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The endoskeleton of birds (fowl or Gallus) is quite light

and completely ossified and contains no marrow. They


are filled with air and are pneumatic. The endoskeleton
comprises the usual two divisions, viz., the axial
skeleton and the appendicular skeleton.
The axial skeleton forms the thin axis of the body and
includes the main skull, vertebral column, sternum
and ribs. The appendicular skeleton includes the bones
of the limbs and girdles by means of which they are
connected to the axial skeleton.
In pigeon, the bones of the forearm and hand, and of
the leg, are non-pneumatic. In very good fliers (such as
some birds of prey and albatross), wing and leg bones
are pneumatic. The long bones have no epiphysis at the
ends.
ADVERTISEMENTS:

The skeleton of backbone and limb girdles allows to


carry the weight of the body on the wings or on the
legs. For this purpose there are two plate-like girders,
the sternum and synsacrum, curved in opposite
directions.
Axial Skeleton:
Characteristics of Skull:
1. The skull is large but very light due to spongy bones.
2. There has been a complete fusion of bones so that it
has no sutures, but it is not deviated from the reptilian
type of skull.
ADVERTISEMENTS:
3. Number of bones is reduced.
4. Jaw bones form a toothless beak.
5. Monocondylic, i.e., having a single occipital condyle.
6. Cranium is rounded and large for accommodating
the well-developed brain.
ADVERTISEMENTS:

7. Cranium does not extend forward into orbital region


(tropibasic).
8. Large orbits separated by a thin membranous
interorbital septum.
9. Autostylic jaw suspensorium.
10. In fowl, palate is schizognathous (short vomers and
palatines meet together).
Regions of Skull:
The skull of fowl consists of cranium, sense capsules
and visceral skeleton including the upper and lower
jaws and hyoid apparatus.
1. Cranium (Brain Case):
It encloses the brain. For the study of the
cranium it can be further divided into the
following regions:
(i) Occipital Region:
ADVERTISEMENTS:

It is the back part of the skull. It is formed by the usual


bones, the basioccipital (basal), the two occipitals
(lateral sides) and the supraoccipital (above), all of
which enclose a large rounded opening, the foramen
magnum. Immediately below the foramen is a single
rounded occipital condyle, mostly formed by the
basioccipital. The supraoccipital anteriorly joins the
parietals.

(ii) Parietal Region:


It lies in front of the occipital region. Its roof is formed
by two fused square-shaped parietals. The lateral sides
of parietal region are formed by the squamosals and
alisphenoids and the floor by a large basisphenoid.
Ventrally the basisphenoid is covered over by a paired
broad membrane bone, the basitemporal or
parasphenoid. The basisphenoid continues forwards as
in lizards, by a slender parasphenoid rostrum which
represents the anterior portion of parasphenoid. Each
squamosal is produced outward and forwards into a
zygomatic process. The squamosal bounds the
tympanic cavity and firmly united to other cranial
bones.
(iii) Frontal Region:
It is anterior to parietal region. The roof of the frontal
region consists of a pair of large frontal bones. The
lateral posterior end of each frontal is drawn out into a
strong zygomatic or post-orbital process which joins
the zygomatic process of the squamosal. The
alisphenoids are continued forward into the
orbitosphenoids forming the sides of the frontal
region, while its base is formed by a poorly developed
presphenoid, lying above the parasphenoid rostrum.
2. Sense Capsules:
These are closely united with the cranium and lodge
the various sense organs.
The sense capsules include auditory, optic and
olfactory capsules:
(i) Auditory Capsules:
A pair of auditory capsules, enclosing the organs of
hearing, is attached behind one on either lateral side of
the occipital region of the skull. Each capsule is mainly
formed by the prootic bone. (The small opisthotic of
early embryo unites with the exoccipital and the epiotic
with the supraoccipital.) A large cup-like tympanic
cavity of the middle ear is present on each posterior
lateral side of the skull bounded by the squamosal
above and the basitemporal below.
The tympanic cavity contains an tympanic membrane
attached just within its prominent outer edge, and a
slender rod-like columella made of bone and cartilage.
Its inner portion is like a slender rod-like bone, called
columella auris, and its outer part is called extra-
columella which is a triradiate cartilage. Three rays of
extra columella are the supra- stapedial, extra-
stapedial and infra-stapedial. Within the tympanic
cavity are several openings; two of these lie about the
middle of the cavity. The upper one is fenestra ovalis
and the lower one is fenestra rotunda.
The inner end of columella auris fits into the fenestra
ovalis, while its outer end touches the tympanic
membrane. The tympanic cavity communicates with
the mouth through an eustachian canal, the posterior
funnel-shaped opening of which lies in the anterior
ventral part of the tympanic cavity. The eustachian
canal runs forwards and inwards between the
basitemporal and the basisphenoid and joins with its
fellow of the opposite side to open by a common
median aperture in the roof of the posterior part of the
mouth cavity.
(ii) Optic Capsules:
The two orbits are very large to accommodate the
relatively massive eyes. They are separated from one
another by a narrow vertical partition, the inter-orbital
septum, which is formed by a mesoethmoid together
with presphenoid, parasphenoid rostrum and
orbitosphenoids. Each orbit is bounded anteriorly by
the frontal and large lacrymal, dorsally by the frontal
and posteriorly by the post-orbital process of frontal
and alisphenoid.
The lacrymal is produced below in a curved pointed
process hanging freely. Ventrally the orbit is
incomplete. The interorbital septum is perforated by
many openings. A large median optic foramen lies in
the posterior part of the orbit. It actually perforates the
orbito-sphenoid and communicates the two orbits with
one another.
(iii) Olfactory Capsules:
The olfactory capsules are cartilaginous and greatly
reduced in size in accordance with the poor sense of
smell. They are present in front of cranium. The ecto-
ethmoid or turbinals are comparatively poorly
developed. The nasals are a pair of thin, triangular
plate-like bones forming the roof and sides of the nasal
chambers.
Each nasal sends out three processes, a posterior
process uniting with the frontal and also with lacrymal.
Other two anterior processes furnish the posterior
boundary of the external nare and uniting with the
process of premaxilla. The two vomers fuse into a
small, median, slender bone, lying in continuation with
the parasphenoid rostrum at the base of nasal
chambers, and separating the two nasal chambers at
the base. In pigeon vomers are absent.
Visceral Skeleton:
The visceral skeleton includes the upper jaw, lower jaw
and hyoid apparatus. Jaws are not toothed and form
boundaries of the mouth gape. Hyoid apparatus
supports the tongue.
(i) Upper Jaw:
The upper jaw on each side forms two bony arcades-
the outer arcade or infra-orbital arcade or sub-orbital
bar consisting of premaxilla, maxilla, jugal and
quadrato- jugal and the inner arcade or palato-
pterygo-quadrate bar is formed by pterygoid, palatine
and quadrate.
Premaxillae:
Premaxillae are united in front into a large triradiate
bone which forms practically the whole of the upper
beak.
Posteriorly it is produced into three paired
processes:
(i) The nasal processes are the longest, run backwards
closely along the inner side of nasals to unite the
mesethmoid and frontals forming the upper margin of
the external nares.
(ii) The maxillary processes run backwards and slightly
outwards forming anterior part of the upper jaw.
(iii) The inner palatine processes are the smallest, run
horizontally backwards below maxillae and join
ultimately with palatines. They form the anterior part
of roof of buccal cavity (palate).
Maxilla:
Maxilla is a slender rod-shaped bone. Its anterior end
articulates with maxillary process of maxilla and
produced inwards into spongy maxillo-palatine
process. The slender posterior end of maxilla is
continued backwards by a slender jugal and quadrato-
jugal to the quadrate. The posterior zygomatic process
of the maxilla forms the anterior part of the outer
arcade or infraorbital arcade or suborbital bar or
zygomatic arch.
Jugal:
The jugal is a very slender rod which forms the middle
part of the sub-orbital bar lying dorsally upon the other
two components of the bar, i.e., maxilla and quadrato-
jugal.
Quadrato-Jugal:
The quadrato-jugal is also a rod-like slender bone and
forms the posterior part of the sub-orbital bar. Its hind
end is thickened and articulates with quadrate.
Quadrate:
The quadrate is a stout, triradiate bone articulating by
two facets on its otic process with the roof of the
tympanic cavity. Its dorsal arm articulates with the
squamosal slightly above the anterior margin of the
tympanic cavity. Its ventral arm forms a condyle for
articulation with the mandible. Condyle also
articulates on the outer side with the quadrato-jugal
and on the inner side with the pterygoid. Its anterior
arm (orbital process) runs anteriorly parallel to the
pterygoid and ends blindly.

