How to save energy and money Guide Book 5

STEAM SYSTEMS

STRATEGY

ENERGY
EFFICIENCY
EARNINGS

3E STRATEGY

TSI
MI

Y
RG
N

RA
E
E

Netherlands Ministery of Economic Affairs LS EN Technical Services International

AND
EUROPEAN COMMISSION
HOW TO SAVE
ENERGY AND MONEY
IN STEAM SYSTEMS

This booklet is part of the 3E Strategy series. It provides advice on practical

ways of improving energy efficiency in industrial steam application.

Prepared for the European Commission DGXVII by:

The Energy Research Institute

Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of Cape Town
Private bag
Rondebosch 7701
Cape Town
South Africa
www.eri.uct.ac.za

This project is funded by the European Commission and co-funded by the

Dutch Ministry of Economics, the South African Department of Minerals
and Energy and Technical Services International (ESKOM), with the Chief
contractor being ETSU.

Neither the European Commission, nor any person acting on behalf of the
commission, nor NOVEM, ETSU, ERI, nor any of the information
sources is responsible for the use of the information contained in this
publication.

The views and judgements given in this publication do not necessarily

represent the views of the European Commission.
 HOW TO SAVE
ENERGY AND MONEY
IN STEAM SYSTEMS

3E STRATEGY
HOW TO SAVE
ENERGY AND MONEY
IN STEAM

Other titles in the 3E strategy series:

HOWTO SAVE ENERGYAND MONEY:THE 3E STRATEGY

HOWTO SAVE ENERGYAND MONEY IN ELECTRICITY USE
HOWTO SAVE ENERGYAND MONEY IN BOILERSAND FURNACES
HOWTO SAVE ENERGYAND MONEY IN COMPRESSEDAIR SYSTEMS
HOWTO SAVE ENERGYAND MONEY IN REFRIGERATION
HOWTO SAVE ENERGYAND MONEY INSULATION SYSTEMS

Copies of these guides may be obtained from:

The Energy Research Institute

Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of Cape Town
Private bag
Rondebosch 7701
Cape Town
South Africa
Tel No: (+27 21) 650 3892
Fax No: (+27 21) 686 4838
E-mail: 3E@eng.uct.ac.za
Website: http://www.3e.uct.ac.za

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Energy Research Institute would like to acknowledge the following for their contribution
in the production of the guide:
Ÿ Energy Technology Support Unite (ETSU), UK, for permission to use information
from the ‘’Energy Efficiency Best Parctice’’ series of handbooks.
Ÿ Energy Conservation Branch, Department of Energy, Mines and Resources, Canada,
for permission to use information from the ‘’Energy Management’’ series of manuals.
Ÿ TLV Co, Ltd, for permission to use figures from their set of handbooks on steam.
Ÿ Wilma Walden for graphic design work (walden@grm.co.za).
Ÿ Doug Geddes of South African Breweries for the cover colour photography.
 Guide Book Essentials
QUICK 'CHECK-LIST' FOR SAVING
ENERGY AND MONEY IN STEAM SYSTEMS

This list is a selected summary of energy and cost savings opportunities outlined in the text. Many more
are detailed in the body of the booklet. These are intended to be a quick 'checklist'.

PIPING SYSTEM (Chapter 3.1-2)

Ÿ Check that the pressure is not over supplied.
Ÿ Ensure that pipes are correctly sized. Oversize implies excessive heat loss, undersize implies
energy losses to overcome pressure drop and high steam leakage rate.
Ÿ Remove unnecessary valves, elbows and tee's.
Ÿ Remove any unused piping that may be left after expansion/ decommissioning.

HEATTRANSFER (Chapter 3.3-4)

Ÿ Ensure proper drainage.
Ÿ Ensure trapped air is released.

STEAMTRAPSAND LEAKS (Chapter 3.5-6)

Ÿ Check steam trap population is properly audited, positioned and maintained
Ÿ Audit, cost and repair steam leaks.

INSULATION (Chapter 3.7)

Ÿ Check insulation on pipes, valves, flanges and other fittings.

HEAT RECOVERY (Chapter 3.8-9)

Ÿ Ensure condensate return is operating correctly.
Ÿ Investigate the possibility of using flash steam.

3E STRATEGY
 Table of contents
UNITS ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................2

1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................................................................3
1.1 Sensible heat and latent heat ....................................................................................................................................................4
1.1.1 Example of the effects of increasing surface area .........................................................................................6

2. BLOWDOWN ............................................................................................................................................................................................7
2.1 Methods of blowdown ..................................................................................................................................................................7
2.2 How much do you blowdown? ...............................................................................................................................................9
2.3 What does it cost? ...........................................................................................................................................................................9

3. STEAM UTILISATION .........................................................................................................................................................................10

