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Pterygoid:
It is a short and stout, rod-shaped bone. It lies
obliquely behind the palatine between the presphenoid
rostrum and quadrate of its own side. It articulates
behind with the quadrate and in front with the
parasphenoid rostrum and palatines.
Palatine:
It is slender bony bar lying in front of parasphenoid
rostrum. Anteriorly it is attached with the processes of
premaxilla and maxilla. Its posterior end articulates
with the pterygoid. Posteriorly it is also expanded
inwards into a broad lamella, the sides of which
articulate with the rostrum.
Lower Jaw:
The V-shaped lower jaw consists of two long laterally
compressed rami which are firmly united in front.
Each ramus is composed of five bones, i.e., one
replacing bone, the articular, and four investing bones,
the angular, supra-angular, dentary and splenial,
developing around a cartilaginous bar, Meckel’s
cartilage. All these bones are fused together.
Articular forms the posterior expanded part of each
ramus. On the dorsal surface it bears an elongated
mandibular condyle for the articulation with the
quadrate. Posteriorly it is produced into a medial and
angular process. Angular is a slender bone and lies
beneath the articular along the lower inner posterior
third border of each ramus.
Supra-angular forms the dorsal part of about one-third
of the posterior upper part of ramus. It bears a
coronoid process. Dentary is the largest bone and
forms about the complete distal half of the ramus.
Anteriorly it is united with its counterpart of the other
side forming the mandibular symphysis. It is devoid of
teeth. Splenial is a thin splint-like bone lying on the
inner surface of the middle part of ramus.
Hyoid Apparatus:
Hyoid apparatus lies in the floor of the mouth and
supports the tongue. It is composed of three bones- an
anterior entoglossal or glossohyal or ceratohyal, a
median bony basihyal and a posterior urohyal.
Entoglossal bears a cartilaginous process in front.
Entoglossal gives off a pair of backwardly directed
short anterior cornua which represents the free ends of
ceratohyals.
From the junction of basihyal and urohyal arise a pair
of long backwardly directed posterior cornua or
thyrohyals. Each thyrohyal consists of two rod-like
pieces, the proximal ceratobranchial and distal
epibranchial.
Vertebral Column:
The vertebral column of birds is peculiar in having a
large number of cervical vertebrae due to long mobile
neck; thoracic, lumbar and sacral vertebrae are fused
giving rigidity which is advantageous in flight. Caudal
vertebrae are fused forming the pygostyle which
supports the tail feathers. Epiphysis is lacking in long
bones. Vertebral column of Gallus is divided into the
following regions, i.e., cervical, thoracic, sacral and
caudal.
1. Cervical Vertebrae:
These are 14 to 16 in number. Their articulation with
each other allows greater movement of the long neck
and head.
(а) Atlas Vertebra:
Atlas is the first vertebra of the cervical region. It is
small ring-like in appearance. Centrum, neural spine,
transverse processes, ribs and prezygapophyses are
absent. It is formed of three pieces, a ventral and two
dorso-lateral uniting mid-dorsally to form the neural
arch. Its ventral piece is thick like the centrum and
notched above to receive the odontoid process of the
axis. Its anterior side bears a cup-like cavity to provide
articulation to the single occipital condyle of the skull.
In life, neural canal is divided by a transverse ligament
into an upper spinal canal and a lower odontoid canal
for odontoid process of axis. The posterior border of
the neural arch is produced into a pair of
postzygapophyses for the articulation with the
prezygapophyses of axis vertebra.
(b) Axis Vertebra:
Axis is the second vertebra of the cervical region.
Transverse processes, ribs and vertebrarterial canal are
absent. Centrum is produced in front into a peg-like
odontoid process by which it articulates within notch
present on the dorsal side of the ventral piece of the
atlas vertebra. Neural spine is blunt. Pre and post
zygapophyses are present. A small hypapophysis is
present below the posterior face of centrum. Head and
atlas get mobility over the axis.
(c) Typical Cervical Vertebra:
The typical cervical vertebra (3rd to 10th) has a long
body or centrum. The centrum is heterocoelous or
saddle-shaped. Anterior surface is concave from side to
side and convex from above downwards, while the
posterior surface is convex from side to side and
concave from above downwards. The neural arch is
short and notched both anteriorly and posteriorly.
The neural spine is rudimentary. Transverse processes
are short and irregular, and arise laterally from the
anterior end. These are fused with the rudimentary
posteriorly directed spine-like cervical ribs. The bases
of cervical ribs have vertebrarterial canal for vertebral
artery. Prezygapophyses are flat articular facets on the
anterior side of transverse processes facing upwards
and inwards and postzygaphyses are projecting
backwards from the posterior side of the neural arch
and facing downwards. Posterior carvical vertebrae
(i.e., behind Xth) are shorter.
