Que.

Explain inspection , service and repair of drum and disc brake

and carburettor tunning.

Servicing Drum Brakes

The brakes are perhaps one of the most important components in the operation of your
car. Keeping them properly maintained is key to safe driving.

Rear drum brake inspection and maintenance is a procedure that you can do yourself with a
minimal amount of difficulty.

The rear drum brakes work much differently than the front disc brakes. They consist of a
backing plate that houses brake shoes. These, in turn, cause friction on the drum and stop the
wheel when the brakes are depressed. A "soft" or unresponsive operation when depressing
the pedal could mean that one of several components is worn out.

To complete the procedure, you will need the following items: socket wrench set, brake
shoe caliper, depth gauge, brake pliers, brake spring tool, high-temperature grease, fresh
brake fluid, a turkey baster, and soap and water.

You may need to replace the following items: brake shoes, brake wheel cylinder, brake
springs, and drum.

Procedure

1. Buy, or have on hand, your car's service manual and refer to it frequently.

Doing the job right the first time can save you time and money.

2. Jack up your car and remove the rear wheel and tire.

Do not take apart the brake assemblies on both sides at the same time. You may need
to use the other side as a reference when reassembling.

3. Remove the drum, which attaches directly to the wheel.

Wash it in soap and water.

4. Inspect the brake linings on the outside of the backing plate to make sure they
are not cracked or glazed over.

Look at the hydraulic wheel cylinder mounted on the backing plate and make sure that
it is not leaking hydraulic fluid. Also, make sure that all moving parts are free of rust.

5. Measure the drum to make sure that it is not larger than the manufacturer's
maximum specifications.
 To do this, take your micrometer and measure the inside of the drum in several places.
Compare this number with the maximum measurement printed on the side of the
drum. If the diameter is less than the maximum specification, the drum can be
machined by a service technician. If not, it must be replaced.

6. Measure the brake lining with your depth gauge.

Make sure that it is above the minimum thickness requirement listed in your service
manual. If it isn't, the lining must be replaced.

7. Look at the brake shoes to see if they are worn down.

These should be replaced when the lining is below the manufacturer's specifications.
If they need to be replaced, take your brake pliers and remove the brake shoe return
springs. Then, take a brake spring tool and remove the hold-down springs and pins.
The entire assembly should come off at this point. This will include the springs, the
star wheel and both shoes. The rear shoe will still be attached to the parking brake
cable. Use a screwdriver to remove this cable. Clean the star wheel, which keeps the
brake shoes adjusted and re-lubricate it.

8. Check the wheel cylinder to make sure there are no hydraulic leaks.

If there are, it needs to be replaced. This can be done by first loosening the brake line
coming from the car, and then loosening the bolts on the back of the cylinder. This
can be a somewhat awkward procedure, because the bolts are hard to access.

9. Put the new cylinder on.

Always attach the brake fitting first, before the bolts, to avoid crossthreading. After it
bolting into place, reattach the brake line.

If you are replacing the shoes and the wheel cylinder, replace the cylinder first. Make
sure you put the primary shoe on the front of the backing plate. The primary shoe is
normally shorter. Replace the back shoe first. You will need to re-attach the parking
brake cable to the new shoe. You will then replace the hold-down springs and pins. It
is a good idea to put new ones on at this point. Next, replace your cleaned and
lubricated star-wheel. Then put in the primary shoe and replace its hold-down springs
and pins. Finally, take your brake pliers and attach your brake springs. If you become
confused about how the assembly should look, refer to the brake on the other side of
your car or your service manual. Rock the brake shoes back and forth to make sure
that they will stay in place.

10. Clean off any grease from your hands that got on the shoes.

Do not use a brake cleaner, as it contains a petroleum distillate, which tends to destroy
the material in the shoes.

11. Replace the drum.

 12. It should fit easily onto the front of the backing plate. Then, take your brake spoon
and turn the star wheel in the back until you can turn the wheel and feel light contact
from the brake shoes.
13. Take a turkey baster and remove the old brake fluid from the master cylinder
under the hood of the car.

Then, pour the new fluid in. Next, bleed the old fluid out by attaching a bleeder hose
to the bleeder nut located on the back of the brake assembly. Have someone pump up
the brakes, and at the same time, open the bleeder nut and drain the old fluid and
bubbles remaining in the line into your metal pan.

14. Replace the tire and wheel assembly and repeat the same procedure for the other
side.

Doing brake inspection and maintenance is a relatively simple task. However, brakes are
essential to driving safety. Exercise the proper care in doing these procedures and don't forget
to refer to your vehicle's manual as much as possible. If you don't feel comfortable doing any
of the procedures above, don't hesitate to seek the assistance of a trained professional.

