CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter is divided into four subchapters, each subchapter covers on a specific aspect
of designing and analysing the model of reinforced concrete beam containing expanded
polystyrene (EPS) beads and Palm Oil Fuelled Ash (POFA) using finite element method.
The first subchapter deals with the flexural tests on the lightweight concretes’ strength Commented [DI1]: Haque2004.pdf

and its durability performance. The second chapter discussed on the compressive strength Strength and durability of lightweight concrete

of palm oil fuel ash concrete and their workability. Commented [DI2]: [3]

The properties of expanded polystyrene (EPS) concrete reinforced with steel fiber
is discussed in the third subchapters by analysing the obtained experimental data. The
fourth subchapter discussed on the analysis of reinforced concrete using finite element
method in which the Finite Element Analysis (FEA) is performed using ABAQUS for the
model geometry considered in the experimental study.
2.1 Lightweight Concrete

In production of the advanced technology for lightweight aggregates, structural

lightweight concrete has been broadly used in construction industry. Lightweight
concrete reduces dead load for structures. Given that the lightweight concrete has
acceptable strength, it can lower the required cross-section of columns, amount of steel
and also foundation load for structures. Thus, construction costs can be cut by the
application of lightweight concrete. Commented [DI3]: 1. Rossignolo, J.A.; Agnesini, M.V.C.;
Morais, J.A. Properties of high-performance LWAC for
precast structures with brazilian lightweight aggregates.
Normally, some typically available lightweight aggregates are produced using Cem. Concr. Compos. 2003, 25, 77–82.
sintered fly ash, expanded clay and expanded shale. The huge amount of pores on the 2. Nguyen, L.H.; Beaucour, A.L.; Ortola, S.; Noumowe, A.
Influence of the volume fraction and the
lightweight aggregates affects the performance in terms of strength and also failure of nature of fine lightweight aggregates on the thermal and
mechanical properties of structural
concrete. However, research done by Wasserman and Bentur has reported that higher concrete. Constr. Build. Mater. 2014, 51, 121–132.
3. Topcu, I.B. Semi lightweight concretes produced by
strength of aggregates does not makes the concrete’s strength higher. It can be controlled volcanic slags. Cem. Concr. Res. 1997, 27,
15–21.
via the properties and volume of lightweight aggregates as well as the ratio of water-to- 4. Guide for Structural Lightweight-Aggregate Concrete; ACI
213R-03; American Concrete Institute:
cement. Farmington Hills, MI, USA, 2003.
Commented [DI4]: 2. Nguyen, L.H.; Beaucour, A.L.;
Furthermore, lightweight concrete will reduce the cost of formwork and steel and Ortola, S.; Noumowe, A. Influence of the volume fraction
and the
also increase productivity. A lower density of concrete gives a better thermal insulation nature of fine lightweight aggregates on the thermal and
mechanical properties of structural
compared to normal concrete. Most of the lightweight concrete is produced by using concrete. Constr. Build. Mater. 2014, 51, 121–132.
3. Topcu, I.B. Semi lightweight concretes produced by
lightweight aggregates and artificial aggregate such as fly ash, slag and pocelinite rocks. volcanic slags. Cem. Concr. Res. 1997, 27,
The cost of manufacturing the lightweight concrete are mostly quite expensive. To 15–21.
5. Wasserman, R.; Bentur, A. Effect of lightweight fly ash
overcome this situation, polystyrene beads are used as an alternative way because of its aggregate microstructure on the strength of
concretes. Cem. Concr. Res. 1997, 27, 525–537.
light density about 16-27 kg/m3, good thermal energy absorbing and able to act as a good 6. Ke, Y.; Beaucour, A.L.; Ortola, S.; Dumontet, H.; Cabrillac,
R. Influence of volume fraction and
thermal insulator. characteristics of lightweight aggregates on the mechanical
properties of concrete. Constr. Build. Mater.
2009, 23, 2821–2828.
7. Guneyisi, E.; Gesoglu, M.; Booya, E. Fresh properties of
self-compacting cold bonded fly ash
lightweight aggregate concrete with different mineral
admixtures. Mater. Struct. 2012, 45,
1849–1859.
8. Chi, J.M.; Huang,
2.1.1 Properties of Lightweight Concrete

There are specific properties of aggregates for concrete that may affect the properties of
the concrete including:

1. Particle shape and surface texture

Lightweight aggregates that are from different sources, or production methods
may differ in particle shape and surface texture. Shape of the aggregate may be
cubical and regular, normally rounded, or angular and irregular. Small exposed
pores make a smooth surface textures while large exposed pores make irregular
texture.