3.1 Steam Pressure ...............................................................................................................................................................................10
In summary:....................................................................................................................................................................................11
3.2 Pipe Sizing ...........................................................................................................................................................................................11
3.2.1.In summary .........................................................................................................................................................................12
3.2.2 Other Pressure Losses ................................................................................................................................................12
3.3 Pipe Drainage ...................................................................................................................................................................................12
3.3.1 In summary.........................................................................................................................................................................15
3.4 Heat transfer from steam ........................................................................................................................................................15
3.4.1 Dealing with air films ....................................................................................................................................................15
3.4.2 Positioning of air vents.................................................................................................................................................17
3.5 Steam Trapping ................................................................................................................................................................................18
3.5.1 The Purpose of Steam Traps...................................................................................................................................18
3.5.2 Classification of steam traps .....................................................................................................................................18
3.5.3 Steam Trap Characteristics.......................................................................................................................................19
3.5.4 Dirt..........................................................................................................................................................................................21
3.5.5 Group Trapping...............................................................................................................................................................22
3.5.6 Checking the Performance of Steam Traps ....................................................................................................23
3.5.7 Routine Maintenance of Traps................................................................................................................................25
 3.6 Steam Leaks ......................................................................................................................................................................................26
3.7 Insulation .............................................................................................................................................................................................26
3.7.1 Comparative Energy Costs of Uninsulated and Insulated Pipework ................................................27
3.7.2 Choice of Insulation Material ...................................................................................................................................27
3.7.3 Economics of Insulating Pipework.........................................................................................................................28
3.7.4 Insulating Valves and Flanges....................................................................................................................................28
3.8 Condensate Return......................................................................................................................................................................29
3.8.1 The Importance of Condensate Recovery ......................................................................................................29
3.8.2 System Design..................................................................................................................................................................30
3.8.3 Condensate insulation .................................................................................................................................................33
3.9 Flash steam heat recovery .......................................................................................................................................................34
3.9.1 Example................................................................................................................................................................................34
3.9.2 Examples of flash steam heat recovery..............................................................................................................36

APPENDIX 1:
STEAM TABLE................................................................................................................................................................................................37

APPENDIX 2:
EFFECTS OF INSULATION THICKNESS ON HEAT LOSS FROM PIPES ...............................................................39

APPENDIX 3:
GLOSSARY ......................................................................................................................................................................................................40

3E STRATEGY
UNITS

UNITS USED INTHIS BOOKLET:

TEMPERATURE:
0
The units here are degrees centigrade or Celsius. Written C. At
0 0
atmospheric pressure, water freezes at 0 C and boils at 100 C.

PRESSURE:
The units here are bars. Standard atmospheric pressure is 1.013 bars. One
bar is 100 kilopascal (KPa). Bars absolute are measured from complete
vacuum. Bars gauge (barg) are measured from atmospheric pressure. So 0
bar gauge is the same as 1.013 bar absolute.

ENERGY:
The energy content of steam is called enthalpy. The units here are joules (J)
or more usually kilojoules (KJ). Specific enthalpy refers to energy per unit
mass, and here the units are kilojoules per kilogram (KJ/Kg). One calorie is
4.186 J. One British thermal unit (BTU) is 1055J.

2
1. INTRODUCTION

Steam is used for heating and process work as it is steam traps are blowing steam and that boiler
an ideal carrier of heat. Its three main advantages operators blow down the boiler on the basis of
as a heat transfer medium are as follows: previous practice. Possibly, or even probably,
the equipment using the steam is not giving
Ÿ It transfers heat at constant tempera-
optimum performance because it contains air, or
ture. This is extremely useful when
is waterlogged due to faulty steam trapping. The
dealing with heat sensitive materials.
production rate then falls.
Ÿ The temperature of steam is dependent
upon the steam pressure. This results in
In giving up its heat the steam condenses, but still
a simple method of temperature control.
retains some of the energy originally put into it by
Ÿ It is compact in terms of heat content per
burning fuel in the boiler. This energy can be
unit volume. This means heat can he
recovered and put to good use.
conveyed in simple piping systems.

A neglected steam system can cause concern

Steam is often used carelessly resulting in
about its cost effectiveness both in terms of
systems becoming poorly maintained and thus
energy cost and productivity. The methods
inefficient. Even in the best regulated establish-
required to achieve optimisation are neither
ments there is bound to be some unavoidable
difficult nor costly. Few firms know what their
wastage of heat, but having allowed for this
steam costs are, yet this must be an important
comparatively small loss, it is necessary to see
part in the costing of any product. Too often
that the rest of the heat is put to good work. This
these are regarded as unavoidable overheads,
Booklet is concerned with the more efficient use
although the return on capital expenditure to
of heat in the form of steam.
improve the steam system can be high.

Steam utilisation efficiency is not as easily

There are various ways of making savings at the
measured as the thermal efficiency of a boiler and
point of generation and use of steam more
as a result it is frequently neglected. (For details
efficient. In general they can be described under
on calculating the thermal efficiency of boilers,
three main headings:
see Guide for Saving Energy and Costs in Boilers
and Furnaces, which covers the economic use of Ÿ Steam generation (Section 3)
oil-fired, gas fired and coal fired boiler plat Ÿ Steam utilisation (Section 4)
respectively.) Ÿ Heat recovery (Section 5)

Often it is not noticed that a 'wisp' of steam is The main area for making savings at the point of
leaking from a joint, that insulation is missing, that generation is by the control of flue gas losses.

3
This is discussed in the booklet "Saving Energy it, sensible and latent heat.
and Money in Boilers and Furnaces". Another
important quantifiable loss is blowdown loss. When heat is added to a kilogram of water, its
With steam utilization, the losses are split temperature rises by 4.19°C for each kJ of heat
between heat losses in the system (leaks, etc) added 1°C for each kilocalorie). This rise in
and heat loss by inefficient use at the place where temperature can be detected by the senses and
it is needed. is called sensibleheat (4l9 kJ/kg of heat is
0 0
required to convert water from 0 C to l00 C).
Finally, there is a discussion on heat recovery
techniques which explores methods of utilising At normal atmospheric pressure any further
0
the heat left in steam once it has given up its latent addition of heat to water at l00 C will not
heat. increase the temperature, but will cause some
of the water to boil into steam. In order to
change all the water into steam, 2.257 kJ/kg (537
1.1 SENSIBLE HEAT AND calorie/kg) of heat would have to be added.
LATENT HEAT The additional heat cannot be felt by the senses
as a rise in temperature and is called the latent
Before getting into the energy saving opportuni- heat of vaporisation. Thus a total of 2,676 kJ/kg
ties, it will be useful to understand how steam is of heat is required to turn water at 0ºC into
raised and the two types of heat associated with steam.