Disc Brakes
Front brakes on all modern cars are disc brakes. The front brakes generally provide 80% of
the stopping power, and so tend to wear faster than the rear. Replacing them - pads, rotors
and calipers - is quite simple once you understand the process, and can save you a great deal
of money. These instructions will include a full front brake replacement. Also, having a
service manual for your vehicle will save your sanity, as well as time and money. If you only
need pads, or pads and rotors, but not calipers, skip the steps for replacing calipers. Repeat
the steps below for each side of the car as necessary.

If you have a competent friend, talk about this after studying the steps, and have someone to
keep you company, to talk to, who might just sit around reading a book -- especially the first
time you do this kind of work.

Steps
1

Determine the parts and tools you'll need, and be safe. Be aware that blowing, breathing or
ingesting asbestos dust from the brakes is a health hazard -- wipe the powdery or caked dust
off with rags or paper towels (dampened with a solvent like alcohol) and dispose of the
wipes (see "Warnings" below). Consider the symptoms of the brakes; for example:

o If the front brakes have been squealing loudly, you may need pads only.
o If the car or brake pedal has been shaking when braking, you'll need to have the
rotors resurfaced (called "turning"), or replace them.
o If the car pulls to one side while braking, but stays straight otherwise, you may need
calipers. This is a sign of uneven wear of your brake pads which is because of uneven
pressure in your brake lines.
 o If the brakes have a grinding noise, this means rotors are done, spent, wasted, or
whatever you want to call it, just replace them.

Buy more parts than you think you'll need. You can always return what you don't use (keep
your receipt and boxes and parts clean/undamaged). If you get caught without something
while the car is apart, you may not have transportation to go buy anything.

Park the car in a clean, solid, well-lit place. Block the rear wheels with something heavy (like
bricks or lumber which is small enough to jam under the wheels) to prevent the car from
rolling or sliding while it's jacked up. Apply the emergency or parking brake to hold the rear
wheels fast. (The vehicle's "PARK" gear will only hold one of the drive wheels, if you have a
front wheel drive car then it will hold only one of your front wheels and if you have a rear
wheel drive car then it will hold only one of your back wheels).

Loosen the lug nuts before jacking the car up (do not remove lug nuts yet). If you skip this
step, loosening the lugs may be very annoying, if not impossible. It is also somewhat
dangerous to loosen lug nuts after a car has been jacked up.

Jack the car up with a sturdy jack on a solid surface (such as a floor jack if you have
concrete to work on) and lower it very slowly and carefully onto jackstands. Caution: a
floor jack's wheels need to be able to roll and the jack needs to travel a little and so it must
not embed (sink) into a soft floor or surface.

6
Never work without jackstands that are on solid flat surface like stepping-stones or wide
scraps of strong wood to keep the jackstands from sinking, leaning or tilting and falling,
etc. Position the jackstands under a solid part of the car - frame or subframe. You can easily
damage the under side of the car, or even break something.

o Give the car a couple of good hard, small shoves from side to side; if it's going to
shift, slide off the jackstands, sink into asphalt, dirt or gravel, or just twist around
and fall, better to learn now while the wheels are on, than when you're partially
under it with the wheels off.
o Finish removing the wheels, and lay the wheels under the car, just to the rear of the
jackstands. In case the car slips off the stands, those wheels may prevent you, your
arms or head from being caught under a falling car (preventing the car from falling
to the ground) if the jack stands fall over.

Make sure you have all the necessary tools. There are two bolts that hold the caliper to the
pad bracket, and two bolts that hold the pad bracket to the steering knuckle. If you don't
have the tools to remove these, now is the time to put the wheels back on and go to the
hardware store. [You may need both SAE and Metric sizes of wrenches and sockets, as well
as bleeder screw wrenches. Also, you may need a set of hex (ALLEN) or star (TORX) key
wrenches or a hex or star bit socket set.]

Removing calipers with hose attached: Remove the caliper from the pad bracket if
necessary. (Some smaller economy-car calipers are simply held together by spring-clips, and
it is very easy to remove the pads and to compress the piston without difficulty.) Larger car
and truck calipers are much more hefty and are bolted in place. The pads may come out with
the caliper, or stay in the bracket, depending on the car. Place the caliper on top of the
steering knuckle, or hang it with a piece of clothes hanger wire or any other place where its
weight won't be hanging on the brake hose, and will not fall.