Their centrum bears a ventral spine-like process, the
hypapophysis. Neural spine is also distinct. Cervical
ribs are no longer visible and vertebrarterial canal is
also open groove-like, not closed.
2. Thoracic Vertebrae:
These are seven in number. First and sixth are free,
while 2nd to 5th are fused and seventh is fused with
the synsacrum.
(a) Fused Thoracic Vertebrae:
Fused thoracic vertebrae are formed by the fusion of
2nd to 5th thoracic vertebrae. The centrum is
heteroceleous. Their neural spines, transverse
processes and hypapophyses are fused with each other
forming a continuous plate-like ridges perforated by
intervertebral gaps. Fused hypapophyses form a
ventral bridge. Fused transverse processes and centra
of vertebrae possess on either side the tubercular and
capitular facets for the articulation of thoracic ribs.
Pre- and post-zygapophyses are present on the anterior
and posterior side of the fused thoracic mass
respectively.
(b) Free Thoracic Vertebra:
First and sixth free thoracic vertebra are slightly
smaller than the typical cervical. The centrum is
heterocoelous and neural spine is elongated, pointed
and well-developed. Transverse processes are also
well-developed and outwardly directed. Pre- and post-
zygapophyses are present on the anterior and posterior
surfaces respectively. Hypapophysis is prominent
beneath the centrum. It also carries capitular and
tubercular facets for the articulation of the thoracic
ribs.
3. Synsacrum:
Synsacrum is a long compound bone formed by the
fusion of 14 to 16 vertebrae, supporting the long ilium
of the pelvic girdle on both sides. The fused vertebrae
of synsacrum are last thoracic having a pair of free
thoracic ribs and have no hypapophysis, six lumbars,
two sacrals and about seven caudal vertebrae. All the
fused vertebrae of lumbar region have free well-
developed transverse processess which is applied
against long ilia.
The neural spines of these vertebrae are also fused to
form a vertical crest which is continuous in front with
that of the last thoracic and attached with the dorsal
margins of the ilia. Two sacral vertebrae lie behind the
lumbars and fused with them. Their transverse
processes are also united to form bony plates which
support the ilia along their outer margins. Sacral
vertebrae are fused with their transverse processes.
The hindermost part of the synsacrum is formed by the
remaining seven anterior caudal vertebrae. The centra
of few anterior caudal vertebrae are laterally
compressed, while those of two or three posterior
vertebrae are dorso-ventrally compressed. The
transverse processes in each except the last one are
divided into dorsal and ventral portions.
The dorsal portions of these fuse to form bony plates
continuous with those of the vertebrae in front. The
ventral portion is rod-shaped in the anterior four or
five vertebrae and is regarded as ribs but in the
remaining are smaller The components of synsacrum
are so intimately fused that it is difficult to distinguish
them separately.
4. Caudal Vertebrae:
Tail is short and has a few free vertebrae and pygostyle
(fused caudal vertebrae).
Ribs:
There are seven pairs of thoracic ribs in fowl. One pair
of ribs articulates with each thoracic vertebra. Each
thoracic rib consists of a dorsal vertebral and a ventral
sternal portions meeting at an angle. By the sternal
portion the ribs are united with sternum. First, second
and sometimes the seventh ribs do not have sternal
parts and do not reach the sternum.
The vertebral portion of the ribs leaving first and last
pairs bear backwardly directed uncinate processes
which overlap the next rib behind. The proximal end of
vertebral portion is bifurcated into a dorsal tuberculum
and ventral capitulum. The tuberculum is attached to
the transverse process, while the capitulum is attached
to the centrum of the corresponding vertebra.
Appendicular Skeleton:
Pectoral Girdle:
The pectoral girdle (Fig. 26.22 & 26.23) is very stout
bony structure connected with the sternum on either
side to support the wings. On either side it consists of a
scapula, coracoid and a clavicle.
Scapula:
Scapula is long, flattened, slightly curved, sabre-
shaped bone lying above the thoracic ribs and parallel
to the vertebral column. The expanded anterior end of
scapula is firmly united with the coracoid by ligament.
Its anterior end bears a shallow depression forming a
part of glenoid cavity. The glenoid end of scapula is
produced into an acromian process to provide articular
surface to the clavicle and to form a part of the
foramen triosseum. Suprascapula is wanting.
Coracoid:
Coracoid is a stout, straight rod-like bone directed
downwards and articulates with the coracoid groove on
the antero-lateral edge of the sternum at the base of
manubrium. The upper end of coracoid on its inner
side articulates with the scapula and on its outer side it
bears a deep cup-shaped depression which forms the
greater part of the glenoid cavity. The upper end of
coracoid is also produced into a hook-like acrocoracoid
process which articulates with the clavicle.