3000
2800 4
2600 Total heat of steam
2400
2200
2000 3
Enthalphy kJ/kg

Latent heat available at different pressures

1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
2
800 Heat in condensate at steam pressure
600
400 1
Heat in condensate at atmospheric pressure
200
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Bar gauge

Figure 1: Properties of steam (figure used with permission from TLV Co Ltd)

4
If water is subjected to pressure greater than
one atmosphere it will not boil at 100ºC (212º
F) but at a higher temperature. This tempera-
ture is related to the steam pressure and, as can
be seen from Figure 1, the lower the steam
pressure the higher the proportion of latent
heat per unit weight of steam. This physical fact
has an important bearing on fuel economy.
It can be seen from Figures 1 and 2 that the higher
the steam pressure, the higher the steam tem-
perature. This relationship can be used to
achieve a temperature required by a process,
critical in some cases, by matching it with the
correct steam pressure. For greater accuracy,
these relationships are normally given in the form
of steam tables which are in Appendix 1. So if
pressure is reduced to give greater economy it
must be ensured that productivity is not upset by
the lower temperature.
Steam
Atmospheric pressure
100°C
Latent heat
2,257 kJ/kg
971 Btu/lb
100°C
Sensible heat
0°C
Figure 2: Comparisons of steam at atmospheric pressure and 7 bar. (Source: ETSU)
5
Steam which does not increase in temperature
when heat is added is known as saturated steam.
It is a mixture of water and steam. Steam that
does increase in temperature when heat is added
is known as superheated steam. It is pure steam
with no water. Wet steam contains water
droplets. Dry steam does not contain water
droplets.
Superheated steam is used in power stations
where high steam temperatures give a better
thermal efficiency (more kilowatt-hours of
electricity per unit of fuel consumed). Process
steam, used for heating in factories, woodyards,
hospitals and so on, is nearly always saturated
steam. This booklet deals almost entirely with
saturated steam and unless stated otherwise the
term "steam" means "saturated steam".
Many processes employing steam as the heating
7 bar
170°C
Latent heat
2,050 kJ/kg
882 Btu/lb
170°C
Sensible heat
0°C
medium only make use of latent heat. Therefore,
it is necessary to optimise the availability of latent
heat and the driving force, by good steam
pressure control. Additionally, the heat in the
condensate rises with steam pressure, and so the
higher the steam pressure used for a process the
greater the need to recover heat from the
condensate in order to maintain high levels of
efficiency.
It is shown in Figure 1 that the latent heat of
steam decreases as the pressure rises. This
means that the higher the steam pressure, the
smaller the amount of latent heat (usable heat)
which will be available per kilogram of steam.
Therefore, at higher pressures more kilograms of
steam are needed to supply a given quantity of
latent heat.
Thus, from the point of view of steam economy,
the lower the steam pressure, the lower the
steam consumption for a given amount of heat.
It is also true, however. that the lower the steam
pressure, the lower the temperature and
therefore the lower the rate of heat flow from a
given surface area. This difficulty can sometimes
be overcome by increasing the amount of
heating surface.
1.1.1 EXAMPLE OF THE EFFECTS OF
INCREASING SURFACE AREA
A heating system working at a pressure of 5.5 bar
can be made to give the same heat output at a
6
pressure of 2.4 bar simply by increasing the
heating surface by 25%. If for instance a room
contains four lengths of heating pipe then the
total heating surface will be increased by 25% if
an extra length of pipe is added. By doing this, a
saving of 4% is made. Further reduction in
pressure to 0.34 bar and an increase in the
heating surface of 75% would result in a saving of
7%.
This principle should be borne in mind when
designing heating systems, such as fitting heating
coils in hot water tanks and installing heat pipes
for air heating.
There are two points to be considered:
Ÿ As the boiler operating pressure is
reduced the specific volume of steam
increases rapidly as the operating
pressure falls below 7 bar. The rapid rise
in the specific volume of steam promotes
carry-over of liquid water, which is not a
good heat conductor.
Ÿ It is not possible to increase the heating
surface in all kinds of steam plant and
equipment.
2. BLOWDOWN

Blowdown is a necessary operation for boiler
plant in order to maintain correct water condi-
tions. The water fed into the boiler contains
dissolved materials and as the water is evapo-
rated into steam these are left to concentrate in
the boiler either in a dissolved or suspended
state.
of energy. Proper control is most important.
When this has been achieved the recovery of
heat from the blowdown should be examined to
see whether it is economical to do so. On
average about 50% of the heat may be recover-
able.

It is, therefore, necessary to control the level of

concentration of the solids and this is done by the 2.1 METHODS OF
process of 'blowing down', where a certain BLOWDOWN
volume of water is drawn off and is automatically
replaced by feedwater, thus maintaining the There are two methods of blowdown:
optimum level of total dissolved solids (TDS) in
the water. If not carried out, boiler failure may Ÿ Intermittent - taken from the bottom
occur and there will be carry-over and foaming, of the boiler (see Figure 3) to remove
the latter resulting in a large quantity of water any sludge that has settled. This is
being carried forward in the piping system to the
process. This problem calls for the careful
monitoring and supervision of the water condi-
tions in all boilers, particularly the modern shell
type packaged units which are even more
vulnerable than earlier types because of their
small water capacity and limited steam space in
relation to their output. It is important to
recognise that blowdown can, if incorrectly
carried out, be a significant source of heat loss
second only to the heat carried out of the boiler
in the flue gases.

There are two aspects to consider.