Remove the pads and inspect them for wear. You may need to siphon out some brake fluid
from the master cylinder to accommodate the fluid being forced out (by the brake caliper
piston). You should remove the cap to the brake fluid reservoir and cover it with a paper
towel or rag to prevent any foreign matter getting in there. Some calipers have pistons that
are made of ceramic or other sensitive materials, and merely prying them back with a
screwdriver can crack them and require replacing the entire caliper. Consider using a C-
clamp or piece of wood to force the piston back and allow the pads to be freed, as described
below in installing new calipers. If either pad is down to the metal pins or backing, you'll
need to machine (turn) or replace the rotors.
 o This is also a good time to compare the wear pattern of the brakes on the left side of
the car to the ones on the right side. If there is a vast difference, you'll need to
replace the calipers or rotors.
o Some rotors easily slide off from the wheel lug bolts, but some are made into the
wheel-hub and will require getting into the wheel bearings and grease repacking see
below.

10

Apply anti-squeal paste to the backing of the new brake pads, but do not install them yet.
Keep fluid and lubricants off of the brake pad material. Some cars, especially Ford
Explorers/Mountaineers, have special lubricants on the caliper moving parts, and this
lubricant cannot easily be obtained separately (ask for a heat resistant grease made for
brakes parts). Try not to remove any of this where applicable. If these parts are dry and not
lubricated, consider replacing the caliper/etc, as you will probably other damage or signs of
problems as noted above.

11

Inspect the brake rotors: If there are any grooves, or excessive glazing (glossiness), remove
them for resurfacing (called "turning") or replacement.

12

Inspect the brake hoses: If they are leaking by the fittings or damaged, they'll need replacing
- but that is outside the scope of this article. If you are only installing brake pads, skip to the
step beginning: Clean the caliper slide pins below.

13

Remove brake rotors if turning or replacing them. On most cars, the rotor is separate from
the hub. Simply slide the rotor off of the lug studs. You may need to remove a set screw
and/or use a rubber mallet to loosen the rotor. You may need an impact driver (hammer it
while twisting counter-clockwise) to remove a set screw.

o If the brake rotor and hub are one piece, remove the grease cup, cotter pin and
castle nut from the axle to allow removal. (Only if necessary, unbolt the pad bracket
from the steering knuckle. The bolts that hold this on tend to get frozen, so you may
need to employ a hammer, breaker bar, Liquid Wrench or a torch to loosen them.)
o

14

Getting the rotors resurfaced ("turned") at a machine shop or auto parts store that turns
rotors. Some auto parts stores have brake lathes or a small machine shop. Call before
starting your job to verify hours; most machine shops are only open until noon on Saturday
and are closed on Sunday. Rotor/hub assemblies can be resurfaced ("turned") if they are not
badly worn or damaged, but consider replacing them if they are grooved. The shop should
refuse to turn them if they are thin or damaged.

o Even though the replacement parts may be expensive, especially if you're replacing
the hub and its bearings instead of putting the old hub and bearings back on the car.
However, not all new rotor/hub assemblies include the bearings (although they may
have new races in place, so that you can just "drop in" the new grease-packed
bearings). You may have to install races and seals yourself, as well as pack them with
grease. So a set of bearings may be a necessary purchase as well.
o When applicable, this is also a good time to repack your front wheel bearings. Refer
to your service manual or lubrication guide for this procedure. You'll need some new
cotter pins and wheel bearing grease for this, as well as a pair of needle-nose pliers.

15

Install the new or resurfaced ("turned") rotors in reverse order of how they came off. New
rotors have a layer of oil on them to prevent rust while they're on the shelf. Clean this off
with carb/fuel-injector cleaner; it works better than brake cleaner in this case. Reattach the
pad bracket. If you are not replacing calipers, skip to the step beginning: Clean the caliper
slide pins below.

16

Replacing calipers if necessary: Make sure the brake fluid reservoir is securely closed,
especially if you opened it earlier to allow for fluid to expand. Remove the "banjo" bolt
holding the brake hose to the caliper. This is a special hollow bolt that allows fluid to flow
through it; don't damage it or lose it. Make a note of its position or orientation, you will
need to install it on the new caliper in the same orientation to avoid bending and damaging
the hose.

17

Drain the fluid from the caliper into a safe container for proper disposal.

18

Notice that the new caliper will come with two brass washers, plus rubber grommets for
the slide pins, pad retaining clips (if applicable), possibly new slide pins, and maybe that
hollow bolt mentioned above. Make sure that the calipers are installed with the bleeder
fittings/screws in the upper or top position. If you accidentally switch the left and right
calipers and install them on the wrong side (easier to do than you think!), the bleeder
fittings will be in a lower position, which will result in trapped air inside the caliper fluid
chamber, which will make bleeding the brakes impossible to do. Remember, bleeder screws
UP!
19

Reattach the brake hose with a new brass or copper washer installed on both sides of the
hose fitting, that the hollow "banjo" bolt goes through. Reusing of the old washers, or
failure to put the new ones in the right place will cause the brakes to leak. Tighten the bolt
firmly.