2. Relative density.
Due to the cellular structure of lightweight aggregate, the relative density is lower
than a normal weight aggregates. It also varies with particle size.

3. Bulk density.
It is significantly lower than normal concrete due to the cellular structure. The
bulk density of an aggregate is proportional to the particle relative densities.
4. Strength of lightweight aggregates.
The strength varies with the type and source and is only measurable in a
qualitative way. Some particles may be strong and hard while others are weak.
For compressive strengths up to approximately 5000 psi (35 MPa), there is no
reliable correlation between aggregate strength and concrete strength.

5. Total porosity

Total porosity within the particle and between them can be determined by
measuring the particle relative density and bulk density.
 6. Moisture content and absorption.
The cellular structure allows the aggregates to absorb more water compared to
normal weight aggregates. Standard ASTM C 127 stated that absorption test
expressed at 24 hours, lightweight aggregates normally absorb from 5 to 25% by
mass of dry aggregate.

2.1.2 Material Classification of the Lightweight Concrete

The aggregate of a concrete is replaced with any other suitable material in order to
produce lightweight concrete. Some of the material includes:

1. Natural Fiber
Coconut fiber is a waste material that can be easily available in large quantities
and is very cheap. In addition, it can improve the flexural strength and form good
bond in concrete. Coconut fibers also gives a lot of benefit such as no effect on
environment and increase in the strength of concrete (Agrawal, 2014). Coconut
fiber has the advantage of stretching beyond its elastic limit without rupturing, as
well as having the power to take up a permanent stretch. It also has a unique
protection to microbial degradation and salt water (Ali, 2010). Handhinia (2014)
found that concrete with 0.25% fibers is the best mix based on crushing load test
compared to 1% coconut fiber and regular concrete. It also reported that coconut
(coir) fiber may reduce temperature by up to 30% and reduce the weight of the
total concrete overall.

2. Expanded polystyrene
Expanded polystyrene (EPS) is an innovative building material that lends to the
design and structural integrity of many building projects. Since the 1950s, EPS
has been recognized as a mainstream insulation material, however over the past
decade, new applications have rapidly developed. Now, EPS is a powerful design
element and an ideal choice for green building design, offering tangible
 environmental advantages that can maximize energy efficiency, providing
improved indoor environmental quality and enhancing durability.

3. Crushed rubber
When vehicles tires reach the end of their usable life, they can still find some use
as a replacement for course aggregate in concrete mixes. "Crumb rubber" is
crushed form of car or truck tires that are ground up between the sizes of 3 - 10
mm. This mix has very poor compressive strength due to its high air content. It is
believed that when this rubber is mixed in with the concrete air becomes trapped
in with it. One benefit to the addition of this alternative is the rubber keeps the
concrete from shattering in failure.
2.2.Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) Beads

Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) is a rigid cellular plastic found in a different kind of shapes
and applications. EPS is commonly used for fish boxes, electrical packaging, and for
insulator in insulation panels for building. Extruded Polystyrene (XPS) is also a plastic
foam based on polystyrene formed by adding gas during the extrusion and not by
expanding beads containing gas, which is how EPS is formed. They are widely accepted
that the implementation of the environmentally friendly materials and also an
environmentally friendly building techniques which is very essential for sustainable
construction. Commented [DI5]: Southcott, M. F., Tovey, A. K:Tilt-Up
Concrete Buildings: Design and Construction Guide.
(British Cement Association 1998)
2.2.1. Manufacturing of EPS beads

There are 2 stages carried out in manufacturing the EPS beads which converted raw
expandable polystyrene into expanded polystyrene beads. The first stage or known as pre-
expansion stage is carried out where the raw material is heated in the pre-expanders with
steam at temperatures of around 80-100°C. The compact beads turn into cellular plastic
beads during the first stage with small closed cells that hold air in the inside.

After that, the converted beads will undergo second stage which is intermediate maturing
and stabilization. The expanded particles from a vacuum in the inside must be
compensated for by air diffusion. This process is carried out in aerated silos and at the
same time, the beads are dried. In this stage, the beads will achieve a higher mechanical
elasticity and improves in the expansion capacity.