The first and most important is that the quantity

of blowdown should not exceed the minimum
amount necessary. Anything in excess is a waste Figure 3: Blowdown drain valve (source: ETSU)

7
 traditional method utilised with shell
boilers.

Ÿ ·Continuous - as a bleed from a source

Alternative
positions
near the nominal water level (see Figure
4). In more recent years this has become
'step-continuous', the valve being
opened or closed cyclically from a time
signal, or from a signal derived from
some property of the boiler water such
as electrical conductivity.

In modem practice, both intermittent and

Figure 4: Boiler blowdown points
(source: ETSU)
generally a manual operation carried out
once per shift in a series of short, sharp
blasts, with the amount of blowdown
being estimated from the reduction of
level in the gauge glass. This was the
continuous blowdown methods are used: the
former mainly to remove suspended solids which
have settled out; the latter to control TDS. It is
important to carry out the intermittent
blowdown sequence at periods of light load. It is
also important that this should not be neglected,
otherwise, with unfavourable water, sludge may
build up beneath the boiler furnace tubes to such
an extent that heat transfer is impeded and the
furnace tubes fail.

Blowdown line size mm

Bar 20(¾) 25(1) 32(1¼) 38(1½) 50(2) 63(2½) 75(3)
40

35

30

25
Boiler pressure

20

15

10

0
10 20 30 40 50 70 100 200

kg’s 0.6 0.7 1 2 3 4 5 7 10 20 30 40 50 70

Blowdown flow rate

Figure 5: Blowdown flow rates (source: ETSU)

8
2.2 HOW MUCH DO
YOU BLOWDOWN?
The following provides a simple checklist for
estimating the quantity of blowdown from a
boiler, if not already known:
1. If the TDS level of the boiler feedwater
(mixture of condensate return and
make-up) can be obtained, the required
percentage of blowdown may be
calculated.
2. For existing plants, the present
blowdown method may consist of
blowing down, say, 1 inch from the gauge
glass at regular intervals. This may be
converted to a volume by estimating the
water surface area of the boiler (width x
length), and multiplying this by the
frequency of blowdown, to give an
equivalent continuous blowdown
flowrate. Remember that this will be
related to the present average steam
generation rate.
3 Alternatively, the existing blowdown
method may consist of opening the
bottom blowdown valve for a given time
at certain intervals. For the standard full-
bore valve the flowrate is controlled by
the length and bore of the blowdown
line, and the boiler pressure. Figure 5
9
may be used for estimating the flowrate
when the valve is open - and from the
figure obtained, an equivalent continu-
ous blowdown flowrate may be calcu-
lated. Again, this will be related to the
average generation rate.
NOTE: The blowdown flowrate given in Figure 5
is in kg/second , not kg/hour as is commonly used
for boiler generating rates.
2.3 WHAT DOES
IT COST?
To buy water, treat it, pump it into a boiler, heat it
to boiling point and then throw it away may be
necessary to satisfy the requirements of steam
quality. Unless it is properly controlled, how-
ever, it can be very wasteful of energy and
money. It should also be remembered that
constant quality of water should not be taken for
granted and intermittent blowdow practices may
fail to cope with such a difficulty. The costs of
blowdown are seldom obvious, because they are
hidden in the overall boilerhouse costs, in water
and its treatment costs and in fuel costs.
3. STEAM UTILISATION
3.1 STEAM PRESSURE
Steam should be generated at the pressure
necessary to meet the maximum required by the
equipment in the system. In practice the pressure
chosen offers a balance between capital costs and
the overall energy efficiency of the system.
The benefits of distributing at high pressure are
listed below.
Ÿ High pressure distribution minimises the
size of pipe required. As the pressure
increases, the specific volume of steam
decreases. At atmospheric pressure 1 kg of
steam occupies 1.67 m3 but at 7 bar It only
occupies 0.24 m3 so a muchsmaller pipe can
be used to carry the same quantity of
steam. A smaller diameter pipe means that
capital costs are reduced.
Ÿ High pressure distribution minimises the
amount of insulation material required.
Although this is related to smaller pipe
diameter, this benefit is not always achieved
as, with increasing steam temperature, the
minimum recommended insulation thick-
ness increases (Section 7).
Set against these advantages are a number of other
factors.
Ÿ The possibility exists of having to use
thicker-walled, more expensive pipework
at the higher pressure. This will also apply
10
to all fittings such as flanges etc.
Ÿ Steam leakage losses are higher. As a
general statement leakage losses increase
in Proportion to the pressure; they are
twice as much at 10.0 bar as at 5.0 bar.
Ÿ The potential for producing flash steam
increases and this goes to waste unless a
low pressure sink can be operated in
parallel with the high pressure equipment.
Ÿ Heat losses are higher. They increase
approximately in proportion to the steam
saturation temperature, e.g. heat loss per
m2 at 10.0 bar is some 15% more than at 5.0
bar. This must be set against the benefit of
the smaller diameter pipework.
Steam reduced in pressure via a pressure reduction
valve (PRV) may have to be de-superheated
before being used in a process. When the pressure
of a volume of saturated steam is reduced the heat
content is not lost. The excess heat above that
which the saturated steam at the new pressure can
hold turns into sensible heat in the steam, raising its
temperature. In cases where maximum
temperature is a critical process parameter this
excess heat must be removed at a point where,
often, no other user is available. This heat is
therefore lost to the system, thereby reducing its
overall efficiency.
Determining the pressure for small distribution
systems is relatively simple: it should just meet the
user requirement unless future expansion of the
system or new equipment requiring higher
pressures is envisaged. For systems where only a
small quantity of high pressure steam is required but
where large quantities of low pressure steam are
used, the possibility of separating the two should be
considered. A high pressure steam generator
dedicated to the high pressure steam using
equipment could be a more energy efficient option.
IN SUMMARY:
HIGH PRESSURE
Leakage and Flash Steam Losses
LOW PRESSURE
Large Surface Heat Losses
3.2 PIPE SIZING
Once the necessary system pressure has been
determined, the pipes must be correctly sized. If the
pipe is too small, insufficient steam at a high enough
pressure will get through to the process. Too large a
pipe simply means that surface heat losses are
increased or more insulation is required. Either way
the overall system efficiency drops. Proper sizing of
the steam lines means selecting a pipe diameter
which gives the minimum acceptable pressure drop
between the boiler and the user.
For many years designers and engineers used
simple ‘rule of thumb’ methods to determine the
pipe sizes for a particular application. These criteria
were evaluated from actual situations and generally
still hold good.
To begin the process of determining required pipe
size, it is usual to assume a velocity of flow. For
saturated steam from a boiler, 20 - 30 m/s is
accepted general practice for short pipe runs. For
major lengths of distribution pipework, pressure
drop becomes the major consideration and
velocities may be slightly less. With dry steam,
velocities of 40 metres/sec can be contemplated -
but remember that many steam meters suffer wear
and tear under such conditions. There is also a risk
of noise from pipes. Table 1 lists the mass flow of
steam in pipes for common saturated steam
pressures and a pressure drop of 0.25 bar/100
metres.