20

Clean the caliper slide pins, if you haven't done so yet, with a wire buffer-wheel, brush or
fine grit sand paper, if you will be reusing them and any place where the pads slide against
the caliper or pad bracket with a wire brush. Apply silicone brake lubricant to all of those
slide locations.

21

Compress the caliper piston, or in some cases screw them in if necessary. Yes, some caliper
pistons (such as some Nissan) do actually screw in and out. If so, there will be notches for a
tool to engage the top of the piston. Pressing that kind of piston in will strip the threads and
ruin the calipers and pistons.

o Using the large C-clamp: if this is the press in kind of piston, take one of the old
brake pads and place it in the caliper against the piston to place the C-clamp against.
Usually a heavy duty 8" to 10" size (inner measurement) C-clamp will do, (lighter
duty clamps will spring, bend or break), slowly and evenly compress the piston back
into the caliper.
o An even easier way to compress this piston is use a special (but inexpensive and
readily available) Lisle Corp Brake Pad Spreader tool (Lisle part #24400 $7.95) made
specifically for this--it beats hauling a heavy 10" iron C-clamp around--plus it's much
faster to use!
o Note: Prior to compressing the piston back into the caliper it's recommended you
OPEN the Bleeder Screw to allow the brake fluid to come out of the caliper while
you compress the piston. This keeps the dirty fluid from going up through the brake
line and possibly damaging the Master Cylinder and the internal parts of the ABS
System if your car has ABS. This also eliminates the mess that may occur from brake
fluid that will be forced into the master cylinder.

22

Clean up any brake fluid that may come out of the reservoir at this point; watch out for
drips on the side where the reservoir is located. (See Note above) Be careful, brake fluid
will damage or remove the paint from your vehicle if it is not cleaned off instantly!

23
Put the new pads in the caliper or bracket. You may need to employ the large flat
screwdriver again, but this time be more careful so you don't destroy any of the pad clips.

24

Place the caliper back into the pad bracket, and bolt it in

25

Bleed the brakes. (If you have not replaced the calipers or loosened any fittings, you can
SKIP to "Wheels, fluid, testing") -- or do bleeding the brakes later if you determine that the
brake peddle feels mushy or goes down too far and so come back "here" when it is all back
together if you need to...).

o So, you'll need a good helper for this, and do one side at a time.

26

Use break cleaner to clean up any grease from fingers/skin and any break fluid that may
have gotten onto the rotor or pads during installation. Grease and or fluid on the pads can
keep your cars breaks from gripping properly and will make stopping harder.

27

Put the wheels back on the car to hold the rotor on straight, if it is the easy removal kind
of rotor (separate from the hub).

28

Do not let the car down from the jackstands yet.

29

Remove the rubber cap from the hollow bleeder screw, and unscrew the bleeder screw
about 1/4 or 1/2 turn, or just enough to loosen it being careful not to damage the screw
(use a snugly fitting solid wrench, not pliers and not an adjustable wrench). Attach an
appropriate size clear or rubber hose to the bleeder screw with the other end immersed in
brake fluid in a jar or can before depressing the brake pedal. This helps to avoid sucking air
back into the bleeder screw if the pedal is let up at the wrong time.

30

Have your assistant slowly depress the brake pedal until it's at the floor and keep there
until you tell them to let it back up, some fluid may flow out or you may see bubbling from
the tube in the jar while only air is coming out. While the pedal is at the floor, close the
bleeder screw. Have your assistant slowly lift the pedal. While the brake pedal is all the way
up, open the bleeder screw again.

31

Repeat the process of pressing the peddle down, closing the screw, letting up, loosening,
return to pressing the peddle down, etc... until you see clean brake fluid (without bubbles)
coming out of the bleeder. Always tighten the bleeder screw before letting up the peddle;
final check that it is tightened securely when finished. (Some brakes are gravity-bleed, and
fluid will just run out when you open the screw, and only require you to open the bleeder
screw until you see clean fluid, without working the brake pedal, but the pedal pressing
procedure works in all cases).

32

Make sure the brake fluid reservoir does not run empty, while bleeding the brakes else
you'll be introducing air into the master-cylinder and brake system again and will have to
bleed it all out which is even more extensive than just clearing air out of the wheel-
cylinders and hoses.

33

Wheels, fluid, testing: Put the wheels back on. Tighten the lug nuts in an crossing
patterning, opposing fashion so the wheel goes on straight. Example: If you have five lugs,
tighten them across the wheel like drawing a star pattern with a pencil by criss-crossing back
and forth.

34

Check the brake fluid level and fill as necessary.

35

Sit in the driver's seat and push slowly on the brake pedal a few times. The first time, the
pedal may go down a ways, but the pedal should be high and firm after two or three times.
This seats the pads against the rotors.

36

Check for leaks at the brake hoses if you've replaced the calipers.