2.2.2. Characteristics of EPS

There is a series of laboratory investigation done by Y. Z. Bejua and J. N. Mandalb (2017)

where several tests were performed to study the EPS geofoam behavior. Some of the test
includes:

1. Water absorption
The test was performed according to ASTM C272-12 standard test method. The
dimension used for the test specimens are 75 mm length, 75 mm width, and 13
 mm thickness. The test results found that 4.41%, 3.6% and 2.88% water absorbed
for 12, 15, and 20 kg/m3 densities of EPS geofoam respectively. The result
concluded that the water absorption property of PES is very low and decrease as
the density increase.

2. Compressive Strength
The behavior of EPS geofoam materials is identified in the test under compressive
loads. The test performed as per ASTM D1621-10 standard test method on digital
compressive strength test machine. The test specimens were cubical in cross
section with sizes 50 mm, 100 mm and 150 mm for each density of 12, 15,
and 20 kg/m3 were tested.

Table: Compressive Strength test results

A direct relationship found between compressive strength and density of EPS

geofoam. The Young’s modulus value increases as its specimen size increases.

3. Flexural Strength
The conducted test on EPS geofoam is according to ASTM C203-12 and
performed on a computerized universal testing machine (UTM) using three-point
test method. The dimension 300 mm × 100 mm × 25 mm was used. It was found
that the flexural strength of EPS increases as the density increases.
 Table: Flexural strength test results

2.2.3. Polystyrene Concrete

Polystyrene concrete is one of a lightweight concrete made with mixture of expanded

polystyrene beads usually known for their good thermal and caustic insulation properties.
Some researches on the properties of polystyrene concrete were done in terms of density,
compressive and flexural strength, dynamic modulus of elasticity and thermal
conductivity. The results show that the properties depends on the polystyrene cement
ratio. A research was carried out by Park and Chisholm about the study of concrete using
EPS as the course aggregate. After they examined and conducted the three different
density, it was found that the polystyrene concrete is highly to segregate and also has a
low compressive strength. It also has a high drying shrinkage. Sussman [9] concluded
that the mechanical properties of polystyrene concrete increases as the density rise and
these properties are controlled by the water to cement ratio. Ismail [4] studied the
properties of hardened concrete bricks containing polystyrene beads and found that
polystyrene concrete is very prone to segregate where it can be difficult to place and
compact using vibratory compaction techniques. He also found that with densities less
than 1800kg/m3, polystyrene concrete bricks will have a very low strength which is
suitable to use as load bearing internal wall.

2.2.4. Packaging

EPS is the best packaging option for almost any high value heavy product. It provides
total protection for any industrial products. The packaging can be used for fragile
pharmaceutical products, electronic components, electrical consumer goods, toys and
garden products. EPS packaging is also the best way of keeping foodstuff fresh because
the protection avoids hazards, breakages and wastage in different stages of production
and transport. EPS has a chemical resistance which allows many products to be packed
without the goods being affected (EXPANDED POLYSTYRENE (EPS) AND THE
ENVIRONMEN). The shock absorption property of EPS makes it ideal for storing and
transporting the fragile items mentioned above.
2.3.Palm Oil Fuel Ash
POFA is produced by burning palm oil using generation plant boiler which generate
energy to be used in palm oil mill in order to extract palm oil. The applications of
pozzolans in concrete give better result in 30% optimum mixing which is 10% more better
than the normal concrete (M. Neville. 1995). According to ASTM C 618-92a, POFA has Commented [DI6]: M. Neville. 1995. Properties of
Concrete – Fourth Edition.Longman.
been classified in Class C as chemical analysis.
Research done by Jieren, Li (1998) found that the specific surface area of the fly ash is Commented [DI7]: Jieren, Li (1998). “The Combined
Effect of Silica Fume and Fly Ash on Microstructure
finer than that of normal cement. Hwa Tay Joo (1998) reported that fly ash shapes are in and Properties of High Strength Concrete.” University of
Calgary: Degree of Doctor of
spherical and the fineness of POFA is nearly similar to Portland cement fineness. This Philosophy Theses.
will help for the workability of the concrete mixture thus gave stronger concrete.