Table 1: Mass flow (kg/hour) of steam in pipes for a pressure drop

of 0.25 bar/100 metres

Steam Pipe diameter (mm)

Press.
(barg)
20 25 40 50 65 80 100 125 150 200 250 300
0.3 14.4 31.8 95 201 354 563 1162 2041 3211 6722 11703 19514
1.0 18.2 38.6 116 245 427 680 1410 2485 3892 8165 14234 23814
2.1 21.8 45.5 140 294 520 825 1706 2994 4708 9852 17200 28713
3.1 25.0 35.6 159 337 591 944 1905 3429 5389 11240 19650 32741
4.1 27.2 59.1 177 376 659 1053 2196 3810 6015 12519 21854 36469
5.5 30.8 65.9 95 422 740 178 428 4273 6722 14016 24494 40824
6.9 34.0 72.7 218 460 806 1287 2621 4681 7375 15377 26753 44770
8.3 37.3 79.5 241 506 890 1415 2939 5117 8083 16874 29475 48988
10.3 40.3 86.3 259 544 961 1524 3157 5552 8763 18289 31897 53071
13.8 45.5 99.9 295 623 1097 1747 3620 6341 9988 20875 36279 60691
17.2 50.9 109.0 327 689 1214 1932 4001 7022 11077 23052 40143 67223
20.7 54.4 117.8 354 740 1295 2068 4273 7484 11784 24630 43001 71578

11
3.2.1. IN SUMMARY
UNDERSIZED PIPES
Higher Pressure Requirement • Higher Leakage Losses
OVERSIZED PIPES
Higher Surface Losses • Increased Capital Costs
3.2.2 OTHER PRESSURE LOSSES
When the steam route changes in direction or
the steam flow is disturbed, steam suffers a
drop in pressure. Thus the number of bends
and valves affects the pressure drop along
a given length of pipe. It is most convenient to
express this pressure drop through various fittings
in terms of ‘equivalent straight length of pipe’
(see Table 2).
the actual pipeline length for each distinct section of
pipework. At this point. rationalisation of existing
layouts to remove all unnecessary tees and elbows
should be considered. Long swept bends are
preferable to elbows; valves can be selected for
minimum pressure drop.
If a 30 metre length of 100 mm pipe contains bends
and valves as shown in Figure 6, this represents an
additional equivalent length of 69.6 metres and
hence a tripling of pressure drop over the straight
length (see Table 3).
3.3 PIPE DRAINAGE
The fact that steam is produced from water which is
relatively cheap and plentiful is a definite advantage.

Table 2 shows that the equivalent figures Expansion loop

depend on the pipe bore. When making initial Globe

valve
estimates on pipe size, there is therefore a need, if Gate
the diameter changes, to repeat the calculations for valve

pressure drop with revised equivalent lengths. End

Steam user
main Gate
valve
Valves, elbows, bends and tees should be
Figure 6: Example pipe run
totalled and equivalent lengths added to (figure used with permission from TLV Co Ltd)

Table 2: Resistance of standard pipe fittings measured as equivalent pipe length (metres)

Pipe size Standard Standard Tee (flow Gate valve Globe valve
(mm) elbow (90º) Bend (90º) through branch) (open) (open)

50 1.5 0.6 3.0 0.7 17

65 2.0 0.8 4.0 0.85 22
80 2.4 1.0 4.8 1.0 27
100 3.0 1.2 6.0 1.3 34
125 3.75 1.5 7.5 1.6 43
150 4.5 1.8 9.0 2.0 51
200 6.0 2.4 12.0 2.6 68