37
 Lower the car and perform a "mini" test drive, with wheel blocks situated a little behind
and in front of the vehicles front and rear tires to allow some short movements rolling
back and forth to test the brakes. Otherwise you may find out the hard way that your
brakes aren't working. During an actual test drive, make sure the car doesn't pull, that there
are no funny scraping or clunking noises, and that the brakes are working correctly.

38

Retorque the lug nuts to be sure they are tight and put the hubcaps/wheel covers on.

39

Put your tools away and clean up. You'll probably want to keep the old parts for a day or
two to show your family and friends, before throwing them away. You're all done. Use a
mechanics' hand cleaner, because brake dust contains asbestos, and brakes get really dirty.

Carburetor Tuning: The Air/Fuel

Now that the ignition spark timing advance curves are optimized for the blend of
reformulated and/or oxygenated gasoline your customers are using we will now show you
how we use tools such as a 5-gas exhaust analyzer and wideband Lambda air/fuel (A/F)
meter to tune the mixture.

The Air/Fuel Mixture

A lean fuel mixture can cause an engine to have a surge or miss at idle and part throttle
stumble on acceleration, leading to engine overheating and lack of power. A rich fuel mixture
can cause an engine to “load up” at idle, foul the spark plugs, and also lack power or run
sluggish.
If the A/F mixture that is delivered to the engine is excessively rich for too long the engine
could leave leftover fuel from the combustion process, washing the oil off the cylinder walls.
Without the oil to act as an anti-wear agent, the pistons and rings will make metal-to-metal
contact with the cylinder walls. Also, if enough fuel gets past the rings and into the crankcase
the oil can become diluted and lose much of its lubricating properties and accelerate engine
wear.
Theoretically, the ideal stoichiometric A/F mixture (the chemically ideal mixture of air and
fuel that is required to provide a complete burn) for a properly tuned engine running on pure
gasoline is 14.7:1; that is, 14.7 lbs. of air to 1 lb. of fuel. However, because of operating
losses in the induction system due to intake runner and cylinder wall wetting, plus the fact
that fuel may not fully vaporize in the combustion chamber, a 14.7:1 A/F mixture is often too
lean for actual operating needs. A more realistic light-load, cruise A/F mixture for a stock
carbureted engine running on reformulated unleaded gasoline is in the 14.1:1 range.
The A/F mixture always varies from cylinder to cylinder, therefore we tend to tune the
average A/F mixture slightly on the rich side to avoid engine misfire in the leanest cylinder. It
is possible to target an A/F mixture leaner than 14.7:1 for maximum fuel economy but this
can lead to driveabilty problems if any one cylinder is leaner than the others. The power
mixture we target for maximum horsepower is in the 12.2:1 – 13.5:1 A/F range, depending on
the engine package and its combustion chamber design.
The original equipment carburetor(s) that came on a muscle or classic vehicle’s engine was
tuned for the leaded gasoline of the day, so in most cases the engine will tend to run lean with
the reformulated and/or oxygenated unleaded gasoline of today. The gasoline of today also
has lower volatility than the leaded gasoline of days past, which will cause most carbureted
engines to need a slightly richer A/F mixture at idle and light load part throttle driving
conditions to have the same drivability as it had with the leaded gasoline of the ’60s and ’70s.
Back in the 1950s and early 1960s, the car manufactures tended to calibrate their carburetors
on the rich side of the ideal A/F mixture needs of the engine with the leaded gasoline of the
day. Then starting in the late 1960s, the carburetors were calibrated more toward the lean
side of the ideal A/F mixture needs of the engine so the vehicle could pass the exhaust
emission standards that were just coming into existence.
The modern reformulated conventional and oxygenated gasoline of today will cause the A/F
mixture to shift leaner when compared to the leaded gasoline of the 1960s and 1970s. This
means if the A/F mixture was lean with leaded gasoline it will be even leaner with today’s
gasoline blends.
The high performance and replacement carburetors sold today are sold with an A/F mixture
curve designed for a generic engine; therefore they must be tuned for both the specific engine
and the blend of gasoline they will be used with. These aftermarket carburetors should be
designed with an A/F mixture that is rich enough for a wide variety of engine packages with
different exhaust systems, but this is not always true. Some of the aftermarket carburetors we
see need a lot of tuning work to get the A/F mixture correct for the engine’s demands with the
reformulated unleaded gasoline of today.