2.3.1. Compressive Strength of Palm Oil Fuel Ash

Based on research by M. H. Ahmad (2018), it was found that replacement of POFA’s in Commented [DI8]: Compressive Strength of Palm Oil Fuel
Ash Concrete
concrete mixtures as binders will cause the rate of early strength increased and becomes M. H. Ahmad*, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia,
MALAYSIA
slower at later age. The cause of this matter is calcium hydroxide content from hydration R. C. Omar, College of Engineering, Universiti Tenaga
Nasional, MALAYSIA
process that diminished through reaction with silica dioxides composition in pozzolans. M. A. Malek, College of Engineering, Universiti Tenaga
Nasional, MALAYSIA
N. Md Noor, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia,
MALAYSIA
S. Thiruselvam, College of Engineering, Universiti Tenaga
Nasional, MALAYSIA

Figure 1: Compressive strength versus age of POFA

From the figure above, 15% of POFA in concrete mixture gave an optimum strength
which is the same strength obtained by the controlled concrete. The research concluded
that between all the series specified, palm oil fuel ash concrete gave higher workability
than other pozzolans.
2.3.2. POFA as Concrete Material

There is a research investigation on the use of palm oil ash for making blended cement
done by Joo-Hwa Tay (1990). Some of the investigation result includes the weight mean Commented [DI9]: ASH FROM OIL-PALM WASTE
AS CONCRETE MATERIAL
diameter of the ash is more than twice that of cement, and the specific area is 30% less By Joo-Hwa Tay1

than cement. The workability of fresh concrete decreases with higher percentages of ash
used in concrete. However, up to 50% of ash replacement in concrete, the workability of
the samples is good. The setting times of concrete were longer with higher percentages
of ash used. However, the initial and final setting times for concrete cubes with various
percentages of ash were well within the requirements of both American and British
standards. Tests on blended cements containing up to 50% ash showed that there were no
significant effects of ash addition on the segregation, shrinkage, water absorption,
density, and soundness of concrete. In the range of 20-50% ash replacement in cement,
the decrease in the compressive strength of concrete at various ages was almost
proportional to the amount of ash in the blended cement, except when only 10% ash was
used. This shows that the ash is only weakly pozzolanic.
2.4.Finite Element Method
Concrete beam is a structural element that carries load mainly in bending and are being
transferred to columns, walls, which is then transferred to foundations. The tension
section must be able to resist the load applied. This experimental based testing has been
widely used to analyze individual elements and the effects of concrete strength under
loading. However, this method is extremely time consuming, and the use of materials can
be quite costly. The use of computer software to model these elements is much faster and
extremely cost-effective. By implementing finite element method, any complex nonlinear
behavior of the RC beams can be predicted confidently.
Finite element method (FEM) is based on the purpose of constructing a complicated
structural object with basic element, or splitting a complicated structural object into small
and feasible pieces. Finite element analysis (FEA) is performed by the FEM in a
numerical technique to solve any given physical problem. This technique allows a whole
design to be constructed, evaluated, refined, and optimized before the product is being
manufactured.

The developments of finite element method were originated in the mid-1950s according
to the papers of Babuska and Aziz (1972). FEM was individually evolved by engineers Commented [DI10]: I. Babuska and A. K. Aziz, Survey
lectures on the mathematical foundations of the finite
to solve structural mechanics problems and modelling of several mechanical applications element method, In The Mathematical Foundation of the
Finite Element Method with Applications to Partial
related to civil engineering and also in aerospace. The most interesting potential of finite Differential Equations, pp. 3-636 (1972)
element method is the implementation in coupled problems such as thermo-chemical,
thermo-mechanical, biomechanics, biomedical engineering, piezoelectric, and
electromagnetics.
Some of the application of finite element in engineering are:
1. Mechanical/Aeronautics/Astronautics/Civil Engineering
2. Structural static analysis (linear or nonlinear problem)
3. Structural dynamic analysis (linear or nonlinear problem)
4. Soil Mechanics
5. Thermal Analysis
6. Biomechanics
2.4.1. Types of Finite Element Method
As mentioned before, traditional FEM technology has demonstrated simply in modelling
problems related to fluid mechanics and wave propagation. Recently, some modifications
have been made to improve the process of solution and extending the functionality of
finite element analysis to a large range of problems. Below are several types of FEM that
are still being used based on the blog article of SimScale:

-Extended Finite Element Method (XFEM)

Bubnov-Galerkin method requires continuity of displacement across elements. Although
some problems like contact, fracture, and damage involve discontinuities and jumps that
cannot be directly handled by the finite element method. To deal with this limitation,
XFEM was born in the 1990’s. XFEM works through the expansion of the shape functions
with unit step functions. Extra degrees of freedom are assigned to the nodes around the
point of discontinuity so that the jumps can be considered.