12
The fact that, as steam cools it reverts to water, is
not. Condensate in a steam line is at least a nuisance
but can be potentially disastrous. At the very least
condensate lying in the bottom of a pipe effectively
reduces that pipe’s cross-sectional area so requiring
increased velocities and causing a higher pressure
drop. In the worst case, the condensate layer
becomes deep enough to be picked up by the
steam and forced as a bullet or plug down the pipe.
These high velocity slugs have difficulty passing
round bends and through fittings. In extreme cases
this water hammer can lead to sudden failure of the
pipe or of fittings such as valves.
If the condensate is carried forward into
the process machines there is again the possibility of
damage. Wet steam builds up a thick film on heat
transfer surfaces reducing the effectiveness of the
process machines. It also leads to excessive
erosion and wear on the pipework and
fittings of the machine, increasing maintenance
costs. The excess condensate has to be removed
by the existing steam traps, possibly overloading
them and leading to early failure.
Good steam pipework layout ensures that there is
provision for removing condensate from the
distribution system before it can cause a problem.
For this provision to be effective the pipes must be
installed so that the condensate flows towards
these drain points.
Table 3: Calculation of equivalent pipe length for example pipe run shown in Figure 6
Fitting No. Equivalent length per fitting
Elbows 9 3.0m
Tees 1 6.0m
Globe valves 1 34.0
Gate valves 2 1.3m
Total
13
General guidelines for the effective draining of
condensate and layout of steam lines are given
below.
Ÿ The steam mains should be laid with a
falling slope in the direction of steam flow
of not less than 125 mm for every 30
metres of pipe length. This ensures that the
condensate always flows to where the
next drain point is sited.
Ÿ Drain points should be provided at
intervals of 30-45 metres along the steam
main. The actual distances will vary,
depending on how often a branch pipe
occurs and how often there is a change in
the level or direction of the steam main. In
a straight run of pipe carrying dry steam,
drain points and steam traps should be 45
metres apart. Installing them at more
frequent intervals may seem to be making
the system safer but the penalty is the
increased possibility of failure and steam
venting. If the steam produced by a boiler
plant is very wet the drain points and trap
sets must be at more frequent intervals.
Ÿ Condensate will always collect where
there is a low point in the system, so a drain
point is required at each of these. At any
bend there is an increased likelihood of
entrained condensate droplets being
deposited on the walls of the pipe, this is
Total equivalent length
27.0m
6.0m
34.0m
2.6m
69.6m
 especially true where a steam main rises. A
drain point is therefore required.
Ÿ A sump should be provided at a drain point
in the main steam lines. The simplest
method is to use an equal ‘T’ connection,
the bottom limb forming the sump - (see
Figure 7). Figure 7a: Incorrect drainage of steam main
Ÿ The choice of steam trap is important for (source: ETSU)

the main steam lines. Inverted bucket traps

or thermodynamic (TD) traps should be
used wherever possible.
Ÿ Branch lines taken from the main should
always be connected at the top of the pipe.
This largely prevents any carryover of
condensate into the branch. Figure 7b: Correct drainage of steam main
Ÿ Pipework and insulation are heavy. If the (source: ETSU)
pipe is not adequately supported at regular
intervals sagging will occur. This creates
low points for thebuild-up of condensate. steam. These should be installed before
The type and frequency of support essential equipment and, again. should be
required will depend on the diameter and properly drained and trapped.
wall thickness of the pipes. Ÿ The practice of fitting a concentric reducer
Ÿ Steam pipework does not remain at on a steam main and when changing
working pressure and temperature all the system pipe diameters is a common cause
time. At start-up and shut-down the metal of waterhammer and should be avoided.
of the pipework expands and contracts. If This is shown in Figure 8b.
no allowance is made for this movement a
considerable amount of stress is set-up
which can lead to cracking and ultimately
to failure. To overcome this problem,
expansion loops with smooth swept bends
are installed at intervals in the steam main.
Smaller steam mains and branches may Figure 8b: Correct fitting of reducers on
also require expansion allowance: in these steam main (source: ETSU)
cases bellows-type expansion joints are
commonly used.
Ÿ All steam using equipment operates best
with dry steam but for some equipment
dry steam is essential. Steam separators or
driers, as their name implies remove the
Figure 8a: Incorrect fitting of reducers on
entrained droplets of water from the steam main (source: ETSU)

14
3.3.1 IN SUMMARY product. Often it is possible (and it always pays) to
clean the surface regularly. Two further films, air and
POOR DRAlNAGE Ù Water Hammer Ù water, have to be removed as rapidly and
Increased Maintenance Ù Poor Heat Transfer Ù completely as possible otherwise heat transfer and
Energy Waste process output efficiencies are reduced.

The effect of air and water films on process output

3.4 HEAT TRANSFER
FROM STEAM
The heat transfer rate from condensing
steam to a surface is very high, but can
be seriously impeded by films of air or water.
Appropriate air and steam condensate removal
techniques will improve the overall efficiency
of heat transfer.
The centre section of Figure 9, the metal walls, is the
heating surface of any process steam plant in which
the steam does not come into direct contact with
the material being heated. Firstly, on each side of
this wall will be a scale film which creates
considerable resistance to the flow of heat to the
is not an isolated occurrence. It occurs in all steam-
heated processes and will continue to occur, unless
some action is taken to reduce the thickness of the
air and water films on condensing surfaces.
3.4.1 DEALING WITH AIR FILMS
Air accumulates in all steam spaces when steam
supplies are turned off and systems are allowed to
cool. When steam supplies are turned on, air (and
other incondensable gases) has no option but to
mix with the steam unless it is allowed to escape
from the system.
It is, therefore, important to ensure that pockets of
entrained air are removed before they have an

o o
121 C (250 F)
Metal heating surface
film

Water film

Water being heated

Air film

Condensate

Steam at 1.03 bar (15psi)

99oC (210oF)

Figure 9: Effect of high resistance to heat flow (source: ETSU)

