Haselton, Quiroz, Callahan, Halik 1

K. Haselton, S. Quiroz, G. Callahan, L. Halik

AP Environmental Science

Norris

31 May 2017

Coral Reef Degradation

FOCUS QUESTION

To what extent does climate change, caused by increasing levels of carbon dioxide

emissions, negatively impact the coral reef ecosystem?

ABSTRACT

Coral reefs are both living organisms and ecosystems that are vital to aquatic ecosystems.

Over the past several decades, the coral reefs have been degrading and their health declining due

to a wide array of reasons, all anthropogenic. Coral bleaching has begun to occur which can

eventually leave to complete coral death. In considering to what extent CO2 emissions actually

impact reef degradation, we found that while there are many factors behind this degradation, the

primary cause is contributed to the ocean temperature increase caused by CO2 emission induced

global warming. The deterioration of the reefs can lead to a significant impact on the entire

aquatic ecosystem due to the importance of the coral reefs as both a habitat structure and living

organism.

HYPOTHESIS

If the data showing the increase in global carbon emissions is examined, then there will

be a correlation with the levels of coral reefs dying off worldwide.

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INTRODUCTION

The trends in global temperature have shown steady increase for the past several decades.

The planet's average surface temperature has risen 2.0 degrees Fahrenheit (1.1 degrees Celsius)

since the late 19th century, a change due largely in part to the increase in carbon dioxide

emissions entering the atmosphere as a result of human activity. The most significant warming

has occurred in the past 35 years, with 16 of the 17 warmest years on record occurring since

2001 (NASA Vital Signs).​ ​This phenomenon of climate change is causing problems for many

ecosystems, humans included. Melting ice caps are leading to increased sea levels around the

world, resulting in extreme flooding and destruction of homes. For animals, this change in global

climate is also wreaking havoc on their lives. Specifically, the increased global temperatures are

causing extreme problems for the coral reef ecosystem. This ecosystem is one the most

biodiverse ecosystems of them all, but as the climate continues to change, the environment is

degraded, and diverse life can no longer continue its sustenance. Coral reefs are actually a living

body that live in a symbiotic relationship with zooxanthellae (McCoy, email). As previously

stated, reefs provide a habitat structure for thousands of aquatic organisms, and without them

those organisms would not have a home. Additionally, the human population relies on the ocean

environment for many things, particularly fishing, thus this impact on the aquatic organisms

would also impact people. The issue regarding coral reef health does not only affect the human

population through means of food, but also indirectly through environmental structure. Reefs

actually help to protect the coastal shores from natural problems like erosion and severe storms
 Haselton, Quiroz, Callahan, Halik 3

(Pendleton et al, 2016). Thus, the coral reefs prove to be a keystone species of the environment

in more than one aspect.

The exoskeleton of coral are made up of calcium carbonate, and it is this structure that

becomes degraded as the ocean acidification and temperature increase (McCoy, email). The

cause of this prolonged change in temperature is man. Man burns fossil fuels for energy,

specifically coal. The burning of coal releases significant amounts of carbon dioxide into the

atmosphere in a form that can not be taken in naturally by plants. This excess carbon dioxide is

the cause of coral bleaching, which is destroying the coral reef ecosystem. Man is the cause of

this issue, and the only solution. If action is not taken immediately towards mitigating the

degradation of coral, the rich, biodiverse coral reef ecosystem will not be accessible to future

generations.

There are many factors behind coral reef degradation, all anthropogenic causes. Issues

like pollution - such as factory emissions or dumping of trash onto beaches and coastal areas -

and overfishing lead to coral reef decline in health (Aswani et al, 2015). But the main

determinant of this deterioration is global warming, which has increased due to human activity

and production of additional CO2. This has resulted in, “​at least 20% of Australia's Great Barrier

Reef – the world's largest – [being] destroyed” (Vince, 2012).

Many different species of coral respond differently to their changing environments. Some

coral species​ shift from larger structural species to smaller opportunistic species, causing change

in the oceanic environment. The coral reef changes its structure in response to changing

environmental conditions. (​De Bakker Didier et al, 2016)​ This structural change can cause
 Haselton, Quiroz, Callahan, Halik 4

problems for the organisms that rely on the coral reef for a habitat, as they too must adapt to the

new structure of their homes or move elsewhere to find coral that will meet their needs.