Pterygoid:
It is a short and stout, rod-shaped bone. It lies
obliquely behind the palatine between the presphenoid
rostrum and quadrate of its own side. It articulates
behind with the quadrate and in front with the
parasphenoid rostrum and palatines.
Palatine:
It is slender bony bar lying in front of parasphenoid
rostrum. Anteriorly it is attached with the processes of
premaxilla and maxilla. Its posterior end articulates
with the pterygoid. Posteriorly it is also expanded
inwards into a broad lamella, the sides of which
articulate with the rostrum.
Lower Jaw:
The V-shaped lower jaw consists of two long laterally
compressed rami which are firmly united in front.
Each ramus is composed of five bones, i.e., one
replacing bone, the articular, and four investing bones,
the angular, supra-angular, dentary and splenial,
developing around a cartilaginous bar, Meckel’s
cartilage. All these bones are fused together.
Articular forms the posterior expanded part of each
ramus. On the dorsal surface it bears an elongated
mandibular condyle for the articulation with the
quadrate. Posteriorly it is produced into a medial and
angular process. Angular is a slender bone and lies
beneath the articular along the lower inner posterior
third border of each ramus.
Supra-angular forms the dorsal part of about one-third
of the posterior upper part of ramus. It bears a
coronoid process. Dentary is the largest bone and
forms about the complete distal half of the ramus.
Anteriorly it is united with its counterpart of the other
side forming the mandibular symphysis. It is devoid of
teeth. Splenial is a thin splint-like bone lying on the
inner surface of the middle part of ramus.
Hyoid Apparatus:
Hyoid apparatus lies in the floor of the mouth and
supports the tongue. It is composed of three bones- an
anterior entoglossal or glossohyal or ceratohyal, a
median bony basihyal and a posterior urohyal.
Entoglossal bears a cartilaginous process in front.
Entoglossal gives off a pair of backwardly directed
short anterior cornua which represents the free ends of
ceratohyals.
From the junction of basihyal and urohyal arise a pair
of long backwardly directed posterior cornua or
thyrohyals. Each thyrohyal consists of two rod-like
pieces, the proximal ceratobranchial and distal
epibranchial.
Vertebral Column:
The vertebral column of birds is peculiar in having a
large number of cervical vertebrae due to long mobile
neck; thoracic, lumbar and sacral vertebrae are fused
giving rigidity which is advantageous in flight. Caudal
vertebrae are fused forming the pygostyle which
supports the tail feathers. Epiphysis is lacking in long
bones. Vertebral column of Gallus is divided into the
following regions, i.e., cervical, thoracic, sacral and
caudal.
1. Cervical Vertebrae:
These are 14 to 16 in number. Their articulation with
each other allows greater movement of the long neck
and head.
(а) Atlas Vertebra:
Atlas is the first vertebra of the cervical region. It is
small ring-like in appearance. Centrum, neural spine,
transverse processes, ribs and prezygapophyses are
absent. It is formed of three pieces, a ventral and two
dorso-lateral uniting mid-dorsally to form the neural
arch. Its ventral piece is thick like the centrum and
notched above to receive the odontoid process of the
axis. Its anterior side bears a cup-like cavity to provide
articulation to the single occipital condyle of the skull.
In life, neural canal is divided by a transverse ligament
into an upper spinal canal and a lower odontoid canal
for odontoid process of axis. The posterior border of
the neural arch is produced into a pair of
postzygapophyses for the articulation with the
prezygapophyses of axis vertebra.
(b) Axis Vertebra:
Axis is the second vertebra of the cervical region.
Transverse processes, ribs and vertebrarterial canal are
absent. Centrum is produced in front into a peg-like
odontoid process by which it articulates within notch
present on the dorsal side of the ventral piece of the
atlas vertebra. Neural spine is blunt. Pre and post
zygapophyses are present. A small hypapophysis is
present below the posterior face of centrum. Head and
atlas get mobility over the axis.
(c) Typical Cervical Vertebra:
The typical cervical vertebra (3rd to 10th) has a long
body or centrum. The centrum is heterocoelous or
saddle-shaped. Anterior surface is concave from side to
side and convex from above downwards, while the
posterior surface is convex from side to side and
concave from above downwards. The neural arch is
short and notched both anteriorly and posteriorly.
The neural spine is rudimentary. Transverse processes
are short and irregular, and arise laterally from the
anterior end. These are fused with the rudimentary
posteriorly directed spine-like cervical ribs. The bases
of cervical ribs have vertebrarterial canal for vertebral
artery. Prezygapophyses are flat articular facets on the
anterior side of transverse processes facing upwards
and inwards and postzygaphyses are projecting
backwards from the posterior side of the neural arch
and facing downwards. Posterior carvical vertebrae
(i.e., behind Xth) are shorter.
Their centrum bears a ventral spine-like process, the
hypapophysis. Neural spine is also distinct. Cervical
ribs are no longer visible and vertebrarterial canal is
also open groove-like, not closed.
2. Thoracic Vertebrae:
These are seven in number. First and sixth are free,
while 2nd to 5th are fused and seventh is fused with
the synsacrum.
(a) Fused Thoracic Vertebrae:
Fused thoracic vertebrae are formed by the fusion of
2nd to 5th thoracic vertebrae. The centrum is
heteroceleous. Their neural spines, transverse
processes and hypapophyses are fused with each other
forming a continuous plate-like ridges perforated by
intervertebral gaps. Fused hypapophyses form a
ventral bridge. Fused transverse processes and centra
of vertebrae possess on either side the tubercular and
capitular facets for the articulation of thoracic ribs.
Pre- and post-zygapophyses are present on the anterior
and posterior side of the fused thoracic mass
respectively.
(b) Free Thoracic Vertebra:
First and sixth free thoracic vertebra are slightly
smaller than the typical cervical. The centrum is
heterocoelous and neural spine is elongated, pointed
and well-developed. Transverse processes are also
well-developed and outwardly directed. Pre- and post-
zygapophyses are present on the anterior and posterior
surfaces respectively. Hypapophysis is prominent
beneath the centrum. It also carries capitular and
tubercular facets for the articulation of the thoracic
ribs.
3. Synsacrum:
Synsacrum is a long compound bone formed by the
fusion of 14 to 16 vertebrae, supporting the long ilium
of the pelvic girdle on both sides. The fused vertebrae
of synsacrum are last thoracic having a pair of free
thoracic ribs and have no hypapophysis, six lumbars,
two sacrals and about seven caudal vertebrae. All the
fused vertebrae of lumbar region have free well-
developed transverse processess which is applied
against long ilia.
The neural spines of these vertebrae are also fused to
form a vertical crest which is continuous in front with
that of the last thoracic and attached with the dorsal
margins of the ilia. Two sacral vertebrae lie behind the
lumbars and fused with them. Their transverse
processes are also united to form bony plates which
support the ilia along their outer margins. Sacral
vertebrae are fused with their transverse processes.
The hindermost part of the synsacrum is formed by the
remaining seven anterior caudal vertebrae. The centra
of few anterior caudal vertebrae are laterally
compressed, while those of two or three posterior
vertebrae are dorso-ventrally compressed. The
transverse processes in each except the last one are
divided into dorsal and ventral portions.
The dorsal portions of these fuse to form bony plates
continuous with those of the vertebrae in front. The
ventral portion is rod-shaped in the anterior four or
five vertebrae and is regarded as ribs but in the
remaining are smaller The components of synsacrum
are so intimately fused that it is difficult to distinguish
them separately.
4. Caudal Vertebrae:
Tail is short and has a few free vertebrae and pygostyle
(fused caudal vertebrae).