Clavicles:
Clavicles are a pair of slender, curved delicate rod-like
bones connected by their expanded upper ends with
the scapula and acrocoracoid process of coracoid to
enclose a circular foramen triosseum.
Furcula:
Ventrally the two clavicles are fused with a small
interclavicle to form a laterally compressed disc or
hypocleidium. It is connected with the rostrum of the
sternum by a ligament. The V-shaped bone, thus,
formed is known as furcula or merry thought or wish
bone. It works as a spring-like connection between the
two halves of shoulder girdle.
Pelvic Girdle:
The pelvic girdle (Fig. 26.24) consists of two separate
halves lying on either side of the synsacrum. Each half
is known as os-innominatum. Each os-innominatum is
composed of ilium, ischium and pubis. At the junction
of three bones is present a concavity, the acetabulum,
which provides surface for the articulation of the head
of femur.
Ilium:
Ilium is an elongated and remarkably expanded bone
extending both anterior and posterior to the
acetabulum and is called preacetabular part and
postacetabular part of ilium respectively. The inner
margin of ilium is fused with the transverse processes
and neural spines of the synsacrum. The outer surface
of its anterior part is concave and posterior part is
fused with the ischium. Ilium forms the dorsal part of
acetabulum. On the outer surface above the
acetabulum is a projection, the antitrochanter, which
articulates with the great trochanter of femur.
Ischium:
Ischium is also dorso-ventrally flattened bone
projecting backwards behind the acetabulum and
parallel to the posterior part of the ilium. Ischium is
fused posteriorly with the ilium but separated
anteriorly from it by a large, oval ilio-ischiatic foramen.
Pubis:
Pubis is a long, thin, curved, slender bone directed
backward parallel to the ventral margin of ischium
with which it is usually fused. It forms ventral part of
acetabulum. Behind the acetabulum the pubis and
ischium are separated by an oval opening, the
obturator foramen. Just in front and outside the
acetabulum the pubis gives off a short and blunt
process, the prepubic or preacetabular process.
Bones of Forelimb:
Forelimbs of birds are modified as wings and
correspond to the forelimbs of a mammal.
1. Humerus:
Humerus (Fig. 26.25) is the bone of upper arm of
forelimb. It is an elongated stout bone expanded at
both the ends. The proximal end is expanded into
smooth convex surface the head which fits into the
glenoid cavity of pectoral girdle.
The head is bordered by two tuberosities, preaxial and
postaxial. From the smaller preaxial tubersity extends
in front a short crest or deltoid ridge for the insertion
of great pectoral and deltoid muscles. The postaxial
tuberosity is larger and has a pneumatic foramen on
the dorsal side of the proximal end communicating
with its air cavity. The distal end possesses trochlea or
condyles for the articulation with the radius and ulna.
2. Radius and Ulna:
Radius and ulna are the bones of the forearm.
Radius (Fig. 26.25) is shorter, slender and straight
bone. Proximally it has a cup-shaped articular surface
for the outer trochlea of humerus. Distally it bears a
knob which articulates with the radiale carpel.
Ulna (Fig. 26.25) is stouter and larger than the radius
and also slightly curved. Proximally it bears a small
projection, the olecranon process, and a large articular
facet for the inner condyle of the humerus. Distally it
articulates with the ulnare carpal and radius.
3. Carpals:
Carpals are two irregular bones of wrist. Preaxial
radiale is smaller and articulates with the radius and
the postaxial ulnare is larger and articulates with the
ulna.
4. Carpometacarpus:
Carpometacarpus (Fig. 26.25) is the bone of manus or
palm. It is a compound bone formed by the fusion of
three metacarpals with the distal row of carpals. The
first metacarpal is very short, stumpy projection at the
proximal end. The second metacarpal is strong and
somewhat straight bone, the third metacarpal is
thinner, slightly curved outwardly on the postaxial side
and fused at both ends with the second metacarpal.
5. Phalanges:
Three metacarpals bear three clawless digits (fingers)
which possess small rod-like bones called phalanges.
First digit or pollex is preaxial and consists of a single
phalanx, second digit (index) has two phalanges and
third postaxial digit has a single phalanx.
Bones of Hindlimb:
In birds hindlimbs are modified for bipedal
locomotion. Tarsus is absent.
1. Femur:
Femur (Fig. 26.26) is the bone of thigh of hindlimb. It
is short and powerful bone flattened at both the ends.
Proximally on the inner side it bears a rounded head
which fits into acetabulum. On the outer side of the
head is an irregular prominent process the great
trochanter. Between the great trochanter and head is
the articular surface for the antitrochanter of ilium
Distally it has a deep groove or intercondylar fossa
bounded laterally by two condyles for the articulation
with the tibiotarsus. Outer condyle receives the upper
end of fibula.