(a, b)
TH EO REM 2.1.2 a • b = a(compa b) = 6 (comp5 a)
TH EO REM 2.1.3 If a a n d b a r e n o n z e r o v e c t o r s , t h e n
(i) [ a . b > 0] ^ [ o < ^ ( a , b ) < ^ ]
(ii) [a •b = 0] [a p e rp e n d icu la r to b]
(Hi) [ a - b < 0 ] « [ ^ < ^ ( a ,b ) < ^ ]
A L G E B R A IC L A W S (a, b, and c a r e v e c t o r s ; /i is a s c a l a r )
2.1.1 a •b = b •a commutative law
2.1.2 a*(b + c) = a - b + a * c distributive law
2.1.3 a • (Ab) = (hsi) •b = /i(a •b) associative law
2.1.4 a •a = lap =
30 THE SCALAR PRODUCT RASE VECTORS
2.2 Applications of the Scalar Product
EXA M PLE 2.2.1 Work = F • A B,

EXA M PLE 2.2.2 Geometric: angle inscribed in a semicircle.
EXA M PLE 2.2.3 Trigonometric: law of cosines.
PR O BLEM S ET #2.1
A. General
1. Prove Theorem 2.1.2.
3. Prove Algebraic Law 2.1.1.
7. Show that (a + b) • (c + d) = a •c + a •d + b •c + b •d. Jus
tify each step with a definition, law, or theorem.
8. Write a formula for the magnitude of a vector a in terms of the scalar
product.
9. If i, j, and k are three vectors such that li| = |j| = [kj = 1 and
i * j = j * k = k * i = 0, then show that for any vector v in 3-space
V = (v •i)i -h (v •j)j + (v •k)k. {Hint: See Figure 1.3.2.)
10. Prove that ( a ‘ b )(a * b ) < Under what conditions will the
equality hold?
B. G eom etry
1. Prove that the median to the base of an isosceles triangle is per
pendicular to the base.
2. Prove that the diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular to each
other.
3. Prove that the sum of the squares of the diagonals of a parallelogram
is equal to the sum of the squares of its sides. {Hint: = a •a.)
4. Prove that the altitudes of a triangle are concurrent.
5. Prove that the perpendicular bisectors of a triangle are concurrent.
6. Let Ay By and C be three noncollinear points. Write a vector formula
for the distance between the point C and the line connecting A and B ,
7. Given the fixed points 0 and C, find the locus of all points P such that
{OC - O P ) = 0,
8. Given points 0 , C, and a scalar r > 0, find the locus of all points P
such that { OP — OC)^ = r^.
PROBLEM SET # 2 .1 31
C. Physics
1. An object is displaced along a straight line from A (l, 0) to B(3, 2)
while being acted upon by a constant force of 10 lb in the positive x-axis
direction. Assuming the units are in feet, find the work done by this
force in displacing the object from A to B,
2. Find the total work done by the force in Problem 1 if the object is
moved along the broken line path from A (1,0) to B(3, 2) then to
C(3, 2 V S ) .
3. Find the total work done by the force in Problem 1 if the object is
moved completely around the triangle (in either direction) with vertices
A (l, 0), 5 (3 , 2), C(3, 2 V 3).
4. An object is pushed 6 ft along a table by a 20-lb force parallel to
the table. Friction creates an opposing force of 3 lb.
(a) How much work is done by the 20-lb force?
(b) How much work is done by the friction force?
(c) What is the total work of the forces combined?
(d) If the 20-lb force acts downward at an angle of 30° to the table,
then answer parts (a), (b), and (c).
5. A downward force of 100 lb making an angle of 60° with a table,
pushes a 50 lb object 5 ft. The coefficient of friction between the object
and the table is a = 0.1. What is the total work done by the combined
forces?
6. An upward force of 50 lb, making an angle of 30° with the top of a
table, acts on a 100-lb object so as to move it 10 ft. The coefficient of
FIGURE #2.1-2
friction between the object and the table is o: = 0.2. What is the total
work done by the combined forces?
7. Three forces F i, F 2, F 3 are applied at a point P which is conveniently
selected as the origin of a coordinate system. The vectors then have
their initial ends at (0, 0) and their terminal ends at (2, —3), (5, 7),
and ( —3, —2), respectively. Find both graphically and by calculation
two forces (vectors) OX and OY parallel to the x- and 2/-axes which
would have an equivalent effect as the total of F i, F 2, F 3. {Hint: Use
the components of F i, F 2, and F 3 in the positive x and y directions.)
8. Two forces F i and F 2 act along nonintersecting lines. Show that
their resultant is perpendicular to the common perpendicular to the two
lines.
9. One of the (two) requirements for static equilibrium of a body is to
have the sum of all the forces acting on the body equal to zero. Copy
Figure 2.1-1 and, using component notions, graphically find the forces
required along the given lines to obtain this condition of equilibrium.
10. Find a single force u such that F 1 + F 2 + F 3 + U = 0 in Figure
2 . 1- 2 .
2.3 BA SE VECTORS AND CARTESIAN

COORDINATE SY S T EM S
It was noted earlier th at many problems can be stated and

solved using vector quantities free of any coordinate system.
There are times, however, when a coordinate system is useful.
In the development th at follows we will be dealing with ordinary
Euclidean space of two and three dimensions.
For 3-dimensional space we will choose a ^Tight-handed’^
coordinate system. A right-handed system is obtained if, when
we rotate the positive x-axis through 90° in a counter
clockwise manner, the forward motion of a right-handed screw
BASE VECTORS AND CARTESIAN COORDINATE SYSTEMS 33
will be in the positive ^--axis direction. Another method for

describing a right-handed system is to point the thumb of the
right hand in the direction of the positive 2-axis and to note
whether the fingers, when relaxed, point in the direction of rota
tion which carries the positive x-axis into the positive y-axis
through an angle of less than 180°.
For a left-handed system the forward motion of a left-hand
s(Tew would be in the positive 2-axis direction. Alternatively,
the left hand would be used to orient the axes.
In general, it is desirable to use the same orientation of a coor
dinate system consistently, for certain formulas are changed with
a change in the orientation.
The reader should review Section 1.3 at this time before pro
ceeding further. Theorems 1.3.1 and 1.3.2 are of particular
importance.
D E F I N I T IO N 2.3.1 [a is a unit vector] [|a| = 1]
D E F I N I T IO N 2.3.2 I f every vector in a given space can he repre
sented uniquely as a linear combination of a given set S of vectors in
that space, then S is called a basis of the set of all vectors in that space
and the elements of S are called base vectors.
An immediate consequence of Definition 2.3.2 and Theorems
1.3.1 and 1.3.2 is that any three (nonzero) noncoplanar vectors
in 3-space form a basis for all vectors in the 3-space. Also, any
Right-hand system
FIGURE 2.3.1 Orientation of coordinates.

two (nonzero) noncollinear vectors in 2-space form a basis for all

the vectors in the 2-space. *
A very simple and elegant basis for the vectors in 3-space are
the three unit vectors defined as follows:
D E F IN IT IO N 2.3.3 Given the Jour points 0 (0 , 0, 0), P i ( l , 0, 0),

P2(0, 1, 0), P3(0, 0, 1) in a Cartesian coordinate space, we define
i = OPi, j = OP2, k = OP3
The reader should have little difficulty in establishing the

following theorem and its corollary.
THEOREM 2.3.1 (i) i « i = j ' j = k « k = l

(ii) i « j = j * k = k » i = 0
C O R O L L A R Y 2.3.1 The vectors i, j, and k form a basis for all

vectors in 3-space.
Since i, j, and k form a basis for the vectors in 3-space, every

vector a in the 3-space can be uniquely represented as a linear
combination of these base vectors, that is, for each vector a there
is a unique set of scalars a^, ay, a^ such that a = + aj] + a^k.
THEO REM 2.3.2 ax = compi a = a •i

ay = compj a = a •j
az = compfc a = a •k
Noting that i, j, and k are unit vectors, the reader should

readily be able to establish the above theorem as a consequence
of Theorem 2.1.2. We call the scalars ax, ay, and the com
ponents of a in the x-direction, the ^/-direction, and the a;-direc-
tion, respectively. These scalars are also often called the
^4,’’ and “k’^ components of a.
The components ax, ay, and have the following properties:
THEOREM 2.3.3 a + b = (Rx + hx)i + {ay + />^)j + (a. + hz)k
TH EO REM 2.3.4 a — b = (flj. — hx)i + {ay — by)] + {a. — /;,)k
* In general, any set of n nonzero linearly independent vectors in an

n-dimensional vector space forms a basis for that space.
BASE VECTORS AND CARTESIAN COORDINATE SYSTEMS 35
a = Ojci + ciyi + CLz^
FIGURE 2.3.2 Base vectors and components.
Proof a — b = (aî + ayj + ajs) — (bxi + by] + bzk)

I I d^k bx^ by2 bgk
= (da;i bx^} “h (®2/j by]) “1“ (dgk bzk)
bx)^ “1~ i.d/y by)^ “f" (^dz 52>)k
Note the use of Algebraic Laws 1.2.1-1.2.9.
TH EO REM 2.3.5 ha, = {hdx)i + (hdy)] + (hdz)k
TH EO REM 2.3.6 [a = 0 ] <=> [dx = Oj dy = 0, dz = 0]
Proof 1. [a = 0] [dx = Oy dy = 0, dz = 0]
ax = a * i = 0 * i = 0(1) cos a = 0
dy = a ^ ] = 0 ^ ] = 0(1) cos /3 = 0
a2 = a * k = 0 - k = 0(1) cos 7 = 0
2. [dx = Oy dy = 0, = 0] =» [a = 0]
a = dxi H“ dy] -f- a ^ k = Oi -j- Oj ■ (“ O k = 0 + 0 -l- 0 = 0
36 THE SCALAR PRODUCT RASE VECTORS
THEOREM 2.3.7 [a = b] <=» [ax = bx, ay = by, a^ = bz]
Proof 1. [a = b] => [rx = bxy ay = by, a^ = bz]

a —b = 0
(ax — bx)i + (ay — by)j + (a^ — bz)k = 0
ax bx ay by 0^ a^ b^ 0
ax bxj ay by^ a^ bz
2. [ax bxj ay by^ az bz\ ■—^ [a b]
The steps of 1 are reversible.
THEOREM 2.3.8 a •b = axbx + ayby + azbz
Theorem 2.3.8, in conjunction with Definition 2.1.3 for the

scalar product, is of particular importance in later applications.
Note that the vector operation is evaluated in terms of the scalar
components of the given vectors.
THEOREM 2.3.9 a •a = + az^ = a^ = |a|^ so that
laj — \ / + Rj/^ + R^^
th eo r em 2 .3.10 Given the points P i (x i , ?/i , î)an d P 2(^2, ?/2, ^ 2 )j

we have
P1P2 = (x2 “ xi)i + (2/2 - 2/1)3 + (^2 - 2Ji)k

D IR E C T IO N C O S IN E S AND D IR E C T IO N NUM BERS 37
Expressing the directed line segment from P i to P2 as a vector

destroys the geometric location of P1P2 (i.e., P1P2 is in a free
vector form). Note, however, that
IP1P2I = V(X2 - xi)^ + (2/2 - yi)^ + (22 - 21)"

by Theorem 2.3.9.
A proof of Theorem 2.3.10 is suggested in Figure 2.3.3.
TH EO REM 2.3.11 If 0 = ^ ( a , b ), then
a •b
cos 6 =
|a| |b| y / d y ^ + dz^ + hy^ + bz
THEOREM 2.3.12 If a is a n o n z e r o v e c t o r , th e n
is a u n i t v e c t o r p o i n t i n g i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f a.
2.4 DIRECTION COSINES AND DIRECTION N UM BERS
In working with vectors we note th at the components of any

nonzero vector are directly proportional to the cosines of the
angles that the vector makes with the positive coordinate axes.
This observation is formalized to provide a useful tool in solving
problems involving lines, planes, and/or surfaces.
2.4.1 The direction angles of a vector a dve the dngles

D E FIN IT IO N
a = < ( a , i), P = < ( a , j), 7 = -^(a, k). The cosines of these
dngleSy cos a, cos I3y cos 7, dre edited the direction cosines of the
vector a.
If we note that cos a = (Theorem 2.3.11) and expand

a 1
this expression, using Theorem 2.3.12, we obtain cos a = -r^‘
similarly, cos and cos 7 = Hence we have estab-
lished Theorem 2.4.1.

Z
a= + ayj +
(ax, Oy, a^)
FIGURE 2.4.1 Direction angles and components.
TH EO REM 2.4.1 The direction cosines of a vector a are
dx
cos a = T—.f cos P = cos 7 =
|a|
C O R O L L A R Y 2.4.1 The components of a unit vector having the

same direction as a are the direction cosines of a .
CO RO LLARY 2 . 4. 2 If COS a , COS /3, c o s 7 a r e t h e d i r e c t i o n c o s i n e s

of a v e c to r a , th e n
(cos + (cos + (cos 7)^ = 1.
D E F IN IT IO N 2.4.2 A set {triple) of numhers B, and C are called

the d i r e c t i o n n u m b e r s of a vector or line if there is a scalar k such
that kAy kB^ and kC are the direction cosines of the vector or a
vector collinear with the line.
THEOREM 2.4.2 The components of a vector a form a set

of direction numbers for the vector a.
SUMMARY 39
THEO REM 2.4.3 [a | lb ] <=» The direction numbers of a are

proportional to the direction
numbers of b.
We leave the proofs of the preceding theorems as exercises.
SUMMARY
2.3 Base Vectors and C artesian Coordinate System s
D E FIN IT IO N 2.3.1 [a is a unit vector] <=> [\sl\ = 1]

D E F IN IT IO N2.3.2 I f every vector in a given space can he repre
sented uniquely as a linear combination of a given set S of vectors in
that space, then S is called a basis of the set of all vectors in that space
and the elements of S are called base vectors.
D E FIN IT IO N 2.3.3 Given the four points 0 (0 , 0, 0), P i ( l , 0 , 0),
P2(0, 1, 0), ^ 3 (0 , 0, 1) in a Cartesian coordinate space, we define:
i = O P i, j = O P2, k = O P3.
THEOREM 2.3.1 (i) i«i = j ‘ j = k * k = l
(ii) i » j = j * k = k ' i = 0
C O R O LLA R Y 2.3.1 The vectors i , j , and k form a basis for all
vectors in 3-space.
T H E O R E M 2.3.2 ax = compi a = a •i , tty = compj a = a •j , ag =
comp*: a = a •k.
T H E O R E M 2.3.3 a + b = (flx + bx)i + (ay + by)] + (a^ + bz)k.
T H E O R E M 2.3.4 a — b = (ttx — bx)i + (ay — by)j + (a^ — 6 g ) k .
T H E O R E M 2.3.5 ha. = (hax)i + (hay)] + (haz)k.
T H E O R E M 2.3.6 [a = 0] [ax = 0, ay = 0, = 0].
T H E O R E M 2.3.7 [a — b] ^ [dx ~ bxy ay — byy a^ ~ ^z]»
T H E O R E M 2.3.8 a * b — axbx I ayby | a^bz^
T H E O R E M 2.3.9 a •a = dx^ + + d^^ = d^ = [aj^.
T H E O R E M 2.3.10 Given the points Pi(o:i, yiy ^ i)a n d P 2 (x 2 , 2/2, ^^2),
we have
P1P2 = (X2 “ xi)i + (2/2 - 2/i)j + (^2 - 2i)k.
THEO REM 2.3.11 If 6 = ^ (a , b), th e n
a *b axbx ayby a^hz

cos 6 =
k l |b| \ /a j -f af^ + d 2^ + bf^ + hf'
THEOREM 2.3.12 If a is a n o n z e r o v e c t o r , t h e n
nla| ~ T\^
lal V~\ ^ ^ la|
|a|
is a unit vector pointing in the direction of a.
2.4 D irection Cosines and Direction Numbers
D E F IN IT IO N 2.4.1 The direction angles of a vector a are the

angles a = <^(a, i), = ^ ( a , j), 7 = -^(a, k). The cosines of
these angles are called the direction cosines of the vector a.
T H E O R E M 2.4.1 The direction cosines of a vector a are
dx 0/y 0/g
COS a = — y COS p = — y COS 7 = — *
|a| |a| la|
C O R O L L A R Y 2.4.1 The components of a unit vector having the

same direction as a are the direction cosines of a.
C O R O L L A R Y 2.4.2 If COS a, cos /3, cos 7 are the direction cosines
of a vector a, then
(cos a)^ + (cos + (cos 7)^ = 1-

D E F IN IT IO N 2.4.2 A set of numbers A, and C are called the
direction numbers of a vector or line if there is a scalar k such
that kAj kB, and kC are the direction cosines of the vector or a
vector collinear with the line.
T H E O R E M 2.4.2 The components a^, of a vector a form a set
of direction numbers for the vector a.
T H E O R E M 2.4.3 [ajlb] <=» The direction numbers of a are
proportional to the direction
numbers of b.
PR O BLEM SET #2.2
A. General
1. Prove Theorem 2.3.3, using Algebraic Laws 1.2.1-1.2.9 and appropri
ate definitions.
2. Prove Theorem 2.3.5, using Algebraic Laws 1.2.1-1.2.9 and appropri
ate definitions.
4. Prove Theorem 2.3.10 and use the results to find the distance between
P (l, - 2 , 3) and Q ( - 3 , - 1 , 1).
7. Prove Corollaries 2.4.1 and 2.4.2.
a •c
10. Show that compo c = a 0.
11. Given a = 3i + 2j — k, b = i — j + 3k, c = —2i — 3j + k, find

(a) |a| (b) a 4- b — c (c) 2b — c (d) b •c
(e) compoC (f) b « k (g) (a •b)c (h) co s^ (a , c)
(j) the direction numbers and direction cosines of a.
12. Given a = i + 2j — k, b = — i — j + k, c = 2i — 3k, find the

quantities (a) through (j) of Problem 11 above.
13. Given P(3, 2, 1), ^ (1 , 1, 1), P(0, 1, - 2 ) , find
(a) AB (b) |Z p - ^ 1 (c) A P -B P (d) cos ^ {P A , PB)
(e) the direction numbers and direction cosines of AP,
14. Given P(2, 0, —1), ^4.(1, 1, —1), P ( —1, 2, 0), find the quantities (a)
through (e) of Problem 13 above.
15. Find a vector that is parallel to the line joining P(2, —3, 5) and
Q ( - l , - 3 , 1).
16. Find the direction cosines of a directed line through the origin hav
ing the same direction as the vector PQ where the coordinates of P and
Q are (1, —2, 3) and (2, 3, —1), respectively. How many sets of direc
tion cosines does a nondirected line have?
17. If a = 3i — 2j and b = i + 2j and c = 2i — 3j, then find scalars a
and id so that c = aa + /3b. What would one have to show to conclude
that a and b form a basis for all vectors in the xt/-plane? Do the vec
tors r = — 3k and s = —i + 6k form a basis in the x2/-plane?
Explain.
18. If a = i + 3j — 2k, b = 2i — j + k, c = —2i -f j — 3k, and
d = 3i -p 2j -|- 5k, then find scalars a, /3, y such that d = aa + /db -f
7 C. What would one have to show to conclude that a, b, and c form a
basis in 3-space?
B. G eom etry
ON T H E D ISTA N C E FROM A PO IN T TO A L IN E IN T H E P L A N E
1. (a) Show that the vector N = ai + idj is perpendiculr to the line
ax -p /3i/ + 7 = 0 in the X!/-plane.
(b) Find a unit vector perpendicular to the line 2x — 3?y -h 2 = 0

in the X7/-plane.
(c) Show that the distance from the point F(xi, y\) to the line
ax by + c = 0 IS given by
N- QP
|N|
where N is normal to ax + by + c = 0 and Q is a point on the

line.
(d) Show that a nonvector form for d is:
\axi + 6j/i +
d =
a^ + 6^
(e) Find the distance from (3, 5) to 2x — 3i/ + 5 = 0.