(a) Free Caudal Vertebra:


Four or five free caudal vertebra are small. Their centra
are heterocoelous, and neural spines are small and
bifid. Transverse processes are somewhat cylindrical
and directed downwards and outwards. Pre and post
zygapophyses are absent. Movement of tail feathers is
due to these vertebrae.
(b) Pygostyle:
Pygostyle is the last fused vertebra of the caudal
region. It is commonly known as ploughshare. It is
formed by the fusion of four or more of hindermost
caudal vertebrae. It looks like a vertically triangular
and laterally compressed plate. Centrum, neural spine,
pre and post zygapophyses are absent. It supports the
rectrices (tail feathers) and provides attachment to
caudal muscles.
Sternum:
Sternum (Fig. 26.20) is a broad bone lying in the
breast region, therefore, it is also known as breast
bone.
It is a boat-shaped bone present in the ventral
thoracic region and consists of the following
parts:
1. Metasternum:
It is a broad plate-like bone forming the body proper.
It is concave dorsally and convex ventrally. It is
broader towards the anterior and posterior sides and
narrow in the middle.
2. Keel:
Ventral convex surface of metasternum is produced
ventrally into a median, triangular ridge called the
sternal crest or carina or keel. The great pectoral
muscles are attached with the keel.
3. Manubrium:
Manubrium is a small plate-like structure arising
vertically from the anterior end of the ventral surface
of the metasternum and called the manubrium or
presternum. It also bears a large foramen at its base
called the notch of manubrium.
4. Metasternal Processes:
There are a pair of large processes on either side of the
metasternum, a large posterior and a small anterior
metasternal processes. Anterior processes are also
known as costal processes and posterior processes are
also called xiphoid processes.
Each posterior metasternal process is divided again
just at its origin in two large laterally compressed
processes, the upper is oblique lateral xiphoid
processes and posterior lateral xiphoid processess. The
upper oblique processes terminate in a broad end just
behind the last sternal rib. Lower larger xiphoid
processes run downward and backward.
5. Costal Surfaces:
These are four cup-like depressions in the dorso-lateral
margins of the anterior part of the metasternum. These
depressions serve for the attachment of sternal ribs.
6. Coracoid Grooves:
There is a deep transverse groove on either lateral side
of metasternum, at the base of manubrium which
provide articular surface for the coracoid bones.
Coracoid grooves communicate with each other
through the foramen of manubrium.