15
opportunity to mix with the steam. In the majority
of process plants where the cross-section of the
steam space is relatively small, the general
behaviour of the steam when it initially passes into a
system is to push pockets of air ahead of itself, so
that the air is collected at some point remote from
the steam inlet to the system.
Figure 14 shows this behaviour, where once the
steam is turned on it pushes and compresses the air
into a remote place where it will form a cold spot
within the system. The water film is between 60 and
70 times more resistant to heat transfer than iron or
steel, and 500 to 600 times more resistant than
copper.
The effect of the air film is even more drastic and is,
in fact, more than 1 500 times more resistant to
heat transfer than iron or steel, and no less than 13
000 times more resistant than copper. A film of air
of 0.025mm (1/1000 in) thickness has a resistance
to heat transfer equivalent to a wall of copper 330
mm (13 in) thick.
Figure 10: Behaviour of trapped air (source: ETSU)
16
The practical effect of air and water films on process
output is shown in Figure 13. Steam at
approximately 1 bar (15 psi) pressure is being used
to provide a process temperature of 99ºC. By
reducing the thickness of both of these films it is
possible to either decrease the steam pressure for
the same process temperature, or increase the
process temperature for the same steam pressure.
As a result the system cannot warm up quickly and
uniformly, and in many cases the cold shot can
cause distortion. The air will not necessarily remain
at this spot - the flow of steam into the system may
be turbulent and will agitate some of the air which
has collected at the remote point.
An air / steam mixture is therefore created which is
undesirable, since it lowers the effective
temperature of the steam. In addition, the steam
component of this mixture will give up its latent
heat through the wall of the system heating surface.
As it condenses it will liberate the air component of
the mixture, depositing it to add to the existing
resistant films already in place.
The removal of air is essential and can be carried
out either by manual air venting or automatic air
venting. Manual air venting has the disadvantage of
relying on an operator knowing just when and how
often a cock should be opened and, more difficult
still, knowing when to shut it again, especially as an
air/steam mixture looks exactly like steam. A better
choice is an automatic air vent.
It is not sufficient, however, just to make provision
for air venting - the speed of air venting must also be
considered. During the stage when steam is passed
into a system, provision must be made for the rapid
removal of air, to reduce the possibility of air being
diffused and mixed with the steam. Also, the
quicker air is removed, the quicker the system
 possible to lay down any hard and fast rules about
where to position air vents. The final position must
be decided for each particular item of plant, based
on some knowledge of the shape of the steam
space and the position of the steam inlet relative to
the condensate outlet. Indeed, the choice of trap
type and its ability to handle air may also be
involved. Two examples are given which
demonstrate the need for careful consideration of
this matter.
Figure 11: Balanced pressure air vent
(source: ETSU) Figure 12 shows two pieces of plant, identical in
shape and size. In both plants condensate is drained
from the bottom. In plant A the steam inlet is also at
steam space will be fully occupied with steam,
the bottom, so when the steam is turned on it will
reducing the time taken for the system to warm up
push the air ahead of it to the remote point which is
to production temperature.
at the top of the steam space. The best position for
the air vent is, therefore, at the top of the steam
Since the air and steam are at different
space so that the steam trap would be required to
temperatures, a simple thermostatic air vent can be
pass little, if any, air. In plant B, however, the steam
used. It is advantageous, whenever possible, to use
will push the air downwards. Here provision must
a thermostatic air vent which combines high
be made for getting rid of the air, either by fitting an
capacity with the ability to stay open until steam
air vent or, more usually, by fitting a steam trap
temperature is almost reached, regardless of steam
which has high air venting capacity, such as a float
pressure variations. This is a characteristic of air
and thermostatic type.
vents which operate on the balanced pressure
principle. A typical example is shown in Figure 11.
Air vents with balanced pressure elements have
another advantage. An air/steam mixture has a
lower temperature than steam alone at the same
pressure, and this difference can be sensed by these
elements: therefore, whilst they will close in the
presence of steam, they will allow an unwanted
air/steam mixture to be discharged.

3.4.2 POSITIONING OF AIR VENTS

The position of a steam inlet connection and the

shape of a steam space have an important bearing
on where air is deposited, and it is, therefore, not

17
3.5 STEAM TRAPPING
3.5.1 THE PURPOSE OF
STEAM TRAPS
The expression ‘steam trap’ has already been used a
number of times in this Guide. A steam trap is a
device that fulfils three important functions: to
remove condensate (water), to remove air and to
retain steam. It removes the condensate formed
either within the steam pipework or within the
process equipment. It must be able to do this at
least as quickly as the condensate is formed or the
system will become waterlogged. In the case of the
steam pipework this would lead to water hammer
and the risk of damage to pipework and fittings. In
process equipment waterlogging means that the
steam cannot get in to heat up whatever requires
heating, therefore the process stops or at least
slows down significantly.
As its name suggests one of the functions of a steam
trap is to prevent large amounts of steam escaping.
However, some traps require small amounts of
steam to escape in order to operate correctly.
A steam trap should enable any gases in the system
to escape. If the gases remain they will take up part
of the space that the steam should occupy: this
reduces the carrying capacity of pipework and
prevents the steam from reaching the heat transfer
surfaces of process equipment. In the worst cases a
pipe or piece of equipment can become air-locked
so that even the condensate cannot be released.
The gases that must be removed comprise first the
air that fills the system when it is cold and drained
down. In addition during normal operation some
18
non-condensable gases can get into the system
either by being dissolved in the feedwater or as a
result of the breakdown of chemicals in the
feedwater.
3.5.2 CLASSIFICATION OF
STEAM TRAPS
There are many types of steam traps in use today,
not all of which can perform well the functions
previously outlined. Before the principal types of
traps available are examined in detail, it will aid in
understanding of their operation if they are
classified by their main categories.
There are three main categories:
1. Mechanical.
2. Thermostatic.
3. Thermodynamic.
Mechanical traps work on the principle of
differentiating between the density of steam and
condensate. For example, some mechanical traps
use a float that will rise up as the condensate level
rises, opening a valve, but will not become buoyant
in the presence of steam only, keeping the valve
closed.
Some mechanical traps will not, however, vent air
and non-condensable gases, unless some form of
thermal element is incorporated within the trap.
Such elements are miniature versions of those used
in thermostatic traps.
Thermostatic traps operate by sensing the
temperature of condensate. As steam condenses,
the condensate so formed is at steam temperature,
but as it flows to the steam trap it loses
temperature. When the temperature has dropped operation are employed, though each mode is
to a specified value below the steam temperature, working on the same basic principle within its
the thermostatic trap will open to release the category.
condensate.