These coral bleaching events that occur as a result of increased carbon dioxide emissions

affect the ​physiology, biogeochemistry, and overall resilience of the coral reefs. An experiment

conducted at Ohio State University experimented on three different coral species including

Orbicella faveolata, Porites astreoides, and Porites divaricata, which were tested through the

creation of a simulation in which their environment increased in temperature 1℃ every 2.5

weeks for two years. The experimenters concluded that the physiology of the different coral reef

species after prolonged bleaching periods including species such as P. divaricata are able to

adapt to temperature stress and persist on future coral reefs, whereas P. astreoides shows

increased susceptibility to bleaching and will experience population decline because of it

(​Schoepf, 2013). Different coral species respond differently to prolonged bleaching events. This

response varies from species to species, and can affect different coral reef ecosystems

differently, depending on the species of coral that exists in the ecosystem.

There are many different databases that track the real time conditions of the coral reef

ecosystem. A federal program called the​ National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration has

created a program called the Coral Reef Watch. This source provide up to date information about

reef conditions, which are gathered from three Coral Reef Watch stations around the world.The

Coral Reef Watch displays data on bleaching episodes, temperature and other external factors

that may affect the reef ecosystem. (Nim, 2011)

An experiment conducted at North Carolina State University including a computer

simulation of passive and active dispersal strategies of aquatic species which demonstrated the
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influence of landscape on an organism’s settlement, regression analyses that tested the efficacy

of landscape characteristics, and a retrospective analyses of fish populations that tested the

degree to which adult reef fish population and community structure correlate with nursery habitat

variables. The experiment analyzes how the aquatic organisms, such as coral, settle based on the

changing conditions of the landscape (Drew, 2006). Specific corals can only thrive in certain

temperatures, so they may either move or die out if they can not adapt to the new conditions.

METHODS & PROCEDURES

In order to determine the root cause of coral bleaching and thus reef degradation, we

analyzed various raw data sets that previous researchers had created and published. One such

data set was obtained from ReefBase which is a world-wide database that contains research and

information on the coral reefs around the world. From this data set we were able to narrow down

the mass amount of quantitative data by deciding to focus on the coral reef regions surrounding

Australia. After organizing the data based on what data was significant to our central purpose,

then analyzed the severity codes and stated amounts of bleaching at each site, and looked at the

years and areas in which the numbers were collected. We created a visual representation of this

data by placing it onto an interactive and virtual map using the website PinMaps. By doing this

we helped show the various severities that coral reefs experience, even leading back to 1998.

Additionally, we relied on more the experiences and research of acclaimed scientists that

participated in fieldwork to measure the causes and effects of coral reef degradation. One such

article was published on the Climate Change section of ​Nature​ in which six different researchers

and scientists used a model to determine the sea surface temperature level increase and how that
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correlates with coral bleaching. A series of graphs that they created (​Figure 1​) displays findings

that demonstrate our hypothesis claims: CO2 emissions that lead to ocean temperature increase

correlate with the level of increased bleaching over time. ​(Frielet et al., 2012)

DATA ANALYSIS

After organizing data from a dataset published for public use on ​ReefBase​, the data was

then analyzed and organized for visual benefit by using the PinMap program in ​Figure 1​. By

plugging in the latitude and longitude of a specific point, we were able to put a point on a map

and give it a certain significance. Because our focus was on the reefs surrounding Australia, we

only put the data in that was collected from that region. The pins put on the map could be

colorized and an explanation given whenever one would click on the specific point. Each of the

different points had a different level of bleaching that was recorded at that place and time, and

we indicated this data by changing the color of the pin. A green pin meant that there was no

bleaching, the severity code being zero. In contrast, a red pin meant that the coral reef in that

area was experiencing high bleaching with a severity code of three. This data analysis is shown

in ​Figure 2​. Each point also correlated with a different year that the data was collected. We were

hoping that this would result in the data that the green pins (the points that represent no

bleaching) represent be found to have been calculated at an earlier date than those pins that

represented high coral bleaching. However, no correlation was found in this data between year

and amount of bleaching. We expected this due to extended research showing that over time,

CO2 emissions have increased alongside the amounts of coral bleaching. These unexpected

findings could be attributed to a couple different factors. One being that the data set we analyzed

was not complete nor very thorough. Certain years contained a lot of information collected at
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various reefs around Australia, while other years only had two or three sets of data from multiple

reefs. This could result in an unfair comparison of coral bleaching over time. Additionally, the

data may not have been a good comparison because it came from multiple different areas; it was

not a judgement of one coral reef over time. In fact, recent research has discovered that in

contrast to common thought, coral reefs that are closer to the coast and human population tend to

have a higher rate of tolerance or a stronger “immune system” than isolated reefs, thus it would

be likely for them to experience less severe coral bleaching than the reefs farther out in the

oceans (Bruno & Valdivia, 2016). This finding could explain why certain points on the map

showed more bleaching than others, regardless of the year the data was collected.

Figure 1: Pinmap
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Figure 2: Global Carbon Emissions from Fossil Fuels, 1900-2014

Figure 3: Severity of Coral Bleaching in Australia

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Table 1: Coral species pertaining locations in Figure 3

Location in Australia Coral Species Present

Garig Gunak Barlu National Park Acropora

Between LNG and LPG Jetty, Eastern Shore, Acropora, Faviidae, Fungiidae, Porites,
Mermaid Sound, Western Australia Turbinaria, Lobophytum, Sarcophyton

Hardy Reef Acropora, Faviidae, Montipora, and

Turbinaria

Knuckle Reef Acropora, Montipora

North Keppel Island Acropora

Conical Rocks- Keppels Acropora, Faviidae, Turbinaria

Square Rocks Bommie- Keppel Island Acropora, Faviidae, Turbinaria

Tabletop Reef- Keppel Island Acropora, Turbinaria

Over time, Australia has experienced coral reef degradation through bleaching. However,

each area of the Great Barrier Reef had been impacted at a different severity. The severity codes;
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0, 1, 2, and 3, each depict the intensity of bleaching in the coral reef. 0 is classified as no

bleaching, 1 indicates minimal bleaching, 2 indicates low-mid level bleaching, and 3 indicates

the most severe bleaching. Based on the graph in ​Figure 3​, only one out of the fifteen major

coral reef areas experienced most severe bleaching-- the Hardy Reef. There, Acropora, Faviidae,

Montipora, and Turbinaria were all present. According to Hoegh-Guldberg from the University

of Queensland, Montipora coral has a much weaker coral structure than Acropora, Faviidae, and

Turbinaria, making it most susceptible to bleaching. Through this knowledge, there is a

connection made between the reef spots that have Montipora… areas where Montipora is present

either expressed the highest severity level of bleaching, or has the potential to become more

severe in the future. In addition, acropora appears in each major and minor location of the Great

Barrier Reefs. Acropora has a stronger coral structure, which is why it is so populated in

Australia. The higher presence of acropora in the Great Barrier Reef reveals its role as a keystone

species. Every ecosystem that has experienced bleaching Acropora bleaching has already been

degraded, as the quality of coral is degraded.

Although sixty percent of the reef spots in Australia only expressed minimal severity of

coral bleaching, this may be attributed to the location of the reefs. About eighty percent of the

coral reefs in Australia are not exactly off the coast of the continent, but they lay further out in

the sea. Being farther away from land reveals less man-made carbon emissions through fossil

fuels and other energy sources. In addition, the current lower levels of bleaching intensity reveals

that bleaching does not occur overnight. According to the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park

Authority, it takes years, oftentimes decades, for bleaching to intensify. The places that are

currently experiencing minimal but visible bleaching, such as the Conical Rocks and Keppel
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Islands, are more likely to experience bleaching intensification in the future, raising the amount

of bleaching within those areas, as the global carbon emissions continue to rise annually ​(Figure

2)​. If the carbon emissions through fossil fuels continually increase at the current rate, there is

likely to be more severe bleaching in all locations of the Great Barrier Reefs, but more

specifically in areas closer to the coast.

CONCLUSION

Analyzing and comparing data sets has brought our research team to a mighty

conclusion--the coral reefs are in danger of ocean acidification or calcification, and a rise in

water temperature leading to coral bleaching as an effect of the increase in global warming.

There is a direct correlation between the carbon dioxide emissions and degradation of the coral

reefs.

The growing problem of the loss of the coral reefs is heavily based on cause and effect.

Damien Cave, a writer for the New York Times, speaks about rise in water temperature and how

it leads to coral bleaching: “Huge sections of the Great Barrier Reef, stretching across hundreds

of miles of its most pristine northern sector, were recently found to be dead, killed last year by

overheated seawater. More southerly sections around the middle of the reef that barely escaped

then are bleaching now, a potential precursor to another die-off that could rob some of the reef’s

most visited areas of color and life.” Coral bleaching is when the coral reefs die and lose their

color. Coral reefs are “bleached” from a variety of things, however an increase in water

temperature is most likely to be the associated cause due to it occurring the most.

An increase of water temperature is not the only way a coral reef can be bleached. Ocean

acidification is when an outside source is changing the pH levels of the ocean. This occurs at a
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faster rate due to an increase of carbon dioxide emissions. A NOAA Pacific Marine

Environmental Laboratory named the PMEL Carbon Group in Seattle, Washington does studies

on carbon in the ocean water. This has been reported by the PMEL carbon group on carbon’s

effect on the coral reefs; “Many marine organisms that produce calcium carbonate shells or

skeletons are negatively impacted by increasing CO2 levels and decreasing pH in seawater. For

example, increasing ocean acidification has been shown to significantly reduce the ability of

reef-building corals to produce their skeletons. In a recent study we saw that ocean acidification

could compromise the successful fertilization of coral reefs.” Without this protecting calcium

shell the coral is in danger of decay. Coral reefs are a species that are heavily reliant on a balance

in pH and carbon levels in the water. The unbalance of pH levels in the water is another factor to

coral bleaching. Renee Cho, a member of Columbia University’s Earth institute program states

this about coral reefs and balanced carbon levels; “The coral provides CO2 and waste products

that the algae need for photosynthesis. In turn, the algae nourish the coral with oxygen and the

organic products of photosynthesis. The coral uses these compounds to synthesize calcium

carbonate (limestone) with which it constructs its skeleton—the coral reef.” With excess carbon

dioxide in the atmosphere, that is being absorbed into the water through photosynthesis with

aquatic plants, the coral reefs are thrown off balance, resulting in failure to produce their calcium

based protective shell which leads to harm to the coral reef. Corals naturally exhibit calcification,

which increases natural water salinity (vital in marine waters), simultaneously with

endosymbiotic photosynthesis. This process uses lesser amounts of carbon dioxide, leaving

inorganic carbon in the aquatic atmosphere. As the amount of inorganic carbon remains in the
 Haselton, Quiroz, Callahan, Halik 13

atmosphere of coral reef ecosystems, less calcification is permitted by corals which endangers

species that thrive in ocean water with high salinity and low inorganic carbon in the atmosphere.

This being said, one may ask how exactly carbon emissions in the atmosphere can affect

the ocean water. Carbon dioxide is a pollutant of the air and of the water. The AP Environmental

Science subtopic of pollution was one of many lenses that was put on our research. It is easy to

understand how carbon dioxide is a direct pollutant to the atmosphere, this is what most people

think of when global warming is brought up in discussion. Ove Hoegh-Guldberg is the inaugural

Director of the Global Change Institute at the University of Queensland who focuses on climate

change and the coral reefs. Guldberg reports that “atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration is

expected to exceed 500 parts per million and global temperatures to rise by at least 2°C by 2050

to 2100, values that significantly exceed those of at least the past 420,000 years during which

most extant marine organisms evolved.” An excess amount of carbon dioxide is absorbed into

the ocean through photosynthesis (using the carbon compound from carbon dioxide) and

increases aquatic plant growth. In turn, this increases the oxygen levels which changes the pH of

the ocean water, therefore making it harder for the coral reefs to adapt and produce their calcium

shells. Although not direct, carbon dioxide emissions are a water pollutant.

Coral reefs are a vital part of the aquatic ecosystem, but also of the environment as a

whole. The AP Environmental Science unit, “The Living World,” different aspects of the

environment are addressed such as food chains and food webs, key species, habitat structures,

niches, and so on. The coral reef is a very specific habitat structure that provides a home for

thousands of aquatic organisms, and it is a sensitive structure with intolerant qualities. Because it

is a home for so many organisms, it can be considered a key species. If coral reefs die off
 Haselton, Quiroz, Callahan, Halik 14

completely as coral bleaching continues to increase, this can negatively affect the organisms and

environment around it as organisms would lose their home, and the ecosystem would lose its

balance in the living world. It would also affect the human population as their fishing industry

would decline and the water quality would additionally worsen. All of these organisms and

factors are intertwined. If the coral reef were to be degraded completely, as it is expected in the

future if things do not change, then the food webs and habitat structures that the aquatic

environment now relies on would be ruined.

The degradation of coral reefs are significant to different species populations within the

ecosystem, relating to the AP Environmental Science subtopic, “Population”, and also connects

with the previous subtopic mentioned, “The Living World”. As coral bleaching impacts all

features of food chains and habitat structures, it impacts the ecosystems keystone species-- coral.

Coral is a considered a plant, and encompasses the base of the coral reef food chain, but is not

autotrophic. It is considered a plant because it provides habitats and nutrient enrichment for other

species living in the coral reef ecosystem. However, there is an extent to which nutrient

enrichment is detrimental. According to the Yellow Band Experiment conducted by Dr. Bruno,

marine ecologist at the Department of Biology at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill,

higher concentrations of carbonate (resulted from carbon emissions and reverse acidification)

and ammonium present in coral reef ecosystems create a more ‘fertile’ area for reef-building

pathogens to grow. Higher amounts of coral pathogens and bacteria present in reef ecosystem

degrades the physical health of marine organisms, even majorly impacting respiratory and

digestive systems of coral fish through inhalation and ingestion of certain nutrients deemed

antagonistic. Coral ecosystems thrive with nutrient enrichment, but it is important to consider the
 Haselton, Quiroz, Callahan, Halik 15

excessive results of enrichment that occurs. This also depends on carbon dioxide levels. When

carbon dioxide levels are absorbed by excessive amounts, more carbonic acid is created which

ultimately reduces the amount of carbonate ions present, which are corals primary structure

(Spillman, 2011), Without a balance in the amount of carbon dioxide present in order for aquatic

plants to grow (also needed by coral), the quality of the coral reef begins to decline as the

amount of dissolved oxygen decreases, leaving less oxygen for coral fish to thrive (Diaz, 1997).

Without coral, the habitat as a whole would deteriorate.

The destruction of coral reefs also relates directly to the AP Environmental Science

subtopic of global change. The cause of coral bleaching incidents is the increase of carbon

dioxide levels, which occur as a result of human use of coal. As innovation overtook mankind

during the Industrial Revolution, a new more efficient power source was needed- thus leading to

the increased burning of coal for energy. These coal burning habits have had significant

consequences on the environment decades after its initial implementation. The burning of coal

results in increased carbon dioxide levels, causing change globally for the environment and many

different species. Coral bleaching occurs as a result of increased carbon dioxide levels, and it is

significantly impacting biodiversity in the coral reef ecosystem, and displacing many aquatic

species who are intolerant to the high carbon dioxide levels.

Because of these changing global conditions, it is important that the health of the coral

reef ecosystem be continually monitored. ​There are many different methods for surveying the

damage done to the coral reefs. Namely, five ecological monitoring techniques are used in order

to gather data about the ​biodiversity, percent coral cover, species composition, and coral

conditions that exist in the reef ecosystem. These include Reef Check (RC), Atlantic and Gulf
 Haselton, Quiroz, Callahan, Halik 16

Rapid Reef Assessment (AGRRA), Caribbean Coastal Marine Productivity Program

(CARICOMP), Erin Sams' Improved Benthic Method (SIBM), Australian Institute of Marine

Science Long-Term Monitoring Program (AIMS-LTMP). According to a study conducted by

graduate students at the University of Miami, the Erin Sams' Improved Benthic Method (SIBM)

of ecological monitoring was the best method of measuring species richness, percent live coral,

percent algal cover, percent coral mortality, percent bleached, and percent diseased (Hills, 2013).

Because environmental conditions are changing so rapidly due to increased carbon dioxide

emissions, the reaction of the coral reefs is also occurring rapidly. By using the Erin Sams'

Improved Benthic Method (SIBM) to monitor the conditions of the coral reef, the most accurate

data about the condition of the coral reef can be collected.

Coral reefs and the habitat that they provide are incredibly vital to the overall health of

the aquatic ecosystem. Because of this, measures need to be taken to either revive the damaged

corals, or prevent any further bleaching in the future. In a research study report on just how much

global warming is affecting coral reef health, the collaborating authors concluded, “​To protect at

least 50% of the coral reef cells, global mean temperature change would have to be limited to

1.2◦C” (Frielet et al., 2012). Essentially, the main way solve and prevent any further coral

bleaching is by significantly decreasing CO2 emissions and finding more ways to help slow

global warming.

Another possible solution is genetically modifying the coral reefs. This is an obvious

human intervention into nature, however this could be a very necessary step in the future. There

are two main ways the coral reefs could be genetically modified--insertion of a heat tolerant gene

or introduction to a bacteria that prevents coral bleaching. A peer reviewed source, written by
 Haselton, Quiroz, Callahan, Halik 17

professors and scientists around the globe speak on these solutions; “A number of intervention

activities have been proposed that might help corals survive climate change over the coming

century. These include (1) identifying, propagating, and restoring heat-tolerant corals on affected

reefs; (2) translocating corals to local reefs from distant locations that are already adapted to

warmer conditions; (3) inoculating corals with heat-tolerant symbiotic algae to boost their

thermal tolerance; and (4) treating corals with probiotics (beneficial bacteria) or bacteriophages

to combat pathogens, including some that may cause bleaching.” These are solutions that are

already in circulation around the globe that could potentially save the planet’s coral reefs.
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