Air/Fuel Mixture Tuning Guidelines

Back in the days of leaded gasoline an experienced tuner would adjust the A/F mixture the
engine was getting from its carburetor by reading the color the fuel left on the insulator of the
spark plug in the exhaust port and in the first 6 inches of the exhaust header. The
reformulated unleaded gasoline we have today has made reading spark plugs almost
impossible because it leaves little or no color on the spark plug insulator.
However, modern technology has made available at an affordable price both portable 5-gas
exhaust gas analyzers and wideband Lambda (“oxygen”) sensor based digital A/F meters that
can be used to accurately “read” the A/F mixture in an engine by analyzing the content of the
engine’s exhaust gases. These modern tools can allow you to observe what A/F mixture the
engine is getting from the fuel system while driving the car in real world conditions at any
rpm and load condition.
The ideal A/F ratio for maximum power or fuel economy may be best calculated at the
factory with the engine on a dynamometer, but the readings that are available from a 5-gas
exhaust gas analyzer allow you to tune the A/F mixture for what your engine needs in real
world driving conditions. The readings from an infrared exhaust gas analyzer will indicate
A/F ratio, engine misfire, engine combustion efficiency and excessive combustion chamber
heat (detonation) by looking at the following exhaust gases:

CO (Carbon Monoxide): The reading from an infrared gas analyzer that we use to
determine the air to fuel ratio when the A/F mixture is on the rich side of stoichiometric.
(Note: CO is partially burned fuel.)
The other readings that exhaust analyzers provide are:
HC (Hydrocarbons): The amount of unburned fuel in the exhaust (a indicator of an engine
misfire).
CO2 (Carbon Dioxide): A gas that is the product of complete combustion (the best A/F
mixture gives you the highest CO2 reading). The ideal ignition-timing advance will also
create the highest CO2 reading
O2 (Oxygen): A high O2 reading indicates a lean mixture; an exhaust leak or the engine has
a “hot” cam. Note: if O2 content is above 2 to 3 percent, air dilution of the exhaust gases
being measured is indicated and the accuracy of the all of the gas readings may be negatively
affected.
NOx (Oxides of Nitrogen): A gas created by excessive combustion chamber heat. This gas
can be used as a precursor to detonation.
The readings you can get from a 5-gas exhaust gas analyzer can help an experienced tuner
calculate what A/F mixture and how much ignition spark timing advance the engine needs to
perform at its best.
A wideband sensor lambda sensor based A/F meter calculates the A/F mixture by “reading”
the unburned combustible content of the exhaust gases (note: a lot of people call the lambda
sensor an oxygen sensor but Bosch calls it a lambda sensor). The wideband lambda sensor
measures the amount of oxygen that must be added to or subtracted from the exhaust gas to
form a stoichiometric gas mix in its reference chamber, the A/F meter then calculates the A/F
mixture of the exhaust gas from that value.
The readings you get from a wideband lambda sensor based A/F meter can be quite accurate,
but false readings can be created by an exhaust leak, engine misfire, or an engine with a high
performance camshaft at lower engine speeds. These false readings are caused by the Lambda
sensor misreading the unused oxygen and/or unburned combustibles that are in the exhaust
gas mixture

Tuning with a 5-Gas Analyzer and Wideband Lambda Meter

The use of a portable 5-gas exhaust gas analyzer and/or a wideband sensor based A/F meter
can allow a tuner to observe the A/F mixture the engine is getting from its fuel system at any
engine operating condition.

A starting point for A/F mixtures for most mild performance engines is:
• Idle: 1.0% to 3.0 % CO or a 14.1-13.4:1;
• Cruise rpm: 1.0% CO or a 14.1:1 with a mild performance engine; or 1.0% – 3.0% CO or a
14.1 – 13.4:1 with high performance cam; and
• Power mixture and acceleration: 6.0% CO or a 12.5:1 for a “normal” engine or high
performance engine with improved combustion chamber design such as a Pro Stock or a
NASCAR engine; in some cases you may be able to use a slightly leaner power mixture of
4% CO or a 13.0:1.
When we are tuning fuel systems, we use both infrared exhaust gas analyzer and the
wideband Lambda sensor methods. This way we can take advantage of the strengths of both
tuning methods. The infrared exhaust gas analyzer, while slower in reaction time than a
wideband sensor based A/F meter can actually best determine A/F mixture needs. The misfire
rate can be observed with the HC (hydrocarbon) reading.
Efficiency can be observed by the CO2 reading (carbon dioxide) reading, and the NOx
reading (oxides of nitrogen) can also be used as a precursor to detonation. A wideband
Lambda sensor-based A/F meter systems available from companies such as Innovate
Motorsports or FAST have almost no delay, while a 5-gas exhaust gas analyzer has a 6 to 10
second delay.
If the engine you are tuning has an air-gap style intake manifold and/or high performance
camshaft you may need to tune the idle and cruise mixtures richer than a stock engine with
the same gasoline. The added performance from an air-gap intake manifold and the increased
valve overlap from a high performance camshaft can often come at the price of lower fuel
vaporization at lower rpm operating conditions.
The richer A/F mixture can help cover up the driveability problems when the fuel is not
completely vaporized. The heat the intake manifold gets from the exhaust gas crossover in a
conventional intake manifold helps the engine vaporize the fuel as it travels from the
carburetor into the cylinders combustion chamber.

A/F Mixture Delivery Circuits

A carburetor has an accelerator pump, idle, main jets, and in most cases a power system that
is designed to supply the correct A/F mixture for the demands. The accelerator pump system
adds fuel as the throttle valves are opened. Tuning the accelerator pump squirter volume and
duration is mainly done by trial and error to obtain the best throttle response, but a 12.5:1 A/F
mixture is a good place to start.
An idle system will have an idle jet/restriction that must be changed to supply the desired fuel
mixture for idle and off idle engine demands. If the engine you are working on is equipped
with a power valve (no metering rods), the main jet size is what determines the A/F mixture
that will be delivered to the engine at light-load/cruise speeds.
The power valve restriction (under the power valve) determines what A/F mixture the
carburetor will supply when the power valve is open; under high power demands a 6.5?
power valve will be open, supplying richer A/F mixture any time the vacuum is below its
6.5? opening point.
Power valves have a reputation for being a weak link in certain designs, but the carburetor
can be retrofitted with backfire protection, which will improve reliability. A carburetor that
uses metering rods in the primary jets will use the metering rods to change the A/F ratio for
both the power and cruise mixture demands of the engine; the larger the metering rod
diameter the leaner the A/F mixture.
After the basic engine condition and tune-up (fuel pressure, timing curve, etc) is confirmed to
be correct, as well as checking to be sure there are no vacuum leaks, the next step is to
determine what the A/F mixture is at idle through 3,000 rpm. If the cruise mixture is off, first
change the jets to get the A/F mixture correct at 2,500-3,000 rpm cruise range. Then check
and set the idle mixture. If the A/F mixture is too lean at idle or part throttle and the idle
mixture screws do not provide enough adjustment, the correction may involve enlarging the
idle jet.
If the mixture is still lean at 1,000 through 1,800 rpm after enlarging the idle jet, the idle
channel restriction (if used) may have to be enlarged slightly to allow more fuel to be
delivered at part throttle. It is important to note that any changes other than basic adjustments
and jet changes should be done by a “carburetor expert” to avoid damaging a vintage
carburetor. If the carburetor is damaged a replacement numbers matching carburetor could
be quite expensive.
A modular design carburetor, such as a Holley, with a metering block does not use an idle
channel restrictor. When we want to richen the part throttle we often must slightly enlarge the
idle well in the metering block. When the A/F mixture is too lean at part throttle the engine
may miss or stumble on light acceleration and at 5 – 25 mph light throttle cruise
conditions.This lean off idle problem has become more prominent as the ethanol content in
today’s gasoline is increased and as the gasoline formulation is changed.
If the A/F mixture is too rich at idle and/or part throttle, the idle jet or part throttle idle
restriction may be too big. You may need to be replace it with a smaller one. Once you have
the idle, part throttle and cruise A/F mixture curves correct, the next step is a road test.
A road test using a portable infrared exhaust gas analyzer and/or a wideband oxygen sensor
will allow you to check the cruise speed A/F mixture, followed by a check of the power A/F
mixture under load. This type of test allows you to see what the A/F mixture is under real
world driving conditions. During this road test you will be able to read and then correct the
A/F mixture.
If you see an A/F mixture reading that goes too lean at high engine loads, the first thing to do
before you change jet size is to check the fuel pressure. The fuel pressure must stay above 5
psi at wide-open throttle; if not, the carburetor will starve for fuel.
The most common accelerator pump-related complaint we hear is a hesitation on quick
acceleration. This hesitation is most often caused by the changes in the gasoline’s volatility
and changes in carburetor manufacturing. The accelerator pump duration spring used on most
replacement carburetors is not as strong as the spring that was on these same carburetor
designs used in the 1960s.
We use an accelerator pump upgrade kit on most Holley modular style carburetors that
consists of a stronger duration spring, a 0.031? squirter and a “pink cam” (Ole’s p/n 1330),
this makes the accelerator squirt more active.

When we are working on a engine with an Edelbrock Performer or Thunder series carburetor
we use an improved accelerator pump (Ole’s p/n 1010). This accelerator pump has a stronger
duration spring that allows the pump to be more active and thus help cure most of the
accelerator pump related hesitation we see with these carburetors.

Selecting the Correct Carburetor

The big four suppliers of 4 barrel carburetors today are Edelbrock, Holley, Quick Fuel and
Barry Grant, each of these carburetor designs have strong and weak spots. The carburetor that
we would recommend is based on how the customer will drive their car and the engine
package that is in the car.
The Carter-designed Edelbrock Thunder and Performer are reliable low maintenance
carburetors with great electric chokes but if the driver likes to drive fast around corners they
may not bethe best carburetor to select for that application. The off-idle system design in
these Carter-designed carburetors can lead to a lean off-idle stumble problem when the
engine has a “hot cam” or an air-gap style intake manifold. Enlarging the idle channel
restrictor on the 500 thru 650 cfm units will often cure this lean off-idle stumble problem but
we have not had the same success solving this lean off-idle stumble problem on the 750 and
800 cfm carburetors of this design.
Modular carburetors manufactured and sold by companies such as Holley, Barry Grant and
Quick Fuel are very good carburetors to select when the driver likes to drive fast around
corners or when you are tuning for maximum power. Quick Fuel also sells billet metering
blocks with changeable idle jets, power channel restrictors and emulsion well restrictions for
the Holley style modular carburetors, which allow you to custom tune the fuel curve.
When the customer wants a high performance modular carburetor with an electric choke we
often recommend a Holley brand carburetor because their chokes have a choke pull-off built
in. When we are tuning a high performance engine with a “hot cam” (over 240 degrees of
duration @ .050?) or any engine with an air-gap style intake manifold, we often recommend a
race-designed modular carburetor with a four corner idle system.
Tuning Results

You can build your customer the perfect engine but unless it is tuned for the correct
formulation of gasoline the engine will not perform like it should. The first person that most
customers blame if the engine does not perform like they think it should is the person that
built the engine. The best way to ensure your customer is satisfied with the dollars they spent
to rebuild their engine is to either offer a tuning service or give them a tuning guide.
Once the engine has been tuned so that it has the correct ignition spark timing and the correct
A/F mixture for every operating condition the engine will perform like it should. Properly
tuned engines will also have fewer alleged warranty claims since a properly tuned engine will
not suffer from problems such as the piston rings being washed down from overly rich A/F
mixtures, piston damage from detonation or engine tuning related driveability problems.

Que- Radiator maintenance

>How To Maintain Your Radiator

Maintaining your vehicle's radiator and cooling system is important for keeping your car
I n good working condition. A vehicle's engine produce a lot of excess heat, enough to quickly
damage or destroy the engine if it is not properly cooled by the cooling system. There are a few
things you can do yourself to make sure your vehicle's cooling system is in good working
condition:

 Always make sure that the coolant is topped up. If your coolant level is consistently
low it can actually damage the radiator and cooling system. Having to top up the
coolant more than a couple times per year means that you probably have a leak and
should have your radiator professionally inspected. This is extremely important to
your radiator parts maintenance and to keep it good and running.
 Keep an eye on the engine temperature. If you notice the temperature raising more
than it usually does, that probably means that your vehicle's radiator isn't performing
at top efficiency and needs radiator parts maintenance.
 Visually inspect the radiator and the cooling system. Look for corrosion or breaks in
the radiator cores, find cracked hoses and rusted clamps, check the gasket on the
radiator cap, and watch for drip stains underneath the car.

Just like going to the dentist for a check-up, you should regularly take your vehicles in for
radiator maintenance. This should be done at least once every two years, especially if your
vehicle is more than five years old. When you take your vehicle in for a radiator and coolant
system check-up, they will do several tests to make sure it is in proper working condition:

 A thermostat test to make sure that it regulates the coolant flow properly.
 A pressure test on the system to make sure it does not leak under pressure.
 A fan test to make sure that the engine fan and any other fans are working properly.
 A pressure test on the radiator cap to ensure that it will release at the proper pressure.
 The service station will also likely flush and refill your cooling system.

As long as you take care of your vehicle's cooling system by partaking in proper radiator
parts maintenance, your vehicle's radiator will likely last as long as you own your car.

COOLANT: The cooling system is one of the most important elements in vehicle operation,
yet is not given the attention that other automotive systems receive. There are many factors
that can add to the strain of cooling your vehicle. For example, the air conditioning system.
The air conditioning system most often places the condenser in front of the radiator. This
restricts the airflow and cooling capability of the radiator. The coolant helps compensate for
this added strain when mixed in a 50/50 solution with water in your cooling system. Many
people only think about checking their coolant (also referred to as "antifreeze") when
temperatures get very cold. It is the most obvious and easiest to maintain of all the cooling
system components. Each vehicle is unique (refer to your vehicle owner's manual for specific
guidelines), but typically industry guidelines recommend complete replacement of the
coolant every two years or 24,000 miles. As coolant can be a great help in cooling efficiency
when properly maintained, it can also be a great hindrance if left unchecked. The coolant's
chemicals can break down over time (much like motor oil) and can actually contribute to
corrosion rather than prevent it. Remember to always follow your manufacturer's
recommendations and keep your coolant fresh.

1. Explain fuel injector’s calibration

2. Explain the need and method of chassis geasing and maintenance

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