Finally, the third category is the thermodynamic

type, which operates on the difference between
the flow of steam over a surface, compared to the
flow of condensate over the same surface. Steam,
or for that matter a gas, flowing over a surface
creates a low pressure area, this phenomenon
being used to move a valve towards the seat and
eventual closure.
In the three categories outlined, different modes of
3.5.3 STEAM TRAP
CHARACTERISTICS
In determining which steam trap to use for a specific
application, it is useful to try to match the
characteristics of the trap to the heat requirement
for the equipment in question. Therefore, a
Summary of Trap Characteristics will assist the
specifier to make such a selection.

Table 4: Different trap types and their characteristics

DIFFERENT TRAP TYPES AND THEIR CLASSIFICATION

Mechanical Float-Thermostatic Free Float

Float with Lever
Inverted Bucket Free Ball-bucket
Cylindrical Bucket

Thermostatic Expansion Liquid

Wax Capsule
Balanced Pressure Bellows Type
Diaphragm
Bimetallic Bimetallic

Thermodynamic Disc Exposed Chamber

Air Insulated
Steam-jacketed
Impulse Orifice and Piston

19
3.5.3 SUMMARY OF STEAM TRAP
CHARACTERISTICS

Table 5: Summary of trap characteristics

TYPE ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES APPLICATIONS

Balanced Pressure Small. Lightweight.` Can be damaged by As an air vent for all
No adjustment water hammer. steam equipment
required for changes Cannot be used for using saturated
in pressure. superheated steam. steam.
Good at air venting Will be damaged by Steam heated
Unaffected by back freezing if not radiators.
pressure. installed to self-drain. Small sizes of
Will hold back process plants where
condensate until it a slight amount of
cools to severa condensate withinl
degrees below the steam space will
saturated steam not affect the output.
temperature. Steam tracing.
Bimetalli Small. Requires adjustment Low temperature
Good for air venting over a wide pressure tracing.
at high pressure. range. Instrument
Will withstand water Will hold back enclosures.
hammer. condensate until it As a high pressure
Can be used for high subcools. air vent.
pressure steam. Reacts slowly to load As a standard air
changes. vent.
Can be affected by
back pressure.
Free Float Simple construction. Can be damaged by All heat exchangers
Thermostatic No link mechanism very excessive water and process plants
to wear and cause hammer. requiring maximum
sticking. Can freeze in efficiency.
Rapid and automatic exposed conditions. Batch processes
adjustment to requiring fast warm
variations in up.
condensate flow rate
and pressure.
Vents air on start-up.
Can incorporate
steam-lock release
valve.
With 3-point seating
can be used for
draining superheated
steam mains.

20
 TYPE ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES APPLICATIONS
Inverted Bucket Reasonably rugged Vents air slowly. For draining steam
construction. Can be damaged by mains.
Withstands a fair freezing. Small items of
degree of water Will lose the water process plant
hammer. seal and blow steam operating under fairly
if there is a rapid steady conditions.
drop in pressure.
Wastes steam on
light loads.
Is not recommended
for use on superheat.
Thermodynamic Simple Cannot be used on Draining all classes
Compact rugged very low inlet of steam mains,
construction. pressures. especially where
Withstands water Cannot operate on high pressure or
hammer, freezing back pressures superheat exists.
and superheat. greater than 80% of Small items of
Some have special inlet pressure. process plant where
bimetal vent to vent Unless air vent is vibration or
air on start-up. fitted, it will air bind. movement exists.
High capacities per Without air-jacket the Steam tracing.
size of trap. trap will cycle rapidly
Operates over wide in adverse ambient
pressure range conditions e.g. rain
without a change of or snow.
orifice.
Unaffected by
vibration.

3.5.4 DIRT Otherwise, in large strainers, condensate, which

On large sizes of traps, additional protection
against dirt in the steam system is essential. “Y”type
strainers should be installed, but always with the
strainer screen at either the 3 o’clock or 9 o’clock
position as shown in Figure 13.
can be picked up by a surge in steam flow, will
collect and cause water hammer within the steam
trap.
When constructing drain points for steam mains,
these should normally be the size of an equal-tee

21
up to 100 mm (4”) pipe size and a dirt pocket left in
the bottom of the pipe. Never take the connection
to the trap from the bottom of the pocket, but
always partly up the side. (Drain points for mains
larger than 100 mm (4”) should normally be not less
than 2 to 3 pipe sizes smaller, with the minimum
being 100 mm (4”). Figure 14 shows a correct drain
point.
3.5.5 GROUP TRAPPING
Naturally no one wants to spend more money than
necessary when installing steam equipment, but
care must also be taken that what is perceived to be
Figure 13: Correct orientation of strainers
(figure used with permission from TLV Co Ltd)
CORRECT
Figure 14: Correct drain point. Venuss
(figure used with permission from TLV Co Ltd)
22
an economic measure, does not turn out to be a
major disadvantage for the efficiency of the process.
Just such a case occurs when attempts are made to
group several items of steam plant to one steam
trap. Take for example the steam heