AP Review Project Research Paper

Spectrometry
Hannah Abraham

Abstract
Spectrometry has a variety of uses that have been used in multiple fields of science since
the 1600s. Spectrometry revolved around studying the wave-like characteristics of light and
measuring its electromagnetic properties. Optical spectrometry measures which wavelengths an
object absorbs or reflects in order to determine the makeup of the material. Spectrometers have
many uses in physics, astronomy, chemistry, biology, and geology that usually involve finding the
composition of various elements for research purposes. The basis of spectrometry comes from
wave optics, which is about how light interacts with mediums and its properties of frequency,
wavelength, and velocity. There are many ways spectrometry is applied today through medicine,
the environment, and even forensics. Spectrometry continues to grow today.
Introduction

The broad topic of spectrometry is best understood with background knowledge of wave
optics. Optics in physics studies the behavior of light and its properties as well as the phenomena
and effects that occur when light changes or interacts with other objects. Wave optics in particular,
revolves around the electromagnetic wave characteristics of light, usually when it interacts with
small objects. Waves of light have properties such as frequency, velocity, and wavelength. If light
comes in contact with an object of the significantly larger wavelength, the waves become straight
lines and act like rays. However, if light comes interacts with an object closer to its wavelength it
can display wave characteristics. This can be seen if a light beam is shone through vertical slits of
close wavelength to the light; patterns of light and dark strips of light are shown as a result of
constructive and destructive interference. Spectrometers are specifically used to analyze
wavelengths that are unique to each object. Visible light is represented by wavelengths from 380
to 760 nm, which is light people can observe with their eyes and it controls how people see objects.
Optical spectrometry involves measuring which wavelengths an object absorbs or reflects in order
to determine the makeup of the material.

Description of Device

How It Works

A spectrometer registers light, breaks it into spectral components, converts the signal to a
wavelength function, and analyzes it on a computer through spectral software. The light starts
from the source and goes through the entrance slit of the spectrometer, which directs a clear beam
of the light into the device. Next, the beam of light is reflected by a concave mirror inside the
spectrometer and aimed at a rule grating. Once the light beam meets the grating, the light is
dispersed into its spectral components at different angles to see the different wavelengths of the
light. The dispersed light is then reflected off a second concave mirror and directed to the detector

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so it can analyze the wavelengths that entered the spectrometer. Our spectrometer has a slightly
different application. Different materials and objects can be placed in front of the light source so
that the wavelengths entering the spectrometer are the ones that are reflected by the object. The
light is still narrowed through the entrance slit, but instead of mirrors to focus and image the light,
the spectrometer has a holographic grating which performs all the functions of a rule grating and
mirrors at the same time. The holographic grating is directly in front of the lens of a webcam that
is used instead of a detector to record and image the light. The wavelengths are then displayed and
analyzed on a computer using Spectral Workbench, a software that captures the spectra and
matches it with similar ones in its database to determine what the sample contains.

Construction

The materials necessary to build this spectrometer are a black VHS box, scissors, an X-acto
knife, duct tape, a 4x8in black cardstock, a DVD-R, a USB webcam, and a computer with a web
connection. The VHS box is the outer shell of the spectrometer and holds everything together.
The X-acto knife is used to cut notches and slits in the VHS box to make the entrance slit and room
for the wire of the USB webcam. The cardstock is put inside the VHS box, and the entrance slit
goes on the folded part of the cardstock; it has to be lined up on the side of the box. The DVD-R
goes in front of the webcam lens and acts as the holographic grating to diffract light waves. The
USB webcam is then aligned with the entrance slit and records the wavelengths to send them to the
computer to analyze.

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 The first step in construction is cutting off the stumps inside the VHS box. The bottom of
the VHS case has to be as flat as possible to that it doesn’t interfere with the light beam between
the entrance slit and the lens.

The next step is to fold the black card paper about an inch in from the short side of the
paper. Put it inside the VHS box and fold in the top of the paper so that it fits inside the VHS box.

The next step is to carefully and precisely cut a less than 1 mm slit in the folded over end of
the black card. The slit should be at least 5 cm from the card edge. This is the entrance slit that
will let a beam of light enter the spectrometer.

After that, place the black card in the VHS case and cut an opening in the VHS case to
expose the slit. This is slightly wider than the slide and should let a clear beam of light shine
through. The black paper has the cover any leaks of light in the VHS box.

After preparing the VHS box, the webcam has to be placed properly. First take out the IR
filter in the webcam and remove the clip part of the webcam. When the webcam is put back

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together, place it opposite of the slit at the end of the VHS box, but make sure the slit and webcam
are perfectly aligned.

Next, split the DVD-R in two (the reflective side and the clear side), and then cut out a
small piece of the clear side to tape over the webcam’s lens. The side of the cut out DVD-R that
was on the outer edge should be facing inwards over the lens.

The last steps are to create a notch for the USB wire to get through the VHS box, cover up
any leaks in light with electrical tape, and use a program like Spectral Workbench to capture and
calibrate spectra.

Research on Topic

History

Rainbows can technically be noted as the very first spectrum known to man. The origins of
spectrometry can be traced back to the 1600s. The first scientific study of spectrums was done by
Sir Isaac Newton in 1666: in a dark room, Newton shone a narrow ray of light in front of a prism
and saw a band of colors projected on the wall. He added a lens and was able to disperse the colors
into a spectrum that was twenty-five centimeters long. He was the first to use the term spectrum in
his scientific paper titled “A New Theory About Light and Colors.”

In 1802, William Wollaston and later, in 1814, Joseph von Fraunhofer tried experimenting
with single slit diffraction – using a narrow slit to create spectral lines with wavelengths of light.
Spectral lines are dark or bright lines resulting from the release or absorption of light and are used

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to recognize molecules and atoms. During his studies, he identified dark lines in the sun’s spectrum
- now called Fraunhofer lines - that were the result of atomic absorption. Joseph von Fraunhofer is
also credited with creating the first spectroscope/spectrometer, which was essentially a prism
marking wavelengths of light. Developments in early spectrometry continued in the mid-1800s when
Gustav Kirchhoff recognized that each compound has a unique spectrum which could help determine
its chemical composition. For example, he determined, from certain Fraunhofer lines in sunlight,
that sodium and calcium were present in the sun's atmosphere.
With several new findings about spectrometry, people started using it in other branches of
science. Fraunhofer applied spectrometry to astronomy, and his spectra studies of the stars created
the basis for the science of astrophysics. One of his most notable inventions was the diffraction
grating, an array of slits, which provided a way to measure multiple spectral wavelengths. Around
the same period, Robert Bunsen and Kirchhoff made advances in spectrochemical analysis. They
developed the first commercially viable spectrometer in 1859, and they discovered 2 new elements-
rubidium and cesium – using their invention. Subsequent spectrum studies led to the discovery of
other elements, such as helium, thallium, and cerium. During this early period, much of the
application of research in spectrometry involved studying chemical and physical properties of matter
and its relation to various types of elements.

Later on, advances in photographic film led to development of a more accurate

spectrometer. It allowed scientists like John F. W. Herschel (son of William Herschel who
discovered infra-red waves in 1800) to be able to study the ultraviolet section of the spectrum.
Around 1890, the power of spectrometry helped research related to the atom, including work by
Johann J. Balmer in calculating the wavelengths of hydrogen spectral lines. In 1913, physicist
Niels Bohr used one of these formulas to outline the structure of an atom. Along with other
technological advancements, the development of lasers in the 1960s significantly increased the
effectiveness of spectrometric techniques and has been used heavily in cancer research and
forensics because there are various techniques for analyzing fibers, blood, and soil. One of the
most important development for spectrometers happened in the 1970s with the introduction of
Charged Coupled Devices (CCDs) that significantly improved imaging quality and are now used in
digital cameras. Overall, spectrometry is extremely useful in several fields of science, and it
continues to improve and enhance technology today.

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Applications and Further Developments

Spectrometry is applicable to a variety of sciences. For instance, visible and invisible

(infrared/ultraviolet) spectrometric methods have been used intensively in environmental studies.
Absorbent spectrometry is used to analyze water samples for water quality and toxins. In addition,
the nuclear energy industry has also used emission spectrometry or atomic absorption to monitor
levels of hazardous waste in water. Laser light spectrometric techniques have also been used in
pollution monitoring. In addition, infrared spectrometry can identify the concentration of certain
compounds in the air. Also, x-ray fluorescence can determine certain metal concentrations in the
air as well as in the soil.

In the biomedical and pharmaceutical industries, infrared and Raman spectrometry is being
used to study diseases and pathogens to help diagnose cancer. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
and ultrasounds are also popular diagnostic methods. UV/Vis spectroscopy can be used when
manufacturing drug compounds to determine the purity and identify any contaminants.
Absorbance spectrometry has been used to study oxygenated hemoglobin levels in red blood cells.
This can be used to monitor oxygen levels in patients during surgery. Optical spectral analysis
focuses on non-invasive ways to diagnose illnesses such as skin cancer and even diabetes.

The field of astronomy uses spectrometry to get information about the temperature,
chemical composition and density of objects in space. Spectrometry can also determine the age,
mass and surface gravity of stars. Using Doppler measurements, scientists can calculate the
relative speed of galaxies and constellations. During the Mars landing, Mars rovers were armed
with spectrometers to gather various data about the planet.

In addition, key industries such as food and agriculture, mining and industrial
manufacturing all apply spectrometric techniques. Geologists use spectrometry to study rock
samples and the mining industry tests for the concentration of valuable substances, like gold, in
potential mining areas. Food scientists and FDA regulators use spectrometry to determine if toxic
metals are present in food or shellfish. The future for even more innovative uses of spectrometry
seems limitless.

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