Ribs:
There are seven pairs of thoracic ribs in fowl. One pair
of ribs articulates with each thoracic vertebra. Each
thoracic rib consists of a dorsal vertebral and a ventral
sternal portions meeting at an angle. By the sternal
portion the ribs are united with sternum. First, second
and sometimes the seventh ribs do not have sternal
parts and do not reach the sternum.
The vertebral portion of the ribs leaving first and last
pairs bear backwardly directed uncinate processes
which overlap the next rib behind. The proximal end of
vertebral portion is bifurcated into a dorsal tuberculum
and ventral capitulum. The tuberculum is attached to
the transverse process, while the capitulum is attached
to the centrum of the corresponding vertebra.
Appendicular Skeleton:
Pectoral Girdle:
The pectoral girdle (Fig. 26.22 & 26.23) is very stout
bony structure connected with the sternum on either
side to support the wings. On either side it consists of a
scapula, coracoid and a clavicle.
Scapula:
Scapula is long, flattened, slightly curved, sabre-
shaped bone lying above the thoracic ribs and parallel
to the vertebral column. The expanded anterior end of
scapula is firmly united with the coracoid by ligament.
Its anterior end bears a shallow depression forming a
part of glenoid cavity. The glenoid end of scapula is
produced into an acromian process to provide articular
surface to the clavicle and to form a part of the
foramen triosseum. Suprascapula is wanting.
Coracoid:
Coracoid is a stout, straight rod-like bone directed
downwards and articulates with the coracoid groove on
the antero-lateral edge of the sternum at the base of
manubrium. The upper end of coracoid on its inner
side articulates with the scapula and on its outer side it
bears a deep cup-shaped depression which forms the
greater part of the glenoid cavity. The upper end of
coracoid is also produced into a hook-like acrocoracoid
process which articulates with the clavicle.
Clavicles:
Clavicles are a pair of slender, curved delicate rod-like
bones connected by their expanded upper ends with
the scapula and acrocoracoid process of coracoid to
enclose a circular foramen triosseum.
Furcula:
Ventrally the two clavicles are fused with a small
interclavicle to form a laterally compressed disc or
hypocleidium. It is connected with the rostrum of the
sternum by a ligament. The V-shaped bone, thus,
formed is known as furcula or merry thought or wish
bone. It works as a spring-like connection between the
two halves of shoulder girdle.
Pelvic Girdle:
The pelvic girdle (Fig. 26.24) consists of two separate
halves lying on either side of the synsacrum. Each half
is known as os-innominatum. Each os-innominatum is
composed of ilium, ischium and pubis. At the junction
of three bones is present a concavity, the acetabulum,
which provides surface for the articulation of the head
of femur.

Ilium:
Ilium is an elongated and remarkably expanded bone
extending both anterior and posterior to the
acetabulum and is called preacetabular part and
postacetabular part of ilium respectively. The inner
margin of ilium is fused with the transverse processes
and neural spines of the synsacrum. The outer surface
of its anterior part is concave and posterior part is
fused with the ischium. Ilium forms the dorsal part of
acetabulum. On the outer surface above the
acetabulum is a projection, the antitrochanter, which
articulates with the great trochanter of femur.
Ischium:
Ischium is also dorso-ventrally flattened bone
projecting backwards behind the acetabulum and
parallel to the posterior part of the ilium. Ischium is
fused posteriorly with the ilium but separated
anteriorly from it by a large, oval ilio-ischiatic foramen.
Pubis:
Pubis is a long, thin, curved, slender bone directed
backward parallel to the ventral margin of ischium
with which it is usually fused. It forms ventral part of
acetabulum. Behind the acetabulum the pubis and
ischium are separated by an oval opening, the
obturator foramen. Just in front and outside the
acetabulum the pubis gives off a short and blunt
process, the prepubic or preacetabular process.
Bones of Forelimb:
Forelimbs of birds are modified as wings and
correspond to the forelimbs of a mammal.
1. Humerus:
Humerus (Fig. 26.25) is the bone of upper arm of
forelimb. It is an elongated stout bone expanded at
both the ends. The proximal end is expanded into
smooth convex surface the head which fits into the
glenoid cavity of pectoral girdle.
The head is bordered by two tuberosities, preaxial and
postaxial. From the smaller preaxial tubersity extends
in front a short crest or deltoid ridge for the insertion
of great pectoral and deltoid muscles. The postaxial
tuberosity is larger and has a pneumatic foramen on
the dorsal side of the proximal end communicating
with its air cavity. The distal end possesses trochlea or
condyles for the articulation with the radius and ulna.
2. Radius and Ulna:
Radius and ulna are the bones of the forearm.
Radius (Fig. 26.25) is shorter, slender and straight
bone. Proximally it has a cup-shaped articular surface
for the outer trochlea of humerus. Distally it bears a
knob which articulates with the radiale carpel.
Ulna (Fig. 26.25) is stouter and larger than the radius
and also slightly curved. Proximally it bears a small
projection, the olecranon process, and a large articular
facet for the inner condyle of the humerus. Distally it
articulates with the ulnare carpal and radius.
3. Carpals:
Carpals are two irregular bones of wrist. Preaxial
radiale is smaller and articulates with the radius and
the postaxial ulnare is larger and articulates with the
ulna.
4. Carpometacarpus:
Carpometacarpus (Fig. 26.25) is the bone of manus or
palm. It is a compound bone formed by the fusion of
three metacarpals with the distal row of carpals. The
first metacarpal is very short, stumpy projection at the
proximal end. The second metacarpal is strong and
somewhat straight bone, the third metacarpal is
thinner, slightly curved outwardly on the postaxial side
and fused at both ends with the second metacarpal.
5. Phalanges:
Three metacarpals bear three clawless digits (fingers)
which possess small rod-like bones called phalanges.
First digit or pollex is preaxial and consists of a single
phalanx, second digit (index) has two phalanges and
third postaxial digit has a single phalanx.
Bones of Hindlimb:
In birds hindlimbs are modified for bipedal
locomotion. Tarsus is absent.
1. Femur:
Femur (Fig. 26.26) is the bone of thigh of hindlimb. It
is short and powerful bone flattened at both the ends.
Proximally on the inner side it bears a rounded head
which fits into acetabulum. On the outer side of the
head is an irregular prominent process the great
trochanter. Between the great trochanter and head is
the articular surface for the antitrochanter of ilium
Distally it has a deep groove or intercondylar fossa
bounded laterally by two condyles for the articulation
with the tibiotarsus. Outer condyle receives the upper
end of fibula.

Patella is a sesamoid bone formed by the ossification of


tendons. It is found in the tendon in front of femur-
tibiotarsal joint.
2. Tibiotarsus and Fibula:
Tibio-tarsus and fibula (Fig. 26.26) are the bones of
shank of hindlimb. Tibiotarsus is a long and stout
nearly straight bone found on the inner side of shank.
It is formed by the fusion with the proximal row of
tarsals, i.e., astragalus and calcaneum. The proximal
end of tibiotarsus is expanded and has on its anterior
face a median cnemial or tibial crest and two articular
surfaces for the condyles of the femur. Distally it
articulates with the tarso-metatarsus by a pulley-like
articular surface, i.e., a groove bounded by two
condyles.
Fibula (Fig. 26.26) is a smaller, slender bone closely
applied to the outer surface of the tibiotarsus.
Proximally it articulates with the outer condyle of
femur. Its distal end does not reach up to the lower end
of tibiotarsus and terminates in a sharp point.
3. Tarsals:
In adult birds, the proximal row of tarsals is fused with
tibia and distal row with metatarsus. In between the
two rows is present the intertarsal ankle joint.
4. Tarsometatarsus:
Tarsometatarsus (Fig. 26.26) is a compound bone of
foot or pes and formed by the fusion of distal row of
tarsals with the second, third and fourth metatarsals It
is a stout, long bone and proximally it bears two cup-
like facets for the articulation with the tibiotarsus. First
metatarsal is a small nodule-like bone attached to the
inner and posterior surface of tarso-metatarsus near its
distal end.
At its distal end, the three metacarpals become free
each has a pulley-like articular surface for the
corresponding digit. In male, the tarsometatarsus often
bears a stout pointed spinous fighting spur on its
medial side.
5. Phalanges:
These are small, slender bones. Metatarsus carries four
toes- first or hallux is directed backward and has two
phalanges, and the remaining three are directed
forward. Second, third and fourth toes bear 3, 4 and 5
phalanges respectively. Terminal phalanx of each toe
has a horny claw.

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