2. How much closer is the point P ( 2, 3) to the line 2y = x than to the
line 2y = —x — 1?
ON P L A N E S
3. (a) Write the equation of the plane through P{xo, yo, zq) perpendicu
lar to the vector N = ^4i + Pj + Ck
(i) in vector form.
(ii) in Cartesian coordinate form.
{Hint: Let Q(x, y, z) be an arbitrary point in the plane; then
^ •N = ?)
(b) Find the equation of the plane that is perpendicular to the line
through 4 (1 , —1, —1) and P (0, 1, 1) and that passes through
the point P (2, 1, 5).
4. Find the equation of the plane that passes through Q(l, —1, 3) and
has the vector N = 2i + j — k a s a normal.
5. Given the plane Ax + By + Cz = D, show that 4 , P, and C are
direction numbers of a line perpendicular to the plane. Find a unit
vector normal to the plane 3x — 2y + 52 = —6.
6. Find the angle between the planes 3x + l/ — 2 + 4 = 0 and 2x —
3y — 82 + 1 = 0 . {Hint: Notice the relationship between the dihedral
angle and the angle between the normals to the planes.)
7. Find a formula for the distance from a point P{x\, yi, 21) to a plane
4 x + P ^ + C2 + P = 0
(a) in vector form. {Hint: see Problem 1 above.)
(b) in nonvector, Cartesian coordinate form.
8 . (a) Find the distance from the origin to the plane 2x + y — ^z +
14 = 0.
(b) Find the distance from (3, 2, —1) to the plane 2x + t/ -- 32 +
14 = 0.
ON T H E S P H E R E
9. (a) Find the equation of a sphere with center at P(xo, ?/o, 2o) and
radius r units
(i) in vector form, (ii) in Cartesian coordinates.
(b) What is the equation of the sphere with center at ( —2, —1, 5)
and radius equal to 8 units?
10. Find the equation of the plane that is tangent to the unit sphere,
with center at the origin, and parallel to the plane 3x — 2?/ + 52 — 6 = 0.
M IS C E L L A N E O U S PR O B L E M S
11. Given a = i — 3j + 5k, b = 2i + j — 4k, and c = 3i — 2j + k,
show that the vectorscan be placed to form a right triangle.
12. Let a = (cos ai)i + (cos Pi)} and b = (cos a^Yi + (cos P2 )} be two
unit vectors in the xi/-coordinate plane. Prove that
(i) cos (ai + 0:2) = cos ai cos «2 — sin ai sin «2
(ii) cos (ai — 0:2) = cos ai cos 0:2 + sin ai sin 0:2
13. If 0 is the origin, find the locus of all points P such that
O P -}
\OP\ = 5 and
1^1
14. Find the angle between the diagonal of a cube and one of its edges.
15. Find a vector perpendicular to the vectors a = i — j + k and
b = 2i + 3j - k .
16. Given vectors a = 2i + j — k and b = — i + 3 j — k with their
initial ends at the origin, show that the vector joining the terminal points
of a and b is parallel to the x?/-coordinate plane. Find its magnitude.
C. Physics
1. Find the work done by a constant force F = 2i — 3j + k on an object
that moves along the straight line segments connecting P i (3, —1, 2),
P 2(l, 2, 0), P 3 ( - 5 , 2, - 3 ) , and P4(4, 1, - 2 ) .
2. Find the work done by the force in Problem 1 if the path is the single
line segment joining P i and P4.
3. What is the physical significance of the general distributive law
F • (ai + a2 + • * * + Rn) = F * a i + F * a 2 + * • * + F* an?
How are Problems 1 and 2 related to this law?
4. If the vector V represents the magnitude and direction of the velocity
of a fluid flowing through a plane surface area, and if N is a unit normal
to the surface, then show that
y _ r The volume of fluid passing through “I
~ La unit of area per unit time. J
(Assume that the flow lines of the fluid are parallel.)
3
the vector product
triple products
vector identities
3.1 THE VECTOR (CROSS) PRODUCT
In preceding sections we defined and discussed two types of prod

ucts that involve vectors: the product of a scalar and a vector and
the dot (or scalar) product of two vectors. A third type of vector
product that has many applications in physics (e.g., mechanics,
electricity, and fluid dynamics) and geometry is now defined.
D E F IN IT IO N 3.1.1 The vector (or cross) product of two vectors
a and b is a third vector c, denoted 6^ a X b, such that
(i) |cl = \sl\[bl sin 6 where 6 = <):;(a, b)
(ii) c •a = c •b = 0 (i.e.^ c ± a and c ± b)
(iii) the sense of c is chosen so that a, b, and c form a right-hand
system. *
* When a is rotated through an angle less than 180° into b, the forward
motion of a right-hand screw will be in the positive c-direction.
44
THE VECTOR (CROSS) PRODUCT 45
FIGURE 3.1.1 The vector product.
If the vectors a, b, and c are placed so th at their initial ends

are at a common point, a and b can be interpreted as adjacent
sides of a parallelogram with c a normal to the parallelogram.
The vector c will have a magnitude equal to the area of the
parallelogram.
In many applications the following three properties of the
vector product are found useful. The reader should find them
easy to prove.
TH EO REM 3.1.1 |a X b| is the area of a parallelogram with a and

b as adjacent sides.
TH EO REM 3.1.2 [a X b = 0] [a and b are collinear].
a Xb .
TH EO REM 3.1.3 The vector^------ — is a unit normal vector to
|a X b|
any plane parallel to both a and b.
The vector product has the following algebraic properties:
A L G E B R A IC L A W S
3.1.1 a X b = —(b X a) anticommutative law
3.1.2 a X (b + c) = (a X b) + (a X c) distributive law
3.1.3 a x (hh) = (hsi) X b = /i(a x b) associative law
for h a scalar
46 THE VECTOR PRODUCT, TRIPLE PRODUCTS
A few remarks are in order regarding several algebraic laws

that the vector and scalar products do not obey.
(a) In the algebra of real numbers we have
[a6 = 0] ^ [a = 0 or 6 = 0].
However, in vector algebra a X b can equal zero even if a and b

are both nonzero vectors. (See Theorem 3.1.2.) Note that
a •b can equal zero without a or b being equal to 0. (See
Theorem 2.1.3.)
(b) In the algebra of real numbers we have
a(bc) = (ab)c.
That is, there is an associative law for combinations of successive

products. T ry to show geometrically why a X (b x c)
(a X b) X c. {Hint: a x (b x c) is a vector in a plane parallel
to b and c.) It should be evident that the associative law for
scalar products, a • (b •c) = (a •b) •c, is undefined.
(c) In the algebra of real numbers we have
[ab = ac, a 7^ 0 ] < ^ [b = c].
T hat is, there is a cancellation law. This law does not hold for
either the scalar or vector products. (See Theorems 2.1.3 and
3.1.2.)
3.2 TH E VECTOR PRODUCT IN COMPONENT FORM
It is convenient to note the following special vector products:
THEOREM 3.2.1 a X a = 0
TH EO REM 3.2.2 i X i = 0, i X j = k, i X k = —j
j X i = -k , j X j = 0, j Xk = i
k X i = j, k Xj = -i, k X k = 0
The vector product, a X b, can be expressed in terms of the com

ponents of a and b as shown below. The component form of the
vector product is extremely important in applications.
THE VECTOR PRODUCT IN COMPONENT FORM 47
TH EO REM 3.2.3 Let a = aa4 + flyj + and b = + byj +

bzk; then
a X b Ojzby)^ “1“ is^zbx ^xbz)3 (.^zby (^ybx)^
or, we can write

i i k
a X b = dx dy az
bx by
Proof a X b = (aî + aj + a^k) X {bî + by] + 6^k)

(ctxl ~l~ ®2/J ~l~ ®zk) X bx^
+ {axi + ciy] + Gzk) X by]
4” 4” (Xgk) X fegk
a X b = aa;6x(i X i) + aybx(] X i) + azbx(k x i)
4 - axby(i X j) + a 2,6 j/(j X j) 4 - a^^j^Ck x j)
4 - axb^(i X k ) 4 - c t A O X k ) + azhz(k x k)
a X b 0 4 “ ^ybxi, k ) 4 ~ (^zbx2 4 ~ (^xby^
4 “ 0 + azby(—i) 4 ~ cixbzi^]) 4 ~ dybzi 4 “ 0
a X b (^cLybz dzbyî 4 ~ is^zhx 4 ~ i^dxby O/ybx^^
ay dz Oz dx • 1 dx
i +
by b. bz ^ &x
i j k
a X b = Ox Cy dz
h. by b^
loXAMPLE 3.2.1 If a = 2i — j + k and b = i — 2k, find a X b.
(a) Using Theorem 3.2.3, we have

i j k
a Xb= 2 -1 1 = 2i + 5j + k
1 0 -2
(b) Using Algebraic Laws 3.1.1 through 3.1.3 and Theorem 3.2.2, we
have
a X b = (2i - j + k) X (i - 2k)
= (2i - j + k) X i + (2i - j + k) X ( - 2 k )
= 2(i X i) - (j X i) 4- (k X i)
- 4(i X k) + 2(j X k) - 2(k X k)
= k + j -f 4j + 2i
= 2i 4- .5j + k*
* This determinant form is to be expanded by minors, using the top row.
SUMMARY
3.1 The Vector (Cross) P rod u ct
D E F IN IT IO N 3.1.1 The vector (cross) product of two vectors a

and b is a third vector c, denoted 6 ?/ a X b, such that
(i) lc| = |a| |bl sin 6 where 6 = ^ ( a , b)
(ii) c •a = c •b = 0 (i.e.^ c _L a and c _L b)
(iii) the sense of c is chosen so that a, b, and c form a right-
hand system.
T H E O R E M 3.1.1 |a X b] is the area of a parallelogram with a and
b as adjacent sides.
T H E O R E M 3.1.2 [a X b = 0] <=> [a a n d b a r e c o l l i n e a r ] .
a X b
TH EO REM 3.1.3 The vector^------ — is a unit normal vector to
|a x b |
any plane parallel to both a and b.
A L G E B R A IC LAW'S
3.1.1 a X b = —(b X a) a n t i c o m m u t a t i v e la w
3.1.2 a X (b + c) = (a X b) + (a X c) distributive law
3.1.3 a X (hh) = (ha) X b = h{a X b) associative law
for h a scalar
3.2 The Vector P rod u ct in C om ponent F o rm
TH EO REM 3.2.1 a X a = 0
THEOREM 3.2.2 i X i = 0, i X j = k, i X k = -j
j X i = —K j X j = 0, j X k = i
k X i = i, k X j = —i, k X k = 0
TH EO REM 3.2.3 L et a == axi + ay\ + uxk and b = 6xi + i
bgk; then
a X b (,U/ybz “b (Ôi^bx
i j k
or a X b = a^x ay az
6x by bz
PR O BLEM S ET #3.1
A. General
1. If a = i + j — 2k, b = 2i — k, and c = —j + 2k, then find
(a) a X b (b) a X c (c) b X a
(d) a X (b + c) (e) a X (b X c)
2. If a = 2i — j — k, b = 2 j + k, and c = i — k, then find the quan

tities (a) through (e) of Problem 1 above.
:i. If a = 3i + 2k and b = j — 3k, find a X b directly without using
Theorem 3.2.3.
t. Without using Theorem 3.2.3, find a X b, where a = i — 3k and
b = j + 2 k.
5. Given a = 2i + j — k and b = —3i + 2j -p k, find
(a) the unit vector perpendicular to both a and b.
(b) the sine of the angle between a and b when taken from a common
initial point.
(). Given a = i — 2k and b = 2i + 3j, find the quantities (a) and (b)
of Prob. 5 above.
7. Prove that (a + b) X (a — b) = —2a X b.
s. If a + b + c = 0, show that a X b = b X c = c X a .
fi. Show that a X b can equal a X c without b being equal to c, that is,
that the “cancellation law” does not hold for the vector product.
10. Show that if b = c + «a, then a X b = a X c.
11. Given that a 0 and both a •b = a •c and a X b = a X c, show
that b = c.
12. Prove that, in general, (a X b) X c a X (b X c).
{Hint: (a X b) X c is a vector lying in the plane parallel to the vectors
a and b.)
13. Prove that (a X b) •(c X d) = (a •c)(b •d) — (a •d)(b •c).
14. Prove that
a * a a *b
(a X b) . (a X b) =
a -b b -b
1^. G eom etric
ON EQUATIONS OF LINES IN 3-SPA C E
1. Prove that [a X b = 0] ^ [a and b are collinear].
2. Which of the following three vectors are collinear:
a = -i - + 3k, b = -i + - 3k, c = 2i - j + 6k?
3. (a) Show that P 1P 2 X P iP = 0 is the vector equation of a line

through the fixed points P i and P 2, where P is a variable point.
(Hint: Use the results of Problem 1.)
(b) Assign coordinates to P i, P 2, and P in part (a) and obtain the
equation of the line through P i(xi, yi, Zi) and Pîx^y 2/2, 22) in
the nonvector form
X — x\ y — yi z — z\
X2 — x\ y 2 — yi 22 — zi
called the symmetric form of the equation of a line.
(c) If one of the denominators in (b) is equal to zero, say, yi = 7/2,

how is the symmetric form modified?
(d) If two of the denominators are equal to zero, say, y\ = 1J 2. and
z\ = 22, how is the symmetric form modified?
4. (a) Write the equation of the line through Pi(2, —1, 3) and ^2(1,
—2, —2) in the symmetric form.
(b) Write the equation of the line through Pi(5, —7, 1) and P2( —4,
- 7 . 3).
(c) Write the equation of the line through P i( —1, 2,3) and
P 2 ( - 1 , 4 , 3).
5. (a) Show that P iP X a = 0 is the vector equation of a line that
passes through Pi and has direction numbers a^, a^, a^.
(b) From (a) conclude that
X — xi _ y — yi _ 2 — 2i
dx az
is the equation of a line that passes through (xi, z/i, 21), which
has direction numbers ax, a^, and a^. Note that the symmetric
form (Problem 3) is a special case of this form such that (x2 — xi),
(7/2 — 7/1), and (22 — 2i) are direction numbers.
(c) What effect do zero direction numbers have on the equation of
part (b) above?
6. (a) Write the equation of the line through the point (2, —1,0)
parallel to the line through (3, —1, —2) and ( —1, 2, 1).
(b) Write the equation of the line through the point (3, —2, 1)
parallel to the vector 2i — 3j.
(c) Write the equation of the line through the point (3, —2, 1)
parallel to the vector —4k.
7. (a) Show that P iP = â, — 00 < t < 00, is another vector equation
of the line that passes through the point P i and has direction
numbers ax, ay, a^.
(b) Deduce from part (a) that
X = XL + dxt \
7/ = 7/1 + dyt [ for — 00 < t < 00
2 = 2i + azt ]
is the corresponding nonvector form of the equation of the same

line. This form is called the parametric form of the equation of a
line.
(c) Transform the parametric form to the symmetric form of the
equation of a line.
S. Write the parametric form of equations of lines with the following

properties:
(a) through (2, —1, 3) and (1, —2, —2).
(b) through (5, —7, 1) and ( —4, —7, 3).
(c) through ( —1, 2, 3) and ( —1, 4, 3).
(d) through (2, —1, 0) parallel to the line through (3, —1, —2) and
( - 1, 2 , 1).
(e) through (3, —2, 1) parallel to the vector 2i — 3j.
(f) through (3, —2, 1) parallel to the vector—4k.
ON EQUATIONS O F A PLANE IN 3-SPA C E
Recall the following results from Problem Set #2.2, Problems 3, 5, 7
on geometry.
(i) P\P •N = O'is the vector equation of a plane through P\ with
normal N.
(ii) A{x — x\) + B{y — yi) + C{z — 2i) = 0 or Ax -]r By + Cz =
D are the equations of a plane in Cartesian coordinates.
(iii) A, Bj and C are the direction numbers of a line normal to the
plane Ax + By + Cz = D.
(iv) The distance from a point P\ to a plane Ax + By + Cz = D is
given by the formula
\Axi + B y i + Czi - D|
d = [Ij
V a^+ + C‘‘
where N = -f Bj + Ck and Axo -f- Byo + Czo = D.
0. (a) Show that the vector equation of a plane through three fixed
points P i, P2, P3, which are noncollinear, is
(P 1P 2 X P 1P 3) •P iP = 0.
(b) Show that the vector form of the equation in part (a) is equiva
lent to the nonvector form
{x - Xi) (y - yi) (z - Z i)
(X2 - Xi) (2/2 - yi) (Z2 — 2 l) = 0.
{x^ - Xi) (2/3 “ 2/1) (23 — 2i)
10. Find a vector N normal to the plane containing the three points
P i(0, - 1 , 2), P 2(l, 2, - 3 ) , and P 3( - l , 2, 3).
11. Find the nonvector equation of the plane containing the three
points of Problem 10 above.
12. (a) Find a unit vector N normal to the two lines
X — 2 y — 1 2+ 3 X — 4 y 2 —4
and
3 “ 2 ~ -1
(b) Find the equation of a plane parallel to the lines

X —2 2/ — 1 2+ 3 -X —4 y 2 —4
and =
13. (a) Find the equations of the parallel planes which contain the lines
X —2 2/ — 1 2 + 3 X —4 y 2 —4
and
-1 -3
respectively.
(b) Find the distance between the two planes.
14. Let m\ and denote the two lines in the preceding problem.
(^)
What is the geometric significance of
where a is a vector collinear with mi,

b is a vector collinear with m2,
Po is a point on mi.
Pi is a point on m2?
How is this question related to Problem 13?
ON T H E D ISTA N C E FROM A PO IN T TO A P L A N E
15. Show that the distance from a point Po, noncoplanar with the points
Pi, P2, and P3, to the plane determined by Pi, P2, and P3 is given by
P1P2 X P1P3
d = rir'o
\P1P 2 X P1P3I
16. Find the distance from the point (2, 4, 6) to the plane determined
by the three points (0, —1, 2), (1, 2, —3), and ( —1, 2, 3).
ON T H E D ISTA N C E B E T W E E N TWO L IN E S
17. Given four noncoplanar points A, P, (7, and D, show that the dis
tance between the two lines determined by A, P and C, D, respectively,
is given by
AP X CD
d = AC
\AB XCD\
18. Given the points A( —1, —2, 2), P ( —2, 1, —1), C(2, —1, 3), and
P(3, 0, 3), find the distance between the lines determined by A, P and
C, D, respectively.
19. Find the distance between the two lines
X — 2 2/” l 2 + 3
and y 2 — 4
3 “ 2 “ - 1 - 3
M ISC ELLA N EO U S P R O B L E M S IN G EO M ETR Y

20. Given points A(l, 1, 1), B(2, 3, 0), C(0, 5, 1), and Z)(l, 2, 4), find
(a) the area of triangle ABC,
(b) the distance from D to the plane containing the triangle ABC,
(c) the distance between the lines determined by BC and AD,
{Hint: the distance is measured along a segment which is
mutually perpendicular to the two lines.)
21. If A(xij 2/1, zi), B { x2 , 2/2, 22), and C{xsj 2/3, 23) are the vertices of a
triangle, find a formula in Cartesian coordinates for the area of the
triangle ABC,
22. Find the area of a triangle with vertices A(l, —1, 2), B( —2, 1,1),
C(3, 2, 1).
23. If a, b, c with a common initial point 0 represent three adjacent
edges of a parallelepiped, find a formula for the volume of the paral
lelepiped in vector and scalar forms.
24. Find the volume of the tetrahedron with vertices ^4(1, 2, 1), jB(3,
r>, 0), C(0, 3, - 1 ) , and D(2, 4, 4).
25. Use the vector product in proving the law of sines for plane triangles:
sin A sin B sin C

20. Let Ai, A 2 , As, and A4 be the areas of the four faces of a tetra
hedron. Let ni, U2, U3, and U4 be outward normals to the respective
faces with magnitudes equal to the corresponding areas. Show that
ni + n2 + n3 + 114 = 0.
C, Physics
1. The law of refraction of light, known as SnelFs Law, states: ^The
ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refrac
tion is equal to the ratio of the velocities in the two media.
Normal
FIG U R E #3.1-1
The law is usually given by the equation:

ki sin a\ = k2 sin 0:2
where the index of a medium, kj is determined by k = c/v; c is the
velocity of light in free space, v the velocity of light in the substance.
Show that Sneirs Law has the vector form:
A:iN X ai = A:2N X a 2
where N is a unit normal to the line of division between the two media,
ai and a 2 are unit vectors along the incident and refracted rays,
respectively.
2. Let a rigid body rotate about a fixed axis, say the 2-axis. Let
w = tyk be the angular velocity vector. Each point P in the body will
move in a circle. Show that the velocity vector associated with P is
given by V = w X r, where r = OP, 0 the origin. (Figure #3.1-2.)
3. The vector moment of the force F (applied at a point Pi) about the
point Po is defined as the vector L:
L = Po
“F i X F.
FIG U R E #3.1-2
THE TRIPLE PRODUCTS 55
A'I
FIGURE #3.1-3
(a) Show that |PoPi X Fj is the scalar moment of the force F about
the axis through Po perpendicular to the plane of PoPi and F.
(b) Find L if Po is the point ( —1, 2, 1) and Pi is (3, —I, —1) with
F = - i + 2j - 3k.
4. The moment of force about an axis can be associated with a vector
product by defining a vector moment M : M = r X F. Show that
|r X F| is the scalar moment of force about the axis A A' in Figure
#3.1-3. Note that the vectors r and F lie in a plane perpendicular to
AA'.
3.3 THE T R IPL E PRODUCTS: a •b X c,

a X (b X c), AND (a X b) X c
Up to this point we have not concerned ourselves with multiple

products. Once we have formed the simple products /la, a •b,
a X b it is natural to consider more complicated products, such
as (a •b)c, a •b x c, and a X (b x c). These latter products,
called triple products, play an important role in the development
of vector analysis and its applications. More elaborate products,
such as (a X b) ' (c X d) and (a X b) x (c x d) can be reduced
to simpler forms by means of vector identities. As with trigono
metric expressions, the reduction of vector forms by means of
vector identities is an important process in the useful applica
tions of vectors to many problems.
The first type of triple product mentioned above, (a •b)c.
VbXc
Volumes + ( a * b x c ) Volume = -(a * b X c)
FIGURE 3.3.1 Geometric interpretation of a •b X c.
does not differ from scalar multiplication for a •b = /i, a scalar,

and we have (a •b)c = he,
DEFINITION3.3.1 The triple product a •b X c* called the scalar
triple product of a, b, and c in that order.
The scalar triple product is a scalar quantity, for it is the dot
product of the vectors a and b X c. Interpreted geometrically,
a •b X c represents the volume of a parallelepiped with cotermi
nus edges a, b, and c providing that a, b, and c are not coplanar.
The geometric interpretation of the scalar triple product is
easily verified as follows:
a •b X c = jal |b X c| cos </)
= [al [[bj \c\ sin 6] cos </>
= [lb| lc| sin 0][|al cos <^]
+ (altitude) if 0 < <^> <

= [Area of base]
— (altitude) if - < 0 < tt
= ± Volume of the parallelepiped.

'a •b X c can only mean a • (b X c) since (a •b ) X c is undefined.
Additional properties of the scalar triple product are
THEOREM3.3.1 [a, b, and c are coplanar] ^ [a •b X c = 0].
THEOREM 3.3.2 The value of the scalar triple product is not

changed by a cyclic permutation of the three elements which form
the product:
a - b x c = c * a x b = b- c x a .
THEOREM3.3.3 The dot and cross in a scalar triple product can

be interchanged without effecting the value of the product:
a*b xc = axb*c.
THEOREM3.3.4 If a, b, and c are given in terms of the base
0/x Qfy az
a •b X c = h. by bz
Cx Cy
Theorem 3.3.2 is readily established on the basis of the geo

metric interpretation given to the scalar triple product. Theorem
3.3.3 follows from Theorem 3.3.2 and the commutative property
of the scalar product (Algebraic Law 2.1.1). Proofs of Theorems
3.3.1 and 3.3.4 follow.
Proof of THEOREM3.3.1
P art I. [a, b, and c are coplanar] [a •b x c = 0].
b X c is perpendicular to both b and c by definition, b X c is

t)orpendicular to a, for it is given coplanar with b and c. There
fore a •b X c = 0 by definition of the scalar product.
I’art II. [a •b X c = 0] [a, b, and c are coplanar].
a is perpendicular to b X c, property of the scalar product.

Hut b X c is also perpendicular to both b and c. Therefore a, b,
and c are coplanar, for they are perpendicular to the common
vector b X c.
Proof of THEO REM 3.3.4
j k
a •b X c = (a„i + a„j + a*k) • by bz
Cy
y Cz
bz h,
= (oji + Oyj + a^k) • [ r " i + j + |*'|kl
LI Cz Cx Cx 'VI J
__ by hx hx hx by
dx + ay +
Cy Cx Cx Cx 1 Cx Cy
by bz
Cy Cz
Note th at Theorems 3.3.1, 3.3.2, and 3.3.3 can be proved using

Theorem 3.3.4 and the properties of determinants.
The distributive law for the vector product (Algebraic Law 3.1.2)
can now be proved rather easily because of the interchangeability of the
dot and cross in the scalar triple product.
Proof of the Distributive Law (Algebraic Law 3.1.2)
ax(b + c ) = a x b + axc.
Since [a X (b + c) = a X b + a X c] is equivalent to
[ a X( b + c ) — a x b - a x c = 0]
we let u = a X (b + c) — a X b — a X c
and show that u = 0.
Let V be an arbitrary vector and form the scalar product
v .u = v * [ a x ( b + c ) — a X b — a x c ]
= v * [ a X ( b + c)]— v « a x b — v * a X c
(since the scalar product is distributive).
= v x a « ( b + c ) — v x a * b — v X a * c (Theorem 3.3.3)
= v x a * b + v Xa* c — V X a * b — v Xa* c
= 0
Hence, either v = 0, u = 0, or v is perpendicular to u. But since v
is an arbitrary vector, u = 0.
D E F IN IT IO N 3.3.2 The triple products a X (b X c) and (a x b ) x c

are called vector triple products.
The vector triple products are vector products of vectors and

hence are vector quantities. The vector a X (b x c ) is per
pendicular to a and to b X c. The vector b X c is perpendicular
to b and to c. Thus the vectors a X (b x c ), b, and c must be
CO planar.
TH EO REM 3.3.5 There exist scalars m and n such th at

a X (b X c ) = m b + nc.
TH EO REM 3.3.6 There exist scalars p and q such th at

(a X b ) X c = p a + ^b.
From Theorems 3.3.5 and 3.3.6 it is clear th at
a X (b X c) (a X b ) X c
so that the parentheses in the vector triple product are necessary

and cannot be removed or shifted without changing the vector
product.
Vector triple products are generally evaluated by means of the
following two vector identities.
IDENTITY 3.3.1 a X (b X c ) = (a •c )b — (a •b )c .
IDENTITY 3.3.2 (a X b ) X c = (c •a )b — (c •b )a .
A detailed proof of Identity 3.3.1 is given below, for it is

instructive to observe the manner in which the scalar and vector
properties are used. In proving the identity we start with
mb
FIG U R E 3.3.2 a X (b X c) = mb + nc.

Theorem 3.3.5 and show that m = — (a •b) and n = a •c.

Identity 3.3.2 follows directly from Identity 3.3.1 with the
application of the anticommutative law, a X (b X c) = —[(b x
c) X a].
Proof of ID E N T IT Y 3.3.1
a X (b X c) = mb + nc (Theorem 3.3.5)
a • [a X (b X c)]= m(a•b)+ n(a •c)
(a X a) • (b X c) = m(a •b) + n(a •c) (Theorem 3.3.3)
0 • (b X c) = m(a •b) + n(a •c)
0 = m(a •b) + n(a •c)
m n
Therefore = a scalar,
a •c a •b
m = i2(a •c) and n = -i2 (a -b ).
Hence a X (b X c) = R[{ 2i •c)b - (a •b)c]. (i)

Now
b • [a X (b X c)] = i2[(a • c)(b • b) — (a • b)(b • c)]
b • [a X (b X c)] = (b X a) • (b X c) (Theorem 3.3.3)
= — (a X b) • (b X c) (Algebraic Law 3.1.1)
= - a • [b X (b X c)] (Theorem 3.3.3)
Hence - a • [b X (b x c)] = i2[(a •c)(b •b) - (a •b)(b •c)]. (ii)

Now we prove the following lemma: b X (b X c) = (b •c)b -
b X (b X c) = i?[(b . c)b - b^c] (see (i))

c • [b X (b X c)] = i2[(b . c)"* - b V ]
(c X b) • (b X c) = R [ b V cos^ 0 - b^c'^]
- ( b x c ) 2 = -R b h ^ s ia ^ d .
Therefore i? = 1 and b x (b X c) = (b •c)b — b^c.
Then by (ii) and the lemma, we have
- a • [(b •c)b - b\] = f?[(a •c)(b •b) - (a •b)(b •c)]
- ( a . b)(b •c) + 6*(a •c) = i?[(a •c)b^ - (a •b)(b •c)].
Hence in (ii) J2 = 1 and we have proved th at
a X (b X c) = (a •c)b — (a •b)c.
VECTOR IDENTITIES 61
Note th at the above proof is independent of any coordinate

system. Identity 3.3.1 can also be established by expressing a,
b, and c in terms of the base vectors i, j, and k and showing that
the corresponding components of the left- and right-hand mem
bers of a X (b X c) = (a •c)b — (a •b)c are equal.
3.4 VECTOR ID EN T IT IES
In addition to Identities 3.3.1 and 3.3.2, two further identities

of frequent use are
a • c a •d
IDENTITY 3.4.1 (a X b) • (c X d) =
b •c b • d
ID E N T IT Y 3.4.2 (a X b ) X (c X d) = (a • c x d )b — (b • c x d )a
= (a • b X d )c — (a • b X c )d .
(a X b ) • (c X d) = a X b • (c X d)
= a • b X (c X d)
= a • [(b • d )c — (b • c)d ]
= (b • d )(a • c) — (b • c ) ( a • d)
_ a •c a • d
b •c b •d
Let p = c X d ; then
(a X b ) X (c X d) = (a X b ) X p.
But (a X b ) X p = (a • p )b — (b • p )a
= (a • c X d )b — (b • c X d )a .
L et q = a X b ; then
(a X b ) X (c X d) = q X (c X d ).
But q X (c X d) = (q • d )c - (q • c)d
= (a X b • d )c — (a X b • c )d .
Thus we have the two results:

(a X b) X (c X d) = (a • c X d )b - (b • c x d )a
= (a • b X d )c — (a • b X c )d .
Note th at in the above results the conclusion th at
(a • c X d )b — (b • c X d )a = (a • b x d )c — (a • b X c )d
asserts that for any four vectors a, b, c, and d in three space we

can obtain a unique linear representation of any one of the vec
tors in terms of the other three if the three are not coplanar.
No attem pt should be made to memorize the Identities 3.4.1
and 3.4.2. One should, however, try to develop a facility in
applying them. The examples that follow will illustrate how
these identities and others considered earlier can be used to
simplify vector expressions or establish new identities.
EXA M PLE 3 .4 .1 S im p lif y ( a -1- h ) • (b -f- c ) X ( c -f- a ) .
Solution
(a -h b) • (b -h c ) X (c + a)
= ( a -h b ) • [(b + c ) X c - f (b 4 - c ) X a ]
= ( a - i - b ) - [ b X c - l - c X c + b X a + c X a ]
= a- b X c + a*b X a + a- c x a - f - b « b X c
+ b- b X a + b- c X a
= 2 (a •b X c ).
EXA M PLE 3.4.2 Show that

a X (b X c ) + b X (c X a ) + c X (a X b ) = 0.
Solution
a X (b X c ) -h b X ( c X a ) -h c X ( a X b )
= [( a • c )b — (a •b ) c ] + [(b • a ) c — (b • c ) a ] + [(c •b ) a — ( c • a )b ]
= 0.
EXA M PLE 3.4.3 Show that (a X b) • (b X c) X (c X a) = (a • b X c)^.
Solution
( a X b ) • (b X c ) X ( c X a ) = a X b • [( b • c X a ) c - (c • c X a )b ]
= a X b • [(b • c X a ) c ]
= (b • c X a ) ( a X b • c )
= (b •c X a)(c • a X b)
= (b • c X a ) ( c X a - b )
= (b • c X a ) 2
= ( a • b X c )2 .
SUM M ARY
3.3 The Triple P rod u cts
D E F IN IT IO N 3.3.1 The triple product a •b x c i s called the s c a la r

trip le p ro d u ct of a, b , and c in that order.
SUMMARY 63
THEOREM 3.3.1 [a, b, and c are coplanar] ^ [a •b x c = 0].

THEO REM 3.3.2 The value of the scalar triple product is not
changed by a cyclic permutation of the three elements which
form the product:
a*bxc = c«axb = b*cxa.
THEOREM 3.3.3 The dot and cross in a scalar triple product can
be interchanged without effecting the value of the product:
a*bxc = axb*c.
\
THEOREM 3.3.4 If a, b, and c are given in terms of the base
vectors i, j, and k, then
Ox ay Clz
a •b X c = bx l) y bz
Cy Cg
D E F IN IT IO N3.3.2 The triple products a X (b X c) and (a X b ) X c

are called v e c to r triple p ro d u cts.
T H E O R E M 3.3.5 There exist scalars m and n such that
a X (b X c ) = mb + nc.
TH EO REM 3.3.6 There exist scalars p and q such th at
(a X b ) X c = p a + qh.
ID E N T IT Y 3.3.1 a X (b X c ) = (a •c )b — (a •b )c .
ID E N T IT Y 3.3.2 (a X b ) X c = (c •a )b — (c •b )a .
3.4 Vector Identities
ID E N T IT Y 3.4.1 (a X b ) • (c X d ) = ^ ^ ^ ^ •
D •c D •a
IDENTITY 3.4.2 (a X b ) X (c X d ) = (a • c x d )b — (b • c X d )a
= (a • b X d )c — (a • b X c )d .
EXA M PLE 3.4.1 Simplify (a + b) •(b + c) X (c + a ).
EXAMPLE 3.4.2 Show that a x (b x c ) + b X (c X a) + c X
(a X b ) = 0 .
EXA M PLE 3.4.3 Show th at (a X b ) • (b x c ) X (c X a ) =
(a • b X c)^
PROBLEM SET #3.2
A. General
1. Prove Theorem 3.3.1, using Theorem 3.3.4 and the properties of
determinants.
determinants.
determinants.
4. Prove Identity 3.3.1, assuming a, b, and c are given in terms of the
base vectors i, j, and k, by showing that the corresponding components
of the left- and right-hand sides of a X (b X c) = (a •c)b — (a •b)c
are equal.
5. Given a = 2i + j — 3k, b = i — 3j — k, c = —2i + 2j + k, find
(a) a •b X c (b) b X a •c (c) c •a X b
(d) a X (b X c) (e) (a X b) X c (f) b X (a X c)
(g) (a X b) •(b X c) (h) (c .b )(a x c ) (i) (a X b) X (b X c)
6. Given a = i — j + 2k, b = 2i — 3k, c = 2j — k, find the quantities
(a) through (i) of problem 5 above.
7. Show that
j Xk k X i i X3
1= 3 k =
(i •j X k) (i •j X k) (i •j X k)
8. Show that [a X (b X c) = (a X b) X c] ^ [b X (c X a) =» 0].
9. Given that a X b 7 ^ 0 and a, b, and c are coplanar, show that
c •a a •b a •a c »a
cb b -b a •b c •b
c = a+ b.
a *a a •b a •a a •b
a •b bb a •b bb
10. It can be shown that three vectors a, b, and c form a basis for the
vectors in 3-space if and only if a •b X c 0. (See Theorem 3.3.1.)
If a •b X c 7^ 0, then show that an arbitrary vector v in 3-space can be
represented as a linear combination of a, b, and c as follows:
/v-bXc\ /v c X a V , / V » a X b\
^ \a-bxc/ \a-bXc/ \a-bxc/ *
11. Prove that a X [b X (c X d)] (b •d)(a X c) — (b •c)(a X d).
12. Show that
a<
(a-b X c)(p-q X r) = b-
c-
13. (a) Prove that
(b X c) • (a X d) + (c X a) • (b X d) + (a X b) • (c X d) = 0.
(b) Use the results of part (a) to show that
sin (a + P) sin (a — /3) = sin^ a — sin^
1 4. Show that if a, b, c, and d are coplanar, then
(a X b) X (c X d) = 0.
Is the converse true? If so, prove it; if not, find a counterexample.
15. Write the system:
X —y + 2z = d
2x + y — z = 7
3y — 2z = 4
as the single vector equation xa. yh zc = d, where a = i + 2 j,
b = —i + i + 3k, c = 2 i — j — 2 k, d = 3i + 7j + 4k. To solve for
X, dot both sides of the vector equation with b X c to obtain
(a •b X c)x + (b •b X c)2/ + (c •b X c)s = d •b X c.

Also solve for y and 2, using a similar procedure.
16. Given a = i — j + k and b = j + k, express b as a linear combina
tion of vectors parallel to and perpendicular to a in the plane deter
mined by a and b when taken from a common point. (Hint: What is the
direction of a X (a X b) with respect to a?)
G eom etric
1. Find the volume of a parallelepiped having coterminus edges a = i —
2j + 3k, b = j + 3k, and c = i — k.
2 . Find the volume of a tetrahedron with coterminus edges a = i —
2j + 3k, b = j + 3k, and c = i — k.
3. Write the equation of a plane through the three points Pi, P2, and P3
in the form of a scalar triple product set equal to zero.
1. Use the results of Problem 3 to write the equation of a plane (in
scalar form) through the points P i( —1, —2, 3), P2(0, 1, —2), and
P,i(2, 0, 0).
5. Replace the three points in Problem 4 with Pi(0, 1, 5), P2(l, 1, 1),
P:i(l, —1, 0) and solve.
(>. Replace the three points in Problem 4 with Pi(2, —5, 7), P2(0, 0, —8),
Pa(l, 1, 0) and solve.
7. Let a plane pass through the three points Pi, P2, and P3. Find a
vector equation for the distance between the plane and a point P4 not
on the plane.
8. Use the results of Problem 7 to find the distance from P4(l, —1, 3)
to the plane passing through the three points P i(2, 1, 1), P2(0, —3, 1),
and P z ( - h 1,5).
9. Replace the four points in Problem 8 with P 4(—3, —2, 7), P i(l, 1,
- 1 ) , P2(2, 3, - l ) ,a n d P 3 ( - 2 , 5, 1).
10. Find the distance between a point P (l, 5, —2) and the plane
2x — 3y -f" 32 — 6 = 0.
11. Let Pi, P2, P3, and P4 be four noncoplanar points such that the
lines through P1P2 and P3P4 do not intersect. Write a vector equation
for the distance between the two nonintersecting skew lines.
12. Using the results of Problem 11, find the distance (a numerical
value) between P1P2 and P3P4 given that Pi(0, 0, 1), P2( —1, 2, —1),
P3(l, 2, 1), and P4(0, - 1 , - 1 ) .
13. Replace the four points in Problem 12 with P i(l, 2, —1), P2(3,
—1,5), P3(2, 4, —6), and P4(0, 0, 0). Find the numerical distance
between P1P2 and P3P4.
14. Find the distance between the two nonintersecting lines:
mi: X = 2ty y = 2 — tj z = 5 + 3t
m 2 : X = 1 -jr tj y = 1 — tj z = 2 t
C. Physics
1. Show that the vector moment M about an axis of a force F (not,
in general, coplanar with A A') applied at a point Pi is M = (N X
PoPi •F)N, where N is a unit vector along A A' and Po is the projection
of P i on AA' (see Figure #3.2-1).
FIGURE #3,2-1
‘2. Using the result of Problem 1, find the vector moment M if the
axis A A' is the y-axis and the force F = 20i + 32j — 4k is applied at
Pi( 2 , - 4 , 3).
Using the result of Problem 1, find the vector moment M if the axis
4 A' is the x-axis and the force F = lOOi — 20k is applied at P i(3,0, —1).
4. Let an object be located in a Cartesian coordinate system with the
forces Fi = i + 2j — 3k and F2 = 2i — 5j applied at P i(3, 1, 2) and
P2( —1, 1,2), respectively. Find a force F 3, if it exists, so that when it is
applied at the point P^{ —2 , —1, 1), no rotation will occur around the
z-axis, that is, so that M1 + M2 + M3 = 0.
.^). Let an object be located in a Cartesian coordinate system with the
forces Fi = 2j + 5k and F2 = 6i — 2k applied at P i(l, —1, 5) and
P ‘2(l, 1, 1), respectively. Find a force F3, if it exists, so that when it is
applied at the point P3( —6, 7, 3), no rotation will occur around the
x-axis.
For a body to be in equilibrium the vector equations F = 0 and
M = 0 must be satisfied, where F is the resultant of all external forces
acting on the body and M is the resultant vector moment of all external
forces about any axis. Find the force F3, if it exists, for the object in
Problem 4 to be in equilibrium. {Hint: [F = 0] [Fx = 0, Pj, = 0,
= 0] and [M = 0] [Mx = 0, Mj, = 0, ikf. = 0].)
7. Find the force F3, if it exists, for the object in Problem 5 to be in
e(|uilibrium. (See Problem 6.)
4
vector equations
curves and surfaces
4.1 VECTOR EQUATIONS
A variety of vector equations have been encountered through

out the preceding sections of our discussion of vectors. For
example,
(a) If a point P divides a segment AR so that P B /P A =

a//3, then for any point O we have
OP = a +
a + a + ^
where a = OA and b = OB, (See Problem Set #1, B-3.)

(b) In describing loci we have considered vector equations for
the locus of all points P such that for A and B fixed points
68
VECTOR EQUATIONS 69
(i) \AP\ = \ m ^ (ii) |A5| + \BP\ = \AP\

(iii) (A B - A P )- A B = 0 (iv) A B x AP = 0
(See Problem Set #1, B -11; #2.1, B -7 ; #3.1, B -3.)

(c) We have used vector equations to derive the equations of
lines, n x PQ = 0 ; planes, n •PQ = 0 ; distance from a point to a
line, |n|d! = n • QP; volume of a parallelepiped, a X b •c = V ;
etc. (See Problem Set #3.1, B .)
In this section we turn our attention to methods for solv
ing vector equations. In Section 4.2, another type of vector
equation will be introduced. In general, vector equations
can be solved in a manner similar to th at of scalar equa
tions. Two general methods are illustrated in the following
examples.
1. The application of vector operations, such as scalar and

vector products, may lead to simplification of an equation.
EXA M PLE 4.1.1 Solve 3x + 2a = 5(x — b ) fo r x.
Solution
3x + 2a = 5x — 5b
(3 - 5)x = - 5 b - 2a
- 2 x = - ( 5 b + 2a)
5b + 2a
EXA M PLE 4.1.2 Solve SiX + hy = c for x, given a, b, and c coplanar.
Solution
b X (ax + by) = b X c
(b X a)x + (b X b)y = b X c
(b X a) •[(b X a)x] = (b X a) •(b X c)
(b X a)^x = (b X a) • (b X c)
(b X a) • (b X c)
X = fo r b Xa 5*^ 0.
(b X a)2
EXA M PLE 4.1.3 Solve the system a •x = m, b X x = c fo r x.

70 VECTOR EQUATIONS, CURVES AND SURFACES
Solution
a x (b x x )= a x c
(a •x)b — (a •b)x = a X c
mb — (a •b)x = a X c
(a •b)x = mb — (a X c)
mb - (a X c) ^ ^ ^
X = ------ ----------- providing a •b 7*^ 0.
a •b
(Note that b •c = 0.)
2. The expansion of vectors in component form and the equat
ing of the coefficients of i, j, and k may lead to explicit solutions of
vector equations.
EXA M PLE 4 .1 .4 Find x in Example 4.1.3 above if a = i + 2j — k,
m = 3, b = j — k, c = j + k .
Solution
By direct substitution in the given equations, we have xi + 2 x2 —
X3 = 3 and
i j k
0 1 - 1 = (X3 + X2)i — Xij — Xik = j -h k.
Xi X2 Xz
Thus Xz + X2 = Oj xi = —1. Also, 2x2 + X2 = 4 so that X2 = 2^3 =
Finally x = - i + - |k.
Check by using the result obtained in Example 4.1.3 to arrive at x.
EXA M PLE 4 .1.5 Solve the system a •x = 3, b •x = 1, c •x = 0 for x,
given that a = i — 2j + 3k, b = 2i -f- 3j + k, and c = i -f j -f k.
Solution
xi — 2x2 + 3x3 = 3
2xi -f- 3x2 + X3 = 1
X l + X2 + X3 = 0
so that xi = 11, X2 = —5, X3 = — 6 and x = H i — 5j — 6k.
An important problem that occurs in geometry and physics is the

need to express a vector r in terms of three noncoplanar vectors a, b,
and c, that is, if a •b X c 5*^ 0, then we wish to find scalars a, and 7
so that r = aa + )3b -h 7 c.
The scalars a, P, and 7 can be expressed in terms of r, a, b, and c as
follows:
Let T = aa, + fih + 7 c, then
r •(b X c) = (aa + jSb + 7 c) • (b X c)
r • (b X c) = aa •(b X c) + iSb •(b X c) -b 7 C • (b X c)
r • (b X c) = a(a •b X c) + /3(b •b X c) -h 7 (c •b X c)
r • (b X c) = a(a •b X c)
r •b X c
cc — ----------- -
a •b X c
VECTOR EQUATIONS 71
In a similar manner we obtain
_ r-cxa , r-axb
p = — - and 7 =
a •b X c a •b X c
so that we can write
/r-bXc\ , /r-cXaV , /r-aXb\

^ \ a •b X c / \ a •b X c / \ a •b X c /
( b X c \ , / c X a \ ^ , / a X b \
^ = I ^ -------------U U
\ a * b X c /) ^ + I ^ -------------
\ a-b X c / ) ^ + I\ r -------------;
a - b X^ c / ) C.
If a •b X c 0, the vectors
b X c c X a a Xb
a-bXc a*bXc a-bXc
are perpendicular to the planes of b and c, c and a, a and b, respectively.
DEFINITION 4.1.1 7 / a •b X c 7^ 0, the system of three vectors
b X c c Xa a X b
A B = C =
a*bxc a-bXc a*bXc
is called the reciprocal system to the vectors a, b, and c.
THEOREM 4.1.1 I f a - b X C F ^ O and r is any vector, then
r = (r •A)a + (r •B)b + (r •C)c
where A, B, C is the reciprocal system to a, b, and c.
In Theorem 4.1.1, the coefficients r •A, r •B, and r •C are of special
interest. In general, a scalar equation of the first degree in a vector r
can be reduced to the form r •A = a, where A and a are known. By
the definition of the scalar product we have r •A = A comp^ r = a or
comp^ r = a /A . Geometrically this states that the terminal point of
r must be on the surface of a plane perpendicular to A when the initial
points of A and r coincide (see Figure 4.1.1).
By Theorem 4.1.1 it is clear that three scalar equations
r* A = a, r - B = /3, r* C = 7
have a unique solution:
r = aa + jSb + 7C
where A, B, C is the reciprocal system to a, b, c.
Geometrically the terminus of r must be the common point of inter
section of the three planes determined by the three scalar equations.
THEOREM 4.1.2 If A, B, C is the system reciprocal to a, b, c, then a, b, c
will be the reciprocal system to A, B, C.
FIGURE 4.1.1 r •A — a.
THEOREM 4.1.3 If A, B, C is the system reciprocal to a, b, c, then

A « a = B * b = C * c = l and A * b = A * c = B * a = B * c
= C « a = C . b = 0.
THEOREM 4.1.4 If a •b X c 0 and r is a n y v e c t o r , t h e n
r = (r •a)A + (r •b)B + (r •c)C

where A, B, C is the reciprocal system to a, b, and c.
THEOREM 4.1.5 If A, B, C is the system reciprocal to a, b, c, then
( A - B x C ) ( a . b X c ) = 1.
THEOREM 4.1.6 The system of three unit vectors i, j, k is its own recipro
cal system.
We leave Theorems 4.1.2 through 4.1.6 for the reader to prove. The
method is to apply Definition 4.1.1, Theorem 4.1.1, and previously
discussed procedures.
EXAMPLE 4.1.6 Solve a(m •r) + b(p •r) + c(q •r) = d for r.
Solution
Assume a •b X c 0 and let A, B, C be the reciprocal system to a,
b, c. Take the scalar product of the equation successively by A, B, and
C to obtain the three scalar equations:
m*r=A*d, p * r = B* d, q * r = C« d.
VECTOR EQUATIONS 73
Now, for m •p X q 5^ 0 and M, P, Q, the system reciprocal to m, p, and

q, we have
r = (r •m)M + (r •p)P + (r •q)Q
and r = (A •d)M + (B •d)P + (C •d)Q.
E X A M P L E 4.1.7 Solve a(m • r) + b(p • r) + c(q • r) = d for r given that
a = i + 2j — k, b = j + k, c = 2i — j, d = 3i — 2j + k, m = i + k,
p = 2i + j + k, q = j + k.
Solution
First compute the reciprocal systems
A = i(i + 2j - 2k), B = i(i + 2j + 5k), C = i(3i - j + k)
M = U - 2 } + 2k), P = |-(i + j - k), Q = -^ (-i + j + k).
Now compute the scalar products and substitute
r = + 2k) + y \(i + j - k) + i | ( - i + j + k)
r = i(-4 i + llj+k).
In general, vector equations of the first degree in a vector r are equa
tions containing terms of the following types:
a(m •r), nr, b X r, d.
For example, p X ( q X r ) + b X r + a(m •r) + nr = d.
Equations of this general type can often be simplified by the applica
tion of identities:
p X (q X r) = (p •r)q - (p •q)r.
Further reduction may be possible by applying reciprocal systems.
If m •p X q 5*^ 0, we can write r = (m •r)M + (p •r)P + (q •r)Q
so that b X r = b X [(m •r)M + (p •r)P + (q •r)Q]
= (b X M )(m •r) + (b X P)(p •r) + (b X Q)(q •r)
and also nr = n[(m •r)M + (p •r)P + (q •r)Q]
= nM(m •r) + nP(p •r) + nQ(q •r)
(p •q)r = (p •q)M(m •r) + (p •q)P(p •r) + (p •q)Q(q •r).
Thus p X ( q X r ) + b X r + a(m •r) + nr = d can be written in the
form
[a + (b X M) + nM — (p •q)M](m •r)
+ [q + (b X P) + nP - (p •q)P](p •r)
+ [(b X Q) + nQ - (p •q)Q](q •r) = d.
This latter equation can be solved as shown in Examples 4.1.6 and 4.1.7.
Thus by applying identities and Theorem 4.1.2, the most general vector
equations of the first degree in a vector r may be reduced to the form
a(m •r) -}- b(p •r) + c(q •r) = d, which has the solution r = (A •d)M
T (B •d)P + (C •d)Q providing a •b X c 0 and m •p X q ^ 0,
where A, B, C is the reciprocal system to a, b, c and M, P, Q is the

reciprocal system to m, p, q.
4.2 SPACE CURVES
A knowledge of the properties of space curves and surfaces

is very important in advanced studies. Physical notions, such
as partical motion along a curve and the quantity of fluid flow
through a surface, may be represented by the use of vector equa
tions of space curves and surfaces. A detailed analysis of space
curves and surfaces requires the calculus and is usually under
taken in more advanced courses.* The discussion that fol
lows will be limited to the consideration of how curves and sur
faces can be represented by vector equations.
We recall that the graph of in a Cartesian coordi
nate system results in a circle with radius c and center a t the
origin. If one thinks of P ( t , y) as a variable point and O as a
fixed point at the origin, then \OP\ = c will be a vector equation
of the same circle.
Although the two representations of the circle just noted are
useful in many applications, they are not completely satisfactory
for all applications. Suppose, for example, that a wheel of
radius c is rotating at 5 rps in a counterclockwise direction.
Either equation, + ?/^ or \OP\ = c will represent the
path of a point on the rim of the wheel if its center is at the origin,
but neither equation will tell one where the point is at a given
time. A parametric representation of the path is more useful
in this situation. If the point on the rim is at (c, 0) when t = 0,
where < is a measure of time, then the coordinates of the point
at any time t > 0 will be (c cos lOwt, c sin IOttO- The parametric
representation of the path given by the pair of equations:
X = c cos IOtt^
( 1) t> 0
y = c sin lOirt
not only describes the path of the point but also tells where the
point is at any specified time.
* Courses such as differential geometry; see, for example, Chapter 4 of
Geometry arid the Imagination by Hilbert and Cohen-Vossen, Chelsea, 1952.
75
FIGURE 4.2.1 Circle.
The pair of equations (1) can be combined in a vector form:
(2) r = (c cos lOTTî + (c sin IOttOJ

where the initial end of r is located at the origin and the terminal
end at P {x, y). The vector r in (2) is an example of a bound
vector, for its initial point is always at the origin.
D E F I N I T I O N 4.2.1 I f r is a vector with its initial point at the origin
and its terminal point at P {x, y, z)^ then r = xi + 2/J + is
called the position vector of the point P.
There are an unlimited number of parametric representations of

the circle just considered, hence infinitely many vector equations
of the circle. Two additional vector equations of the circle are
(3) r = (c cos ^)i + (c sin 0)j, 0 < 0 < 27t
where 6 is the positive angle between r and the positive x-axis.
(4) r = j^c cos i + sin j, 0 < S < 27TC
where s is the length of arc from (c, 0) to P(Xj y) on the circle

measured in a counterclockwise direction.
In general, a space curve is described by the set of terminal

points of a position vector equation
r = X (t)i + Y(t)i + Z(t)k
where x = X(t)y y — F ( 0 , z = Z(t) define real valued continuous
functions on the parametric interval [ô, î]- For curves lying
in the o:i/-coordinate plane, Z{t) is, of course, zero. The parame
ter t frequently is used to represent time but may also represent
other quantities, such as angle or arc length.
EXA M PLE 4.2.1 If a point revolves around an axis at a constant dis
tance, a, from it and at the same time moves parallel to the axis in such
a way that its parallel displacement is proportional to the angle of
revolution, 0, the resulting curve is called a circular helix.
(a) If the 2-axis is the axis of the helix and the parameter is
the angle of revolution, then the position vector equation of the
helix is given by
r = (a cos 6)i + (a sin 0)j + (bS)k
where a > 0, h 0, and 6 is the angle of revolution. Note that
SPACE CURVES 77
if b were zero, then the equation would reduce to the equation of

the circle considered earlier.
(b) Given that a point on a circular helix starts at (5, 0, 0)
when ^ = 0, is a t (5, 0, 2 tt) when t = I, and rotates about the
2-axis at 3 rps, find the position vector equation of motion of the
point with respect to time.
Solution
Since 6 = 3(27t0 = M and when ^ = 1, we have hd = 2t , h =
Thus the position vector equation of the point with respect to time is
r = (5 cos GTrî + (5 sin GTr^j + (27r0k, t > 0,
We note that in addition to giving the position of the particle at
any time the equation can (with the use of calculus) be used to
find the velocity and acceleration of the particle at time t.
EXA M PLE 4.2.2 A cycloid is a c u r v e t h a t is t r a c e d b y a p o i n t o n th e
c ir c u m f e r e n c e o f a c ir c l e a s i t r o lls a lo n g a s t r a i g h t lin e .
(a) If the straight line is the o:-axis and the tracing point
{Xy y) starts at the origin, then a position vector equation of the
cycloid is given by
r = a{6 — sin ^)i + a (l — cos B)]

where a is the radius of the circle and 6 is the angle through which
the circle has revolved.
X = OA —PD = —asin0 = a(6 — s\nd)

>^ = A C -D C = a - a c o s 0 = c ( l -co s^ j
FIGURE 4.2.3 Cycloid.

(b) If a circle with radius 5 units rolls along the positive x-axis
at 10 rps and the tracing point P {x, y) starts at the origin when
< = 0, then the position vector equation of motion of the point in
terms of time is
r = 5(207t^ — sin 20x^1 + 5(1 — cos 207r0j, t > 0
since 6 = 10(27tO = 207t^ and a = 5.
4.3 SURFACES
A surface, roughly speaking, is a collection of points with a

two-dimensional character. (The aggregate of points that con
stitute a space curve is generally thought of as being one-dimen
sional in character.) A vector representation of a surface,
analogous to that of the space curve given in the preceding sec
tion, requires two parameters and is given by a position vector
equation of the form:
T = X(Uj v)i + F ( r , v ) ] + Z{u^ y)k. U\ < u < U 2,

V\ < V < ^2*
EXA M PLE 4.3.1 We show that r = (c sin </> cos ^ ) i + (c sin </> sin 6)] +
(c cos <^)k, 0 < < # ) < 7 r , O < 0 < 2 7 r i s a position vector representation
of a sphere with radius c and center at the origin.
Solution
From Figure 4.3.1 we have OQ = OP sin 0, OP = c,
X = OA = OQ cos 0 = c sin </) cos 6 = X(<l>, 6)

y = OB = OQ sin 6 = c sm <f> sin 6 = Y (</>, 6)
z = OC = OP cos (f) = c cos <t> = 6)
+ 2/^ + = ^2
EXA M PLE 4.3.2 A surface that is of interest because of its special geo
metric properties is the t o r u s (an inner tube or doughnut are near
examples). A vector equation of a torus is
T = [{a + h cos a) cos /3]i + [{a + h cos a) sin /3]j + [6 sin a]k
where 0 < 6 < a, 0 < a < 27t, 0 < < 27t. (Figure 4.3-2.)
* This representation applies to most surfaces that occur in practice.
79
FIGURE 4.3.1 Sphere (first octant).
SUMMARY
4.1 Vector Equations
EXA M PLES 4.1.1 through 4.1.5 Solutions of vector equations.

DEFINITION 4.1.1 Reciprocal System
T H E O R E M S 4.1.1 through 4.1.6 Properties of reciprocal systems.
E X A M P L E S 4.1.6 and 4.1.7 Applications of reciprocal systems.
4.2 Space Curves
D E FIN IT IO N 4.2.1 I f r is a vector with its initial point at the

origin and its terminal point at P (x , y, z), then r = xi + yi zk
is called the position vector of the point P .
SPA CE CU RV ES In general, a vector equation of the form
r = X {t)i + Y(t)i + Z{t)k
where x = X {t), y = F(<), 2 = Z{t) define real valued continuous

FIGURE 4.3.2 Torus (first octant).
fu n c tio n s on th e p a ra m e tric in te rv a l [ô, î] d e s c r i b e s a sp ace

cu rv e.
EXA M PLE 4.2.1 Circular H elix: r = (a cos 6)i + ( a s in 0)j +
(bd)k w h e re a > 0, 6 6 is
0, and th e a n g le o f r e v o lu tio n .
E X A M P L E 4.2.2 Cycloid : r = a(6 — s in d)i + a ( l — cos 6)] w h e re
a is t h e r a d i u s o f t h e c i r c l e a n d 6 is th e a n g le th ro u g h w h ic h th e
c ir c le h a s re v o lv e d .
4.3 S urfaces
SU RFA CES A v e c to r e q u a tio n o f th e fo rm
r = X (7 .q ? ;)i + Y (u , v)} + Z (? q v)k
w h e re x = X(u^v)^ y = Y{UjV), z = Z{u^ v) d e fin e r e a l v a l u e d

c o n tin u o u s fu n c tio n s on th e p a ra m e tric in te rv a l [uq, i/i] and
[vo, ^ i ] , d e s c r i b e s a s u r f a c e .
EXA M PLE 4.3.1 Sphere : r = ( c s i n </> c o s 6)i + ( c s i n </> s i n 6)} +
{c c o s <^>)k w h e r e 0 < 0 < tt, 0 < ^ < 27 t, a n d c is t h e r a d i u s o f
th e sp h e re .
PROBLEM SET # 4 81
KXAMPLE 4.3.2 T orus: r = [(a + 6 cos a) cos 0]i + [{a + b cos

a) sin /3]j + [b sin a ] k where 0 < 6 < a, 0 < a < 27t, 0 < < 27t.
I410B L E M S ET #4
A. General
1. Solve 2x — 3a = b + 2 (x — 3b) for x.
2 . Solve 2c — 3(x — d) = 3(c — d) — 4x for x.
.‘1. Solve 3.x + hy = c for y assuming a, b, and c are coplanar.
\ . Solve 2ux — 3vy -1- 2c = 0 for x assuming u, v, and c are coplanar.
r>. Show that a •b = 0 is a necessary and sufficient condition for
a X y = b to have a solution.
(*). If a •b = 0, a 0, b 7^ 0, then does a X y = b have a unique solu
tion? Explain.
7. Solve the system: x •a = A:, x X b = c for x. (Note: b J_ c.)
S. Let a = 2i — 3j + k, b = —i + 2j — k, c = i + 2j -|- 3k. Solve
the system x • a = 10,x X b = c for x by equating the coefficients of
i, j, and k.
0. Given a = 2i + j, b = i — j + k, c = 3j — k, and d = —2i +
j — 3k, solve (a X r) X b + (c •r)d = 3a for r.
10. Using a, b, c, and d as given in the preceding problem, solve
2(a •b X r)c — 3(d X r) = b for r.
11. Solve the linear system
X — y + 2z = S
2x + y — 2 = 7
3?/ — 2z = 4
by letting a- = i + 2j, b = —i + j + 3k, c = 2i — j — 2k, and

d = 3i + 7j 4- 4k. Write X3 + yh + zc = d and take scalar products
of both sides with b X c, etc.
1 2 . Solve the system a •x = 3, b •x = 0, c* x = —16 for x, given
that a = i — 3j + k, b = —i + 2 j — k, c = i — j — 3k.
13. Let a = 2 i + 3j + k, b = —i + 2 k, c = —i + j, and r = i —
2 j + 2 k. Find scalars a, /3, and y so that r = aa + jSb + 7 c.
M. Let a = 12i — 8 j + 4k, b = 4i + 2j, c = 3 i — 2j + k, and r =
i — 2j + 2 k. Find scalars a , (3, and 7 so that r = aa + /3b + 7 c.
If).* Prove that if a •r = a, b •r = jd, c •r = 7 , d •r = 5, then a(b •c X
(1) p(c •3 X d) + 7 (a •b X d) = 5(a •b X c).
16. Simplify
(a) (a X b) • (c X r) + (p •q X r) —5 = 0 to the form u •r = a.
(b) (a X r) •b — [(c X r) X d] •p + 2 = 0 to the form v •r = /3.
* Optimal problems associated with reciprocal systems.
17. * Find the reciprocal system A, B, C to

(a) a = 2i — j, b = j + k, c = i + j — k
(b) a = i + 2k, b = 2j, c = 2i + j + 5k.
18. * Prove Theorems 4.1.2 through 4.1.4.
19. * Prove Theorems 4.1.5 and 4.1.6.
20. * Prove that if a •b X c 0, then for any scalar product d •r we
have d •r = (d •A)(a •r) + (d •B)(b •r) + (d •C)(c •r), where A, B,
C is the reciprocal system to a, b, and c.
21. * Using the technique of reciprocal systems, prove that
p • a p •b p -
(p •q X r)(a •b X c) = q • a q •b q <
r • a r •b r <
B. G eom etric
1. (a) Plot the curve whose vector equation is
r = for 0 < < < 4.
(b) Obtain an equation of the curve in Cartesian coordinates by

eliminating the parameter t from the corresponding parametric
equations. What restrictions must be placed on x and y for
the Cartesian equation to produce the same curve?
2. Plot the curve whose vector equation is
r = for — 00 < t < oo.
r = (4 cos t)i + (3 sin Oj-

r = (4 cos 0)i + (3 sin 6)] + (20)k.
r = (a cos 6)i + (6 sin 6)} + {c6)k; a > 0, 6 > 0, and c > 0.
r = (2r cos 6 r cos 26)i + (2r sin 0 — r sin 2^)j ; r constant.
7. Let an object move counterclockwise on an elliptical path with center
at the origin, major axis 10, minor axis 6, and starting point (5, 0).
if the object completes one “orbit’’ every 3 seconds, write a position
vector equation of the motion of the object with respect to the time in
seconds.
' Optional problems associated with reciprocal systems.
PROBLEM SET # 4 83
FIGURE #4-1 Circular cylinder.
8. Let an object move clockwise on an elliptical path with center at the

origin, major axis 16, minor axis 10, and starting point (8, 0). If the
object completes one ‘‘orbit^’ every ^ second, write a position vector
equation of the motion of the object with respect to time in seconds.
9. Find a position vector equation in terms of a parameter t of the curve
whose equation in rectangular coordinates is given by y(l + x^) = 8
and such that y = at^ bt c and y = S when ^ = 0, 2/ = 4 when
( = ± 1 . Plot the curve.
In Problems 10, 11, and 12 indicate the geometric significance of the
parameters u and v in each of the vector equations of surfaces.
10. Circular cylinder: r = wi + (c cos f)j + (c sin f)k.
11. Circular cone: r = (cu cos + (cu sin z;)j + uVl.
12. Ellipsoid: r = (a sin u cos v)i + (6 sin u sin «;)j + (c cos u)k for 0 <
V < 2tj 0 < u < tt. What is the surface if a = 6 = c?
C. Physics
I. A common family of curves used in the design of gears is called an
involute of a circle. Let a thread be wound around a circle. The path
traced by the free end when the stretched thread is unwound (see Figure
#4-4) is called the involute of the circle.
Using Figure #4-4, find a position vector equation for the involute of
a circle of radius c using the angle 0 as a parameter.
FIGURE #4-2 Circular cone.
First octant.
FIGURE #4-;5 Ellipsoid.
PROBLEM SET # 4 85
FIGURE #4-4 Involute of a circle.
2. The path of a projectile on the surface of the earth (neglecting air

resistance) is given approximately by the vector equation
r = [(z;o cos 6o)t]i + [(iô sin 6o)t —
where Vqis the initial velocity
00 is the angle of departure
t is the time ( > 0)
g is the gravitational constant for earth (approximately 32
ft/sec^ at the surface).
The direction and speed of the projectile are given by the velocity vector
= (iô cos 0o)i + (tô sin 0o gt)i for t > 0.
Given that Vo = 160 ft/sec, 6 q = 45°, g = S2 ft/sec^,
(a) find the horizontal range of the projectile and the time it takes
to achieve this range. Find the velocity vector at this time.
(b) find the time when the projectile reaches its highest point and
find this maximum altitude. Find the velocity vector at the
highest point.
(c) sketch a graph of the path of the projectile for ?/ > 0.
3. A plane in level flight at 800 ft/sec at an altitude of 1,600 ft releases
an object. Select a Cartesian coordinate system so that the plane is at
the origin flying in the positive a:-axis direction when the object is
released (the ground is at 2/ = —1600). Neglect air resistance.
(a) Write the vector equation of the trajectory of the object and the
vector equation of its velocity.
(b) Sketch the path of the trajectory of the object.
(c) Find the time it takes for the object to strike the ground and the
velocity vector when it hits.
4. A bombing plane flies at 50 ft, then pulls up sharply at an angle of
60° at which time it releases a bomb. At the moment of release the
plane is 100 ft above the ground, going 800 ft/sec. Select a Cartesian
coordinate system so that the plane is at the origin at the time the
bomb is released.
(a) Write the vector equation of the trajectory of the bomb and the
vector equation of the velocity.
(b) Sketch a plot of the trajectory of the bomb.
(c) Find the time it takes for the bomb to hit the ground and evalu
ate the velocity vector at the moment the bomb strikes.
5
vector functions
5.1 VECTOR FUNCTIONS IN A SINGLE

INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
The function concept is one of the most important and useful

notions in mathematics. The concept of function is introduced
to most students in an elementary algebra course and assumes a
prominent role in most of their remaining mathematics training.
The types of functions first encountered are concerned with rela
tionships between real numbers, that is, with sets of ordered pairs
of real numbers. There are, however, many other types of
functions that are formed from sets of ordered pairs of elements
other than real numbers. A vector function is an example.
The reader will recall th at if x represents an element in one set
and y represents an element in another set and if there is a cor
respondence such that for each x we have a unique y, then we
87
88 VECTOR FUNCTIONS
write y = fix ) and say that a function is defined. The set of

ordered pairs {x, y) that make the condition y = f{x ) true is
often said to be the function. The set of first elements x in the
set of ordered pairs (x, y) is called the domain of the function;
the set of second elements y is called the range of the function.
Any symV)ol, such as x, used to denote an arbitrary element in
the domain of a function is called an independent variable ; any
symbol used to denote an arbitrary element in the range of a
function is called a dependent variable. If the domain and range
of a function consist of real numbers, the function is said to be
a real valued function of a real variable. If the domain con
sists of ordered pairs of real numbers and the range consists
of real numbers, the function is said to be a real valued function in
two real variables. In the following material we are concerned
with functions whose domains consist of a single set of real
numbers and whose ranges consist of vectors.
D E F IN IT IO N 5.1.1 A Vector Function {in one independent real
variable) is a function having a set of real numbers as its domain
and a set of vectors as its range.
Vector functions are frequently specified by vector equations.

Many of the equations encountered in Chapter 4 can be con
sidered as defining vector functions, for example, r = /(0 ), where
(i) / = { {B, r )/r = {k cos 0)i + {k sin 0)j, 0 < 0 < 27t} *
(ii) g = { (^, r )/r = (5 cos QTrt)i + (5 sin îrt)] + (27r^)k, ^ > 0}
(hi) F = {{ty r )/r = [(vq c o s do)t]i + [(ô sin do)t — ^ > 0}
(iv) G = {{ty v)/v = (^0 cos Bo)i + [(ô sin Bq) — gt]]y/ > 0}
We first consider how to find the range value of a vector func

tion, given a domain value of the function, that is, let us evaluate:
(0
(a) f { l
where the functions /, gy F , and G are as defined above.

* Read: “The vector function / is the set of all ordered pairs (6, r) such
that r = (A: cos 0)i + (A:sin 0)j, 0 < 0 < 27t.’^ r = /(0 ) defines a vector r
in the range of / corresponding to 6 in the domain of /.
V E C T O R FU N C T IO N S IN A S IN G L E IN D E P E N D E N T V A R IA B L E 89
Solutions
(a) / ( j ) = ( k cos j ) i + ( k sin j = ( ^ ) i+ j
(b) g = 5 cos (ir)i + 5 sin (x )j + | ^ = - 5 i + | k
(c) F{2) = [(t;o cos do)2]i + [(iô sin 6o)2 — 2g]]

(d) G{2) = (?;o cos 6o)i + (vq sin 6 q — 2g)}
The geometric and physical interpretations of vector functions

depend on the context in which they appear. For example, if the
vectors in the range of the functions/, and F are thought of as
position vectors (i.e., as vectors with their initial ends fixed at
the origin), then the terminal ends of the vectors will trace well-
known space curves as the independent variables assume their
specified values. The functions / and g will trace a circle and a
helix, respectively (see Section 4.2), while F will trace the flight
of a ballistic projectile in a vacuum (the trace will be a parabola)
with initial velocity vq and an initial angle of elevation Bq (see
Problem Set #4, C-2).
The vectors in the range of G, on the other hand, can be inter
preted as the velocity of the projectile (at time t) whose path is
90 VECTOR FUNCTIONS
FIGURE 5.1.2 r = ^(1 - f ) i - + 2)j.
given by the function F , that is, for each we can obtain a posi
tion vector F(to) at whose terminal point we can construct the
vector G(to). Associated with each point on the flight path of
the projectile is a velocity vector that indicates the direction and
magnitude of the velocity of the projectile when it is at that point.
Note that t does not appear on the graph.
As a further example, let
T = t ( l — i^)i + + 2)j for —2 < i < 1
be the vector function of position of an object. It can also be

shown (with the calculus) that
V = (1 - 3<")i + + 4)j
will describe the velocity of the object at time t

We first evaluate the vector functions for convenient values of U
-2 Ci - l l i + 4j
-1 j -2 i - j
0 0 i
1 3j - 2 i + 7j
VECTOR AND SCALAR POINT FUNCTIONS 91
Graphically, the range values of r can be plotted to describe

the path of the object. At the terminal ends of r we can plot
the corresponding values of v. Note that the domain values t do
not appear directly on the graph, rather, the graph represents the
trace of the terminal points of the range vectors r for the values
- 2 < ^ < 1.
5.2 VECTOR AND SCALAR POINT FUNCTIONS
We have already noted that it is not necessary that the domains

of functions be sets of real numbers. In many applications it is
convenient to consider functions whose domains are sets of points
in a specified region. Functions whose domains consist of points
in a given region are commonly called ‘T oin t Functions.’’
DEFINITION 5.2.1 A scalar point function is a function with a
set of points as its domain and a set of real numbers as its range.
DEFINITION 5.2.2 A vector point function is a function with
a set of points as its domain and a set of vectors as its range.
Scalar point functions and vector point functions are fre
quently referred to as scalar fields and vector fields. Scalar
fields are often associated with problems dealing with tempera
ture, density, pressure, potential, and so on. Vector fields are
associated with problems involving gravitational forces, electrical
forces, heat and fluid flow, and so forth. In many problems
vector and scalar fields are closely associated and are used
together to examine different aspects of the problems.
To illustrate the evaluation and plotting of scalar and vector
fields, let us consider a domain defined by
^ = {p /(^ “ 2)^ < 2?/ and y < 2 ^ where (a:, y) are the
coordinates of point p in a Cartesian system .}
Let a scalar and a vector point function be defined by
— 4x + 7
f = (p, t) f t = where p(x, y) is in R
3 2 /+ 1
a - [(p , d ) / d = ( 1 ^ ^ ) i - i, where
p(x, y) is in ii. |
92 VECTOR FUNCTIONS
TA BLE 5.2.1
Vip^y y) t
4! 3;
0 2 1 -yl — Tj
1 1 1
1? 3«
-yl — Tj
4 2; 12;
y -yl —
“ 9j
3
2 1 T -T^j
3
2 2 T -W j
1 yi “ f j
4
y yi - ifj
yi - yj
The scalar point function / can be graphically illustrated by

evaluating the range values of / for convenient values of p and
by ‘^flagging^^ these values at the corresponding domain points in
R (see Figure 5.2.2). The vector point function G can also be
illustrated as shown in Figure 5.2.3. The initial points of the
range vectors of G are placed a t the corresponding domain points
ofG.
In a scalar field a real number is associated with each point in
the field; in a vector field, on the other hand, a vector is associ
ated with each point in the field. A few additional examples
FIG U R E 5.2.1 R = l p / ( x - 2 ) ^ < 2y and y < 2 \ .

are given below to help illustrate the applications of the concepts

just described.
EXAM PLE 5.2.1 The pressure at any point in a fluid (gas or a liquid)
can be described by a scalar point function. In particular, the pressure
94 VECTOR FUNCTIONS
(atmospheric pressure 2120 Ib/ft^)
FIGURE 5.2.4 A scalar field defined by the pressure at a point.
at a point within an open container of water is given by the following

scalar point function. (See Figure 5.2.4.)
P = { (d,p)/p = (2120 + 62.5rf), where d is a point which is
d units beneath the surface measured in feet.}
EXAMPLE 5.2.2 A thin rectangular plate 10 cm wide with a semi

infinite length is located in a Cartesian coordinate system as indicated
in Figure 5.2.5. The surfaces are insulated, the long edges are kept at
0° C and the short edge is kept at 10° C. The temperature at a point
in the plate tends to zero as the distance between the point and the edge
FIGURE 5.2.5 A scalar field defined by the temperature distribution in a

plate.
Earth
FIGURE 5.2.6 A vector field defined by the gravitational field of the earth.
2/ = 0 tends to infinity. The steady-state temperature at any point P

within the plate is given by the following scalar point function:
V = {((p
(P,. T )!T = — arctan where P is
7T \sinh (7r2//1 0 )/
a point with coordinates (x, y).
We write T = f/(P) to represent the temperature at the point P.
EXAMPLE 5.2.3 The gravitational field of the earth can be described

by a vector point function:
11 = (P, F )y ^ F = r, where r is a vector from the point P
to the center of the earth.
Hole: G = 6.670(10“ ^) dyne cm^/gm^ (the gravitational constant)

Tile = 5.98(10^^) gm (the mass of the earth)
r = |r| (the distance to the center of the earth)
F = H(P) is then the force per unit mass (or gravitational
intensity) on a particle at P and is directed toward the
center of the earth.
To illustrate further, when P is 16.05(10^) cm (approximately 10,000
* This scalar point function gives a good approximation of the tempera
ture distribution if the semi-infinite length is replaced with a finite length
that is large relative to the width and the resulting top edge is kept at 0° C.
96 VECTOR FUNCTIONS
miles) from the earth’s center, we have

(6.67 X 10-»)(5.98 X lO^^)
F = PC = (9.63 X 10~^)PC
(16.05 X 10«)3
|Fl = 1(9.63 X 10~'^)PC\ = (9.63 X lO"*) (16.05 X 10^) = 153 dyne/gm
E X A M P L E 5.2.4 The velocity vectors associated with a uniform fluid
flow around a corner of a noncompressible fluid, such as water, is given
by the following vector point function:
F = { (p, v)/v = 2 xi — 2 yi, where p is the point
with coordinates (x, ?/).}
We often write v = F {p ) for the velocity of a particle of fluid

at the point p.
For p(x, y) we have F (p ):
2) n p o ) = i - 4j
P l(f, -I) F (p ,) = 3i - 3j
P 2(2, 2) F { p 2 ) = 4i - 4j
Pa(2, i ) F(pz) = 4i - j
PROBLEM SET # 5 97
SUMMARY
5.1 Vector F u n ctio n s in a Single Independent Variable
D E F I N I T I O N 5.1.1 A Vector Function (in one independent real

variable) is a function having a set of real numbers as its domain and
a set of vectors as its range.
E X A M P L E S of Vector Functions:
(i) / = {(0, r ) / r = (k cos 0)i + (k sin 0)j, 0 < 0 < 2 tt]

(ii) g = {(tj r ) / r = (5 cos GTrî + (5 sin GTr^j + (27r0k, t > 0}
(iii) F = {(i, r ) /r = [(vo cos do)t]i + [(z;o sin t > oj
Ov) G = i(t, y)/Y = ( v q c o s do)i + [(ô sin do)- gt]j, t
5.2 Vector and Scalar P oin t F u n ctio n s
D E F I N I T I O N 5.2.1 A scalar point function is a function with a set

of points as its domain and a set of real numbers as its range.
D E F I N I T I O N 5.2.2 A vector point function is a function with a set
of points as its domain and a set of vectors as its range.
E X A M P L E S 5.2.1 (Fluid pressure), 5.2.2 (Temperature), 5.2.3
(Gravitational field), 5.2.4 (Fluid flow).
PR O BLEM S ET #5
A. and B. General and G eom etric

1. For the examples of vector functions immediately following Definition
5.1.1, evaluate
2. For the examples of vector functions immediately following Definition

5.1.1, evaluate g(-^) •g(\) X g(0).
3. Let the vector function f be defined as follows:
f = {(t, r)/r = (4 cos t)i + (2 sin t)], 0 < ^ < 27t1

98 VECTOR FUNCTIONS
(b) Sketch a graph of r interpreted as a position-vector.
(c) Draw in the vectors / and / - f
the graph of part (b).

4. Let the vector function g be defined as follows:
g = {(«, r ) /r = d + t > 01
(a) Find ^ (0 ), ^ (1 ), g( 2 ), g{3), and gf(4).

(b) Sketch a graph of r interpreted as a position vector.
(c) Locate and draw in the vectors ^( 1 ), ^( 2 ), and [^(2 ) — gf(l)] in
the graph of part (b).
5. Graph r = g {t ) of Problem 4 above again.
(a) Locate and graph the vector -

. ^71) - ^ 1)
g ( l.i ) - ^( 1 )
(b) Locate and graph the vector
0.1
6 . Graph r = g {t ) of Problem 4 again.

(a) Let h h e Si small positive number and locate the vector
^(1 h) — ^( 1 )
(b) What constant vector does the vector of part (a) approach as h
is made to approach zero? Graph this constant vector so that its
initial end is on the terminal end of ^( 1 ).
(c) What is the geometric relationship of the constant vector to the
curve?
^ T . 1 g (l + h ) - g {l) q (2 + h) - g (2 )
7. In problem 6 , replace ------------ ------------ ------------ with ^--------------- -------
h h
repeat.
C. Physics
1. Using the function defined in Example 5.2.1, find p = P(5280),
that is, the pressure at a point 5280 ft below the surface of the waters of
a very deep lake.
2. If the initial velocity of a projectile is — 1500 ft/sec and its initial
angle of elevation is graph the position vector function of the
projectile. Graph two or three values of the velocity vector function.
What are the maximum velocity, altitude, and range of the projectile?
PROBLEM SET # 5 99
3. Using Example 5.2.3, find the gravitational intensity at a point

100.000 miles from the earth’s center. Find the magnitude of the
gravitational intensity at that point.
4. Using Example 5.2.3, find the gravitational intensity at a point
25.000 miles from the earth’s center. Find the magnitude of the
gravitational intensity at that point.
5. Using Example 5.2.4, evaluate and graph v = F { P ) at the points
Pi(|-, 4), P ‘2(l, 1), P 3 (4 , ^). Find the magnitude of the velocity of the
fluid at each of these points.
6 . Using Example 5.2.4, evaluate and graph v = P (P ) at the points
P i(^ , 8 ), P 2 (2 , 2 ), Pa(8 , ^). Find the magnitude of the velocity of the
fluid at each of these points.
7. A thin rectangular plate 8 cm wide with a semi-infinite length has
both surfaces insulated. If the temperature is kept at 0° C along the
two long edges x = 0 and x = 8 ; at 1 0 0 sin 7rx / 8 for 0 < x < 8 along
the bottom edge y = and if the temperature at a point tends to zero
as the distance between the point and the edge t/ = 0 tends to infinity,
then the steady-state temperature at any point P in the plate is given
by the following scalar point function:
{T , P ) / T = ( 100 sin — j •e ®, where P(x, y) is a point such that,
0 < X < S, y > 0.
Locate the plate in a coordinate system as indicated above and find the
temperature T = u { P ) for P i(4, 8 / tt),* P 2 (-|, 16/ tt), and P 3 ( 2 , 8 ).
* Use a table of exponentials to evaluate e ®.

references
1 . Brand, L., V e cto r A n a ly sis^ John Wiley, 1957.

2. Davis, H., In tro d u c tio n to V ecto r A n a ly sis^ Allyn and Bacon, 1961.
3. Halliday and Resnick, P h y s ic s , John Wiley, 1961.
4. Hay, G. E., V e cto r a n d T e n s o r A n a ly s is , Dover, 1953.
5. Kaplan, W., A d v a n c e d C a lc u lu s , Addison Wesley, 1953.
6 . Nara, H. R. (Editor), V ecto r M e c h a n ic s f o r E n g i n e e r s , Parts I and II,
John Wiley, 1962.
7. Lass, Harry, V e cto r a n d T e n s o r A n a ly s is , McGraw-Hill, 1950.
8 . Phillips, H. B., V e cto r A n a ly s is , John Wiley, 1933.
9. Richards, Sears et al. M o d e rn U n iv ersity P h y s ic s , Addison Wesley,
1960.
1 0 . Schuster, S., E le m e n ta r y V e cto r G eom etry, John W^'iley, 1962.
1 1 . Schwartz, Green, and Rutledge, V e cto r A n a ly s is w ith A p p lic a t io n s ,
Harper, 1960.
1 2 . Sears, M e c h a n ic s , W ave M o tio n , a n d H e a t, Addison Wesley, 1958.
13. Taylor, A. E., A d v a n ced C a lc u lu s, Ginn, 1955.
14. Weatherburn, C. E., E le m e n ta r y V e cto r A n a ly s is , George Bell and Sons,
1921, 1928
15. Wills, A. P., V e cto r A n a ly s is w ith a n I n t ro d u c t io n to T e n s o r A n a ly s is ,
Dover, 1958.
16. Wilson and Gibbs, V ecto r A n a ly s is , Yale University Press, 1947.
101
answers to
problem sets
PROBLEM SET #1: A. General

1.
* \.a + b ®
(a) (b)
(d)
104 ANSWERS TO PROBLEM SETS
5. A vector with magnitude one (i.e., a unit vector) having the same
direction as n.
—^ AB
6. \AB\ = 5, direction: 53°8'. Magnitude of---- 7- is 1.
_ _ _ \AB\
7. = c - b, BD = d - b, CD = d - c.
8. AD = ( ^ - 0 A , I c = W - - ^ , AD = OD-OA.
9. i c = a + b, AM = i (a + b), DD = b - a, BM = i(b - a),
AN = U , D N = -| b .
10. The sum vector is the main diagonal of a cube with 2 unit edges.
Its magnitude is 2 a/ s .
11. Left to right: {x — z)a + (t/ — w)h = 0 and Theorem 1.3.3.
Right to left: X — z = Oandy — w = 0, (x — z)a + (y — w)h = 0 .
PROBLEM SET #1 105
12.
(a)
13. The shortest distance between two points is a straight line.
a+ b
14. Theorem 1.3.4: Let vil|v2; then Vi = hr 2 and vi, V2 are not linearly
independent. Theorem 1.3.6: Similar proof using contrapositive
form.
B . G eom etric
1. Start with any of the other vertices or use a different point Q.
2. PAh = U f a + PB), etc. See Example 1.2.1.
a
3. OP = b + (a — b), etc.
a + 13
4.
Show that M 1 M 2 = Â B
iWW2 = PM 2 -
= ^{PB - PA) = ÂB.
5. BP
Let P be such that — = ^ and M be
BD
the midpoint of PC.
AP = iA D + l i p = IP M
+ l i p = iA~M.
(i) Choose point P and consider

PM\y PM 2 , PMz (see Example
1. 2 . 1).
(ii) Let Qi, O2, O3 divide the
medians as required.
(iii) Use the results of Problem B-3
to express PQij PQi, PQ3.
(iv) Observe that PQ\ = PQ2 = PQz.

___iC Let Pi and P 2 be the midpoints and
choose a point 0 . Show that OPi
M4V — ^ —
Pj h1 = OP2 .
\ 1 1 {Hint: OPi = iOMi + iOM 2
^ Ml B = iliO A +
+ + kOB]
8. Proof is similar to B-7. Parallelogram.

9. (a) 1-space: 2 points, each 2 units from 0 .
2- space: A circle with center 0 and radius 2 units.
3- space: A sphere with center 0 and radius 2 units.
(b) 1-space: A four-unit line segment with 0 as its midpoint and
excluding the endpoints.
2- space: The interior of the circle with center 0 and radius 2
units.
3- space: The interior of the phere with center 0 and radius
2 units.
(c) 1-space: as (b) but also including the endpoints.
2- space: as (b) but also including the circle.
3- space: as (b) but also including the sphere.
(d) 1-space: the line excluding (c).
2- space: The exterior of the circle with center 0 and radius
2 units.
3- space: The exterior of the sphere with center 0 and radius
2 units.
PROBLEM SET 107
10. 1-space:
|OP| =
2- space: The ring between the concentric circles.

3- space: The locus is a spherical shell, 2 units thick, with center at
0, inner radius k — 1, and outer radius A: + 1.
11. (a) The perpendicular bisector of the line segment AB.
(b) An ellipse with foci at A and B.
(c) No points as locus—the difference of two sides of a triangle is
always less than the third side.
12. Q is a point such that the quadrilateral ABQC is a parallelogram.
13. AP = k{OB — OA) where k takes all real values.
■ |b|
14. where m assumes all real values.
15. OP = aOA -f- ÔB where a and jd assume all real values.
16. (a) AP = tAB where i takes all real values.
(b) |iP|2 + \AB\^ = \PA\^
(c) \tAB\^ + 1 = \AP\^ where 0 < t < \AB\,
17. \AP\^ + iBPp = \AB\^.
18. |iP p -1- iBPp = \AB\\
C. Physics
1. (a) Vector (b) scalar (c) scalar (d) vector (e) scalar
(f) vector
(a) Scalar (b) vector (c) scalar (d) vector (e) scalar
(f) vector
Direction: 14.6° North of East. Magnitude: 14 miles.
Direction: 65.5° East of North. Magnitude: 6.22 miles.
Approximately 1732 miles North and 1000 miles East.
(1950, - I 9 5 0 V 3)
36°53'30" North of West, 1297.3 miles from its starting point.
The velocity is approximately 313 mph in the direction 22°54' West
of North.
9. Compass heading: 18°12'36" North of the East-West line. The

speed with respect to the land will be 7.6 knots.
10. Angle: 21°48' Length: 11.55 miles.
11 .
N
13. A force of 5 gm at 270°.

14. A force of 59.5 dynes at 78°45'.
15. 38 lb at 0° and 75 V i lb at 90°.
16. 100 lb at 90° and 200 V s lb at 180°.
PROBLEM SET #2.1: A. General
1. Prove by considering eight cases. See Figure 2.1.3 for four cases.
2. Use the definition: a • b = |a| jb] cos 6 ; a and b are nonzero vectors.
3. a • b = |a| |b| cos 6 = |b| |a| cos 0 = b • a.
4 . a • (b + c ) = |a| comp^ (b + c ) = |a| [comp^ b + comp^ c]
= |a| compo b + |a| comp^ c = a • b + a • c.
5. Show that all three expressions equal h\a\ |bl cos ^(a, b).
6. a • a = |a| |a| cos ^(a, a) = |a| |a| 1 = jap.
7. (a + b) • (c + d) = (a,+ b) •c + (a + b) •d Alg. Lw. 2.1.2
= c •( a -f b) + d •( a + b) Alg. Lw.2.1.1
= c°a + c*b + d ‘ a + d*b Alg. Lw. 2.1.2
= c*a + d°a + c«b + d°b Alg. Lw. 1.2.1
= a*c + a*d + b«c + b*d Alg. Lw. 2.1.1
8 . |a| = A /a •a.
9. (v •i)i -f (v •j)j + (v •k)k = (compi v)i + (compy v)j
+ (compfc v)k = V.
10. ( a - b ) ( a « b ) = |a|^|bl^ cos^ <^(a, b) < |al^|bp where the equality
holds for ^ (a, b) = 0.
B. Geometric
4.
Given: PC ± AB, PB _L AC
Show: PA ± ^
Sketch: AB •PC = AC •PB = 0
PB + {AB - AC) = PC
= PA + AC
PB = PA + ^
then ( A ^ - i c ) •PA = 0.
5. Let perpendicular bisectors oi AC

and B C intersect at P. Show that
Q P M i _L A B ,
i}P A + iP B ) • (PB - PA) = 0.
6.
C. Physics
1. 20 ft lb.
2. 20 ft lb.
3. Zero.
4. (a) 120 ft lb (b) - 1 8 ft lb (c) 102 ft lb
(d) (a) 10 Vi ft lb (b) - 1 8 ft lb (c) (10 V s - 18) ft lb
5. 225 ft lb
6. (5 Vi - 4)50 ft lb
7. OX is the vector from (0, 0) to (4, 0).
0 7 is the vector from (0, 0) to (0, 2).
8. . /
\ / F = F i + F2, F i •P 1P 2 = 0,
Fi
\
\ / F 2 •p ^ i = 0.
Show (Fi + F 2) •P 1P 2 = 0.
\
PROBLEM # 2 .2 111
9.
PR O BLEM S ET #2.2: A. General
1 . a + b = (aî + ay] + azk) + (6xi + by] + b^js)

= + b x i) + (a y ] + b y ]) + (a^k + b g k )
= (o> x + b x ) i + (a y + b y ) ] + (a z + &z)k.
2 . ha. = h(axi + ay] + a^k) = h(axi) + h(ay]) + h(azk)
= (h a x )i + (h a y )] + (h a z )ls..
3. a •b — ~i~ ^ 2/J ct^k) •(bxi^ "1”by^ fe^k)
= (axi + ay] + a^k) •bxi -h(oî + ay] + a^k) • by] •
= (axi) •bxi + (ay]) •bxi + (a^k) •5xi + (axi) • + * *
= (axbx)(i •i) + (aybx)(] •i) + (az6x)(k •i) + • • ♦
= ax6x + dyby + azbz since = = k - k = 1 and
i - j = j * k = k * i = 0.
4. See Figure 2 .3 .3 : P1P2 = OP2 — O P i

= (X21 + 2/2J + 22k) - (a-ii + ?/ij + aik)
_____ = (x2 — X])i + (j/2 — y\)i + (22 — 2i)k.
IP1P2I = VPiPa^ = \ ^{x 2 — xi)^ + (1/2 — y { f + (22 — z i f
1^ 2! = V (1 + 3)^ + ( - 2 + 1)2 + (3 - 1)2 = V ^.

r V/ 3. •b ”1“
| a| 1*>1 V + a / + 0/ V + 6/ + 6/
by the definition a •b = |a| lb| cos ^ ( a , b) and Theorems 2 .3 .8 ,
2 .3 .9 .
6.
= ^ = i.
has the same sense as a, since is a positive scalar.

|a| |a|
7. See Theorems 2.4.1 and 2.3.12.
8. Definition 2.4.2 and allb a. = kh.
9. a = k — -
kl
10. compa c = |c| cos ^ (a, c) = l^LI^ ^ c) = •
|a| |al
11. (a) V i i (b) 6i + 4j + k (c) 4i + j + 5k (d) 4
13
(e) V I (f) 3 (g) 4i + 6 j - 2k (h) -
2 V 42
... 3 . . 2 . 1 ,
(i) —7 = > + —7 = ] ------7 = k
V 14 V 14 V 14
(j) Direction numbers: 3, 2, —1
3 2 1
Direction cosines:
V ii V u V u
12. (a) V e (b) - 2 i + j + 3k (c) - 4 i - 2j + 6k (d) - 5
(e) I Ve (f) 1 (g) - 4 i + 6k (h) V ^
(i) +
V 6 V 6 V 6
(j) Direction numbers: 1, 2, —1

. 1 2 1
Direction cosines: —7=^ —7=^ -
V 6 V 6 V I
13. (a) - i - 3k (b) V lO (c) 7 (d)

V 95 Vs Vs ^
14. (a) - 2 i + j + k (b) V b (c) 5 (d)

2V 7 V 2 V 2
15. 3i + 4k.
16. ^ ^ ; two sets.

-\/42 V 42 V 42’
17. q: = i , = —f ; not collinear or proportional, no.
18. a = 1, P — —2, 7 = —3; a, b, and c are not coplanar.
B. Geometric
1. (a) P ^0, — ^ and Q 0^ are on az + fiy + y = 0, Form
—^ y y
QP = - i -----j ; then N •QP = 0.
—^ Hence N is perpendicular
a p
to the line.
(b) U = - A j.
QP - N
(c) d = | ^ | c o s < ( ^ , N ) = 1 ^ 1
|QP| |N|
(d) N = ai + 6j is the normal to ax by -\- c = 0,
QP = {xi - a:o)i + (2/1 - yo)i for Q(xo, yo) on the line.
Then from (c) we obtain the conclusion by substitution.
(e) _d = % \ / 3.
2. Vi.
3. (a) (i) PoQ •N = 0 where Q is an arbitrary point on the plane.
(ii) A(x — xo) + B(y — yo) + C{z — 20) = 0
or Ax + By + Cz + D = 0
where D = —(Axo + Byo + C20).
(b) - ( x - 2) + 2(y - 1) + 2(2 - 5) = 0
or X — 2y — 22 + 10 = 0.
4. 2(x - 1) + (2/ + 1) - (2 - 3) = 0 or 2x + J/ - 2 + 2 = 0.
^ 3 . 2 . , 5 ,
5. —j = 1 -------- J + - 7= k.
V 38 V 38 V 38
6. 0 COS ^ —7^ - = 69°45' approximately.

V 847
N - QP
7. (a) d = where Q is on the plane and N = Ai + B] + Ck.
INI
Axi + By\ + Cz\A- D
(b) d =
25
8. (a) V u (b) —7 = -
V 14
9. (a) (i) |PoP| = r or PoP^ =

(ii) (x - xo)^ + iv — yo)‘‘ + (z - 2o)^ =
(b) (X + 2 f + (y +_1)2 + (2 - 5)" = 64. _
10. 3x — 2t/ + 52 + a/ sS = 0 or 3x — 2t/ + 52 — "s/ss = 0.
1 1 . b •c = 0 and a = c — b.
a *b
12 . cos (ai - a t) = cos < ( a , b) = , . . .
|al lb|
= COS ai cos a2 + cos /3i cos P2
= cos ai cos a 2 + sin a\ sin 0:2-
cos (ai + 0:2) follows by substituting —0:2 for 0:2.
13. The locus is a circle formed by the intersection of a cone (60° with
respect to the y-sixis) and a sphere of radius 5 with center at the
origin.
14. 6 = cos~^ = 54°44' approximately.

V3
15. Find a vector u = ai + + 7 k such that u •a = 0 and u •b = 0 *
Is u unique?
16. a — b = 3i — 2j; k •(a — b) = 0 ; therefore a — b is perpendicular
to the 2-axis. |a — b[ = a/ 13.
C. Physics
1. Work done = —8 units.
2. Work done = —8 units.
3. The work done by the constant force F in displacing a particle from
one point to another is independent of the path joining the two
points.
4. Consider the projection of a unit area perpendicular to the flow lines.
Then V •N = |V| |N| cos < (V, N)
= ([Vl cos 6) (unit area)
= volume per unit time.
1. (a) - i - 3j - 2k (b) - 2j - k (c) i + 3j + 2k

(d) —i — 5j — 3k (e) —lOi + 4j — 3k
2. (a) i - 2j + 4k (b) i + j + k. (c) —i + 2j 4k
(d) 2i - j + 5k (e) 3i + 6j.
3. - 2 i + 9j + 3k.
4. 3i — 2j + k.
5. (a) (3i + i + 7k)

V 59 _
,,, . , |a X b| VS9 /5 9
= VI■ gT*
6. (a) (6i - 4j + 3k) (b) sin e = V H -

V ei
7. (a + b) X (a — b) = (a + b) X a — (a + b) X b
= - a X (a + b) + b X (a + b)
= - a X b + b X a = - a X b —a X b
= —2(a X b) = —2a X b.
8 . a X ( a + b + c) = 0, a X b + a X c = 0, a x b — c x a = 0,
a X b = c X a. Now show that a X b = b X c follows from
b X (a + b + c) = 0.
9. Let a X b = a X c , a ? ^ 0 . a X b — a X c = 0, a X ( b — c) = 0.
Then a and (b — c) are collinear or b — c = 0. Clearly b —c can
be a vector collinear with a without b = c.
10. b = c + aa given so that a X b = a X ( c + «a) = a X c +
a X aa = a X c.
1 1 . (i) a •b = a •c implies a •(b — c) = 0, a _L (b — c).
(ii) a X b = a X c implies a X (b — c) = 0, a|| (b — c).
(hi) a 9^ 0
(iv) Thus b — c = 0 and b = c.
12. a X (b X c) is a vector in the plane parallel to b and c. If a, b,
and c are noncoplanar, then the triple products could not be the
same vector.
{Note: A counter example would do.)
13. Expand both sides in component form and note that the corre
sponding components are equal.
14. Follows directly from problem 13 by letting a = c and b = d.
B. Geometric
1. [a X b = 0] <=» — = — = — a||b <=> [a and b collinear].
bx by bg
2. b and c since b X c = 0.
3. (a) By problem 1 the vectors P 1P 2 and P\P are collinear. Since

both vectors have a common initial point Pi, they must lie on
the same line. Hence P lies on the line through P i and P 2.
The reasoning is reversible.
(b) Write:
i j k
P1P2 X P lP = X2 — 2/2 — 2/1 Z2 — Z\ = 0.
X - xi y - yi z - zi
Expand and set components equal to zero.
X — X\ Z — Z\
(c) Set y = y\, A line parallel to the x2-plane.
X 2 ~~ X\ 22 — Zi
Set 2/ = 2/1, 2 = 2i, and x arbitrary (i.e., x = kx\ for all real k).
(d)
A line parallel to the x-axis.
X—2 2/ + I 2 —3
4. (a)
-1 -1 -5
X — 5 _ 2 — 1
(b) y = -7 , (c) X = —1, 2 = 3.
-9 ~ 2
5. (a) P lP and a are collinear and thus their direction numbers are
proportional and by definition ax, ay, az are also direction num
bers of PlP .
(b) See 3(b) with appropriate substitutions.
(c) As in 3(c) and 3(d) above.
X — 2 2/ + l _ 2
6. (a)
4 -3 -3
X — S _ y -\- 2
(b) 2 = 1, (c) X = 3, 2/ = - 2 .
2 “ -3
7. (a) P lP = fa <=> P lP X a = 0
(b) (x - xi)i + (2/ - 2/i)j + (2 - 2i)k = taxi + lay] + fa^k;
X — xi = tax, y — yi = tay, z — zi = taz,
X — Xi
(c) If X = xi + tax, then - t.
ax
y - yi
If y = yi + ta y , then ' L
Z — 2i
If 2 = 2i + taz, then-------- = f.
xi y — yi 2 — 2i
Thus- = t.
CLv az
8. (a) X = 2 —^ (b) X= 5 — 9t (c) X —1

y = - t 2/ = -7 y —2 2t
2 = 3 - 5^ 2= 1 + 2^ 2= 3
(d) X = 2 —4:t (e) X = 3 + 2^ (f) X = 3
y = —1 + 3< 2/ = - 2 - 3« 2/ = - 2
z = dt 2 = 1 2=1-4^
9. (a) First, if { P 1 P 2 X P i P z ) • P i P = 0, we have { P 1 P 2 X P \ P z )
is a vector perpendicular to PiP , so that P must lie in the plane
determined by Pi, P2, and P3. If P lies in the plane deter
mined by Pi, P2, and P3, then P\P is perpendicular to (P1P2 X
P iP z), so that (P1P2 X P1P3) •P iP = 0 .
(b) i j k
(X2 —Xi) (2/2 —2/1) (22 — Zl) [{x - xi)i + (2/ - 2/i)j
(X 3 — X i ) (2/3 — 2/1) (23 — 21) + (2 - 2i)k] = 0.
Expand and rewrite in determinant form.
10. 18i + 4j + 6k.
11. 18x + 42/ + 62 - 8 = 0.
12. (a) 7i - 8j - 13k.
(b) 7(x — xi) — 8 (2/ — 2/1) — 13(2 — 21) = 0 where P i(x i, 2/1, 21)
is a fixed point in the plane.
13. (a) 7(x - 2) - 8 (2/ - 1) - 13(2 + 3) = 0 and 7(x - 4) - 8y -
13(2 - 4) = 0.
69
(b) d =
PoPi gives the distance between the lines mi and m2.

\|a X b|/
The distance between the two parallel planes is the same as the
distance between the two lines.
15. The normal to the plane determined by Pi, P2, and P3 is the vector
product. The unit normal N is thus
P1P2 X P1P3
N andd = [N-iPiPol.
|p 7p 2 X P ^ 2|
80
16. d =
V 376
17. See problem 14.
2
18. d =
V m
118 ANSWEHS TO PHOBLEM SETS
81
19. d =
17 19
20. (a) Area ^ A B C = 1 (b) (c) d =
V sT
i j k
21. Area = i\ A B X AC\ = 1 X2 — X i 2/2 - 2/1 Z2 — 21
X3 — Xi 2/3 — 2/1 23 — 21
“ I V [(j/2 — yi)(zz — zi) — (yz — yi)(z 2 — z\W
+ [(a;3 — x\){zi — zi) — (X2 — xi)
(23 — 21)]* + [(X2 — X1K2/3 - J/l) — (®3 - Xi)(j/2 — J/l)]*
22. i V 195.
®J/
23. Volume = a • (b X c) = hx hy hg
Cx Cy C2
24. Note that the volume of a tetrahedron is equal to ^ the volume of
the parallelepiped from which it can be cut. V =
25. Let a, b, c be the sides in vector form with a = c — b.
|b X c| = |(c - b) X ( - b ) l = h ( c - b) X ( - c ) l .
be sin A = ab sin C = ac sin By and the conclusion follows.
ni = i ( a X b), 112 = ^ (c X a), na =

i ( b X c), U4 = ^[(b - c) X (a - c)].
ni + U2 + na + U4 = 0 by substitu
tion and simplification.
C. Physics
1. A;iN X ai = k 2N X a 2, (A;i|N| |ail sin a i)E = (fc2|N| la2l sin a 2)E
where E is a common unit vector, k i sin a i = k 2sin a i . (Reversible.)
2. Note that v = w X r is perpendicular to both w and r; thus v is
tangent to the circle. lv| = jw X r[ = |w| [rj sin 6 = w(rsidms);
thus |v| = velocity of a point on the circle.
3. (a) \Pî\F sin d = | ^ i X Fj. (b) V m
4. IrjF sin ^ = |r X F|.
1. If a, b, c are coplanar, then a = k\h + k 2C and a •b X c can be

(k\bx + k2Cx) (k\by + k2Cy) (kibz 4* k2Cz)
expressed as = 0.
If a •b X c = 0, then = 0 so that a = A;ib + k 2C
and a, b, c are coplanar.

2. Express the products in terms of determinants and the result
follows.
3. As in problem 2 above.
4. Expand both sides after setting a = aî + a j + o^k, h = bxi +
fcj/j bz^f c — Cjji “|~ ”i” c^k.
5. (a) 11 (b) - 1 1 (c) 11 (d) - i - h l l j + 3 k
(e) 13i + 24j - 22k (f) - 1 4 i - 13j + 25k (g) 37
(h) 15i + 8j + 12k (i) Hi - 33j - Ilk.
6. (a) 12 (b) - 1 2 (c) 12 (d) - 8i + 8j + 8k
(e) - H i + 3j + 6k (f) 3i + 5j + 2k (g) 40
(h) 12i - 4j - 8k (i) 24i - 36k.
j X k ^ i ^ k Xi ^ j ^ .
i Xj
7. = ?^=k.
i •j X k 1 •jXk j Xk 1
1
8 . [a X (b X c) = (a X b) X c] [(a •c)b - (a •b)c = (a •c)b -
(c •b)a] [(a •b)c — (c •b)a = 0] <=> [b X (c X a) = 0].
9. Use Identity 3.4.2 with d = a X b;
[a •c X (a X b)]b — [b •c X (a X b)]a
= [a •b X (a X b)]c - (a •b X c)(a X b),
[(a X c) . (a X b)]b - [(b X c) •(a X b)]a = [(a X b) •(a X b)]c + 0;
now use Identity 3.4.1 to obtain the desired result.
10. By direct application of Identity 3.4.2 we have
(a •c X v)b — (b •c X v)a = (a •b X v)c — (a •b X c)v and for
a •b X c 0, the result follows.
11. a X [b X (c X d)] = a X [(b •d)c - (b •c)d]
= (b . d)(a X c) - (b . c)(a X d).
12. Use the result of problem 10 with p, q, and r in succession. For
simplicity, let
b xc _ cx a ^ axb
A = ^ B = C =
a •b X c a •b X c a •b X c
Now show that

p •A p •B p •C
p-qXr = q -A q *B q -C ( a b X c ) ; A * B x C =
r •A r •B r •C a •b X c
The result then follows.
13. (a) Use Identity 3.4.1.
(b) Let a, b, c, and d be unit vectors and apply the definition of
vector product, using the arrangement as shown:
14. (a X b) X (c X d) = (a •c X d)b - (b •c X d)a = 0

a'C X d = 0 ^ a , c, d are coplanar.
i b *c X d = 0<=>b, c, d are coplanar.
The converse is false. Let a = j,b = j, c = k, d = i.
d-bxc d-aXc d-aXb
15. X = --------------------------- = 3, 2/ = ----------- = 2, 2 = ----------- = 1.
a-bxc b*aXc c*aXb
16. a X (a X b) is coplanar with a and b and is perpendicular to a.
Using the result from problem 9, we have b = ffa — fru where
u = a X (a X b) = i - 4j — 2k.
B. G eom etric
1. Volume = |a •b X c[ = 10.
2. Volume = i\i
i| a -b X c| = f .
3. P 1 P 2 •P 1P 3 X P iP 0 where P is a point in the plane determined
by P i, P 2 , and P 3 .
4. (x + 1 ) - 12(2/ + 2) - 7(z 3) = 0 or X — 12y — 72 — 2 = 0.
5. —8x + y — 2z + 9 = 0.
6. 55x + y — 7z — 56 = 0.
P1P2 X P1P3
7. d = P1P4.
1^2 X ^3|
6
8. d =
V 29
9* d — '\ / 30,
PROBLEM SET # 4 121
10. Note that Fi(0, 0, 2), P 2(3, 0, 0), Ps(0, —2, 0) all lie in the plane
2x — 3?/ + 3z — 6 = 0 so that
d = . P jP = I I V e .
P1P2 X P1P3I
P1P2 X P3P4 o
11. d = P 1P 4
IP1P2 X P3P4I
12. d = I V 5 .
13. d =
V 202
14. d = I V s .
C. Physics
1 . N X P qP i is a vector perpendicular to N and to P qP i with length
equal to |PoPi|. Hence N X PoPi * F is the projection of F onto
N X P qP i time |PoPi|, i*e., the first moment of F with respect to
the axis AA\ Thus the vector moment is the vector M = (N X
P qP i •F)N with direction along AA^ and magnitude jN X PoPi *Fj.
2. M = 68j.
3. M = Oi = 0.
4. Ml = 5k, M 2 = 3k, and M 3 = { —2Fzy + Psx)^ to satisfy the
conditions. Thus any choice of components Fzx^ Pzyy Fsz such that
5 + 3 + ( —2P 3J, + Fzx) = 0 will do, e.g., F 3 = 2i + 5j.
5. Ml = —15i, M 2 = —2i, M 3 = {7Fzz — SFzy)i, and we must have
- 1 5 - 2 + {7Fs^ - SFsy) = 0, e.g., F 3 = 6i - j + 2k.
6. No such force exists, since all six independent conditions cannot be
satisfied by introducing a single additional force F3 at the point P3.
7. See answer to problem 6.
PR O BLEM S ET #4: A. General
1. No solution.
2 . X = c.
(a X b) • (a X c)
3. i/ = for a, b, and c coplanar and a X b 0.
(a X b)2
(v X u) ♦ (v X c)
4. X = — for u, V, and c coplanar and v X u 0.
(v X u)2
Necessity: a X y = b = > a * a x y = a * b = > 0 = a*b.

Sufficiency: (i) a • b = 0 ^ a perpendicular to b.
(ii) Choose y vso tliat y is perpendicular to b and lb| =
|a| |y| sin (a, y) a X y = b.
No, y can be any vector in a plane perpendicular to b such that
|b| = |a| |y| sin *^:(a, y).
a X c + A:b
7. X = for a •b 5*^ 0.
a •b
8. X = - g - l ----- F"J "T
9. r = - ¥ i - l] - Ik.
10. T =
11. X = 3, y = 2, z = 1.
12. X = 3i + 4j + 5k.
13. a = 0 , = 1, 7 = —2 so that r = b — 2c.
14. No solution, for a •b X c = 0.
15. Let A, B, C be the reciprocal system to a, b, c and B', C', D' be the
reciprocal system to b, c, d. Then r = (a •r)A + (b •r)B +
(c •r)C and r = (b •r)B' + (c •r)C' + (d •r)D ' so that (a •r)A +
(b •r)B + (c •r)C = (b •r)B ' + (c •r)C' + (d •r)D '. Now take
the scalar product of both sides by d :
/ d ^^ ^Xcc\\ , ,, . Z/dd•^c ^
X \a \ , , /
. /d •a X b^ ^
(a d -r
A a - b xX cc/ A iâ
a -•b
bx c y ^ ^ \a •b X cc>/
(a- r)(b •c X d) + (b r)(c •a X d) + (c r)(a- b X d)
= ( d- r ) ( a- b X c)
and the conclusion follows.
16. (a) u = c X (b X a) + (p X q) and a = 5.
(b) V = (a X b) — (d •c)p — (c •p)d and ^ = —2.
17. (a) A = fi — -g-j + |-k, B = ii + f j + fk, C = ii + f j 5^*
(b) A = lOi - 4k, B = 2i + j - k, C = - 4 i + 2k.
18. Theorem 4.1.2. Use vector identities to show that
BXC ^ CXA AXB
a c
A B X C A B X C A B X C
Theorem 4.1.3. This theorem follows from Definition 4.1.1 and
properties of the scalar product.
Theorem 4.1.4. This theorem follows from Theorem 4.1.2 and
Theorem 4.1.1.
19. Theorem 4.1.5. (A - B X C)(a •b X c)
b Xc c Xa a X b ^
(a •b X c)
= C - 'b X c a - b x c a*bxc;
1
[(b X c ) . (r X s)]
(a •b X c)*
PROBLEM SET # 4 123
1b •r b •s _ (a •b X c)^
= 1
a •b X c •r c •s (a •b X c)^
where r = c X a and s = a X b
Theorem 4.1.6. A = = 7 = i- Similarly, B = j, C k.
!•] X k 1
20. If A, B, C is the reciprocal system to a, b, c, then by Theorem
4.1.4: r = (r •a)A + (r •b)B + (r •c)C and taking the scalar
product by d, the conclusion follows.
21. See answer to problem 12 in Problem Set #3.2A.
B . G eom etric
1. A segment of a parabola from (0, 0) to
(2, 16) whose Cartesian form is y = 4x^,
0 < X < 2.
{Note: The scales are unequal on the
graph.)
2. y A semicubical parabola.
(2, - 2)
A central ellipse with major axis 8

units and minor axis 6 units.
An elliptic helix.
An elliptic helix.
A hypocycloid of three cusps.

6 X y 6 X y
0 3r 0 — -2 r 2 \/3 r
3
7T
- —r 2r 7T —r 0
2
- - -r -2 r
2
P / 27T \ / 27T \ .
7. r = 5 cos I — t j i + S sin I — tj j.
8. r = 8 cos (STTî + 5 sin (Sirt)],

PROBLEM SET # 4 125
9. r = + i + (8 — for — \ / 2 < t < \^2

\/2 -
(Note: Scales
are unequal on
the graph.)
10. u is the x-coordinate of P, i.e., the directed distance of P from the

2/2-plane. v is the angle in the small right triangle indicated in
Figure #4-1.
11. u is the z-coordinate of the point P, i.e., the directed distance of P
from the xy-pl&ne, v is the angle that the line from P to the z-axis
(parallel to the X2/-plane) makes with the xz-plane.
12. u = ^ (r, k). t; is the angle that the projection of r in the xy-plsme
makes with the x-axis. If a = 6 = c, the surface is a sphere.
C. Physics
1. r = (c cos $ + c6 sin 6)i + (c sin 6 — c6 cos 0)j.
2. (a) range = 800 it, t = 5 \ / 2, v = 80 \ / 2 i — 80 \ / 2 j
(b) maximum altitude = 200 ft, < = | \ / 2, v = 80 \ / 2 i
4. (a) r = (400<)i + (400 V s t - 16«2)j

V = (400)i + (400 V s - 320j.
(c) t is approximately 43.5 sec

V = 400i - 699.2j
PROBLEM SET ^5: A. and B. General and Geometric
kV s .
1. (a) / j and g k so that
(b) 9
/ A ^5. , 5 Vs,j H,—ITk,
\1 8 / 2' 2 -^ 9
F(3) = (3^0 cos 0o)i + ^3^0 sin 6o - ^ j
so that
9 X F(S) = ^ - % o sin 6 ^ i + vq c o s 6^ j
+ I“ sin 00—
45
^
15 Vs vq co s 6 ^ k.
5Vs
PROBLEM SET # 5 127
3. (a) /(O) = 4i, = 2 V s i + j, / Q = 2i + V s j, ‘
(Note: Vectors shown on figure are not terminated at scale

points.)
4. (a) g(0) = 0, ^(1) = H - j, g(2) = 2i + 4j,
^(3) = 3i + 9j, ^(4) = 4i + 16j.
(a), (b), and (c)

As in problem 5 above where h ‘‘takes the successive values’^ such
g{l h) - g(l)
as .1, etc. approaches the vector i + 2j as /i
approaches 0 (i.e., as becomes as small as you please”)- The

vector i + 2j appears to be tangent to the curve at the point
(1, 1), which is the terminal point of ^(1).
PROBLEM SET # 5 129
7. (a), (b), and (c)
C. Physics
1. p = 332,120 Ib /ftl
•= (7500i + (750^3 « - 16t2)j Maximum velocity = 1500

ft/sec.
Range = 60,890 ft approx,
when t = 81.19 sec.
Maximum altitude
= 26,370 ft approx.
10,000 30,000 60,000
3. F = 1.454(10~^^)r, \F\ = 2.33 dyne/gm.

4. F = 6.172(10-i2)j.^ |p| = 0.248 dyne/gm.
130
5. P i(i,4 ):
V = | i - 8j,
Ivj = 8.02
P2(l, 1):
V = 2i - 2j,
lv| = 2.83
P 3 (4 ,i);
V = 8i - -|j,
|v| = 8.02
6. P i ( i 8 ) :
V= i —
|vl = \ / 2W
P2(2, 2):
V = 4i — 4j
|vl = 4 \ / 2
Ps(8, i ) :
V = 16i ^ 2
H = V 2^
index
Addition of vectors, 5, 13 Direction angles, 37, 40

Angle, between two planes, 42 Direction cosines, 37, 38, 40
between two vectors, 22, 29, 37, Direction numbers, 38, 40
39 Distance, between a point and a line
Angular velocity vector, 54 in a plane, 41
Area, parallelogram, 45, 48 between a point and a plane, 42,
triangle, 53 51, 65
between two lines, 52
Base vectors, 33, 34, 39 between two planes, 52
i, j, k base vectors, 34, 39, 64 Distributive law, general, 43
Basis, 33, 39, 64
Bisector of an angle, vector equation Ellipsoid, 83
of, 18 Equality of vectors, 2, 13
Bound vectors, 3 Equilibrium, 67
Circle, vector equation of, 18 Fields, vector and scalar, 91

Collinear vectors, 10, 14 Fluid flow, 43, 96, 99
Component of a vector, 23, 29, 34 Forces, addition of, 21, 32
Cone, circular, 83 Free vector, 1
Coordinate system, left-handed, 33 Function, 87, 88
right-handed, 32 dependent variable, 88
Coplanar vectors, 10, 14, 57, 63 domain, 88
Cosine law (for plane triangles), 29 independent variable, 88
Cross product, vector, 44 range, 88
Cycloid, 77, 80 real valued, 88
Cylinder, circular, 83 Function, vector, 88
131
132 INDEX
Gravitational field of the earth, 95 Scalar moment of force, 55

Gravitational intensity, 99 Scalar point functions, 91, 92, 93, 95,
97
Helix, circular, 76, 80 Scalar product, 23, 29
Scalar triple product, 56, 62
Identities, vector, 61, 63 Sliding vectors, 3
Initial point of a vector, 2 Snell’s Law, 53
Involute of a circle, 83 Space curves, 74, 76, 79
Sphere, vector equation of, 18, 43,
Law of Cosines (for plane triangles), 92 78, 80
Law of Sines (for plane triangles), 53 Static equilibrium, 32
Left-handed coordinate system, 33 Subtraction of vectors, 5, 13
Line, vector equation of, 18, 49 Surfaces, 78, 80
parametric form, 50
symmetric form, 49 Temperature, steady-state, 95, 99
Linearly dependent set of vectors, Terminal point of a vector, 2
12, 14 Torus, 78
Linearly independent set of vectors, Triple product, 55, 62
12, 14 scalar, 56, 62
Locus, 17 vector, 58, 63
Magnitude of a vector, 2, 36, 37 Unit normal vector to a plane, 45,
Moment of force, 54 48, 51
scalar, 55 Unit vector, 37, 40
vector, 54, 66, 67
Multiplication of a vector by a Vector, 1, 13, 18
scalar, 6, 13 initial point, 2
magnitude, 2
Null vector, 4, 13
terminal point, 2
Path of a projectile, 85, 98 Vector addition, 4
Plane, vector equation of, 18, 42, 51, Vector cross product, 44
65 in component form, 47, 48
Point functions, 91 Vector equation, 68
scalar, 91 Vector fields, 91
vector, 91 Vector function, 88, 97
Position vector, 75 Vector identities, 61, 63
Pressure, fluid, 93 Vector moment of force, 54, 66, 67
Projectile, path of, 85, 98 Vector point function, 91, 92, 95, 96,
97
Reciprocal system, 71, 81, 82 Vector subtraction, 5, 13
Refraction of light (SnelPs law), 53 Vector triple product, 58, 63
Resultant (sum of vectors), 5 Volume of a parallelepiped, 65
Right-handed coordinate system, 32
Work, 27, 31, 32, 43
Scalar, 1, 13, 18
Scalar fields, 91 Zero vector, 4, 13

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vectors

Oakland city college

Oakland city college

jobn W i l e y & sons, inc., new y o r k •london

Printed in the United States of America

This supplement should be useful to lower-division students

the important definitions and theorems is included before each

1.1 Vectors and Scalars, 1

Chapter 2 t h e sca la r pr o d u c t, b a s e v ecto rs 22

2.1 The Scalar (Dot) Product, 22

PRODUCTS, VECTOR IDENTITIES 44

3.1 The Vector (Cross) Product, 44

4.1 Vector Equations, 68

5.1 Vector Functions in a Single

1.1 VECTORS AND SCALARS

Mathematicians and physicists deal with many kinds of quan­

D E FIN IT IO N 1.1.1 A scalar is a quantity that can he completely

D E FIN IT IO N 1.1.2 A (free) vector is a quantity that requires for

FIGURE 1.1.1 Vector notation.

A vector can be represented geometrically by a directed line

DEFINITION 1.1.3 Equality of (free) vectors.

The above definition of equality implies that a vector a can be

AB = (AP)t X = Xi + (X2 — X i ) t The line through

n •OP = 0 UxX + Uyy + figZ = k A plane perpen­

|OPl = k (x - xo)^ + (y - yo)^ + (2 - 2o)^ = k'^ A sphere with

D E F IN IT IO N 1.1.4 The zero or null vector, denoted by 0, will be

The reader may wonder about the apparent carelessness in

a. Vectors provide a concise and easy-to-follow symbolism for

1.2 VECTOR ADDITION AND MULTIPLICATION

The definition of the sum of two vectors given below is equiva­

FIG U R E 1.2.1 Addition of vectors.

D E F IN IT IO N 1.2.1 Vector Addition. Given two vectors a and b,

D E F IN IT IO N 1.2.2 Vector Sub­

Definition 1.2.2 may be more readily understood by recalling

FIGURE 1.2.4 Scalar multiples.

There are several different types of multiplication involving

DEFINITION 1.2.3 Multiplication of a vector by a scalar. I f

1.2.8 (m + n)a. = ma + na distributive law

Note that no distributive law involving vector quantities only

FIG U R E 1.2.5 The associative law.

FIGURE 1.2.6 Midpoint of AB.

FIG U R E 1.2.7 Diagonals of a parallelogram.

a. Let Q be an arbitrary point, a = QA, b = QB, c = QC, and

1.3 COLLINEAR AND COPLANAR VECTORS

D E F IN IT IO N 1.3.1 Two vectors are said to he collinear if they are

FIGURE 1.3.1 c = /bia + /cob.

T H EO R EM 1.3.1 If vectors a and b are noncollinear, then any

FIGURE 1.3.2 d = /cia + k^h + k-^c.

THEOREM 1.3.2 If vectors a, b, and c are noncoplanar, every

DEFINITION 1.3.3 A set of n vectors Vi, V2, . . . , Vn is said to he

THEOREM 1.3.6 [ v i , V2 , and V3 are ] [ v i , V2 , and V3 a re ]

I. I Vectors and Scalars

D E F IN IT IO N 1.1.1 A scalar zs a quantity that can he completely

r _ -, r (i) direction of a = direction o / b 1

1.1.4 The zero or null vector, denoted by 0, will he

1.2 Vector Addition and M ultiplication

D E F IN IT IO N 1.2.1 Vector Addition. Given two vectors a and b

A L G E B R A IC L A W S (a, b, c a r e v e c t o r s ; m and n a re sca la rs )

1.2.8 (m + n)a = ma + na distributive law

1.3 Collinear and C oplanar Vectors

D F F iN iT iO N 1.3.1 Two vcctoTS are said to be collinear i f they are

c = kiB. -f“ /c2b.

T H E O R E M 1.3.2 If vectors a , b , and c are noncoplanar, every

Mathematicians and physicists deal with many kinds of quan

n •OP = 0 UxX + Uyy + figZ = k A plane perpen

The definition of the sum of two vectors given below is equiva

D E F IN IT IO N 1.2.2 Vector Sub

One of the important applications of scalar products, as men