-Generalized Finite Element Method (GFEM)

GFEM was founded nearly the same time as XFEM in the 90’s. It combines the features
of the traditional FEM and meshless methods. Shape functions are fundamentally defined
by coordinates and further multiplied by partition-of-unity to create local elemental shape
functions. GFEM has the advantage of preventing the re-meshing around singularities.

-Mixed Finite Element Method

Lagrange multipliers are being applied in several problems like incompressibility. These
extra degrees of freedom originated from Lagrange multipliers are solved independently.
The system of equations is being deal with like a coupled system of equations.

2.4.2. Types of Finite Element

An element is the basic building block of finite element analysis. There are some basic
types of element which depends on the type of object that is to be modelled for the finite
element analysis and the type of analysis.
1. 1-D (Line) Element
 1-D elements have 2 nodes which can be long and slender, and can be oriented
anywhere in 3D space. Line elements produce force axially only and are 3 degree
of freedom elements which allow translation only and not rotation. Lines are
usually used to model towers, bridges, and buildings. It is the simplest type of
finite element problems. All objects, forces, stresses and strains are in 1-D. Some
of the common examples of 1-D Elements are spring, truss, beam and pipe.

2. 2-D (Plane) Element

2-D Elements are 3 or 4 node elements with only 2 degree of freedom, y and z
translation, and are normally created in the YZ plane. They are used in plane stress
and strain analyses. Example of 2-D elements are shell, plate, and membrane
element.

3. 3-D (Solid) Element

3-D elements are also known as brick or tetrahedral elements which may have 4,
5, 6, 7, 8, 15, or 20 nodes and support only translational degree of freedom. They
are commonly applied to model solid objects in which plate elements are not
appropriate. Examples of 3-D fields are temperature, displacement, stress, and Commented [DI11]: 321429176-Types-of-Elements-
Used-in-Finite-Element-Analysis
flow velocity.
2.4.3. Procedures for Finite Element Analysis
Generally, finite element analysis has three phase of process which includes
preprocessing, solution, and post-processing.
All the defining and inputting of data is organized in preprocessing. Some of the
information that is defined in preprocessing are as follows:
1. Geometric domain of the problem.
2. Type of element to be used.
3. Material properties of the elements.
4. Geometric properties of the elements (length, area, etc.).
5. Element connectivity (mesh the model).
6. Physical constraints (boundary conditions).
7. Loadings.
During the solution process, computation of the following unknown values of the primary
field variable is done:
1. Making nodes;
2. Building elements by assigning connectivity;
3. Applying boundary conditions and loads.
The computed values are then used by back substitution to compute additional, derived
variables, such as forces of reaction, element stresses, and heat flow.
In the post-processing, the postprocessor software contains sophisticated routines used
for sorting, printing, and plotting the selected results from a finite element solution. Some
of the common results are as follows:
1. Displacement
2. Stress
3. Strain
4. Natural frequency
5. Temperature
6. Time history

Research done by Yang Jusheng & Yang Nan (1993) stated that there are around 100
popular FEM softwares. They also stated that there were more than 300 general-purposed
FEM software systems worldwide. Each of the software packages differ according to the
various techniques of finite element method.

The most commonly used open source package is OpenFoam which is widely known as
their user friendly and is capable of producing clear output. ANSYS, NASTRAN, and
ABAQUS are the most popular commercial packages in applying FEA found on the
internet. But these commercial packages need to be licensed through academic or
industrial purchase.

The finite element analysis in this study is performed using the software ABAQUS which
is used for the modelling and analyzing the concrete beam with steel due to its flexibility
in creating geometry and material modelling according to the article by T Tejaswini
(2015). The element library of ABAQUS offers a complete geometric functionality.
Beams, pipes and pipe bends with deforming sections, and cable can be modelled using
first, second or third order interpolation (L. Borgesson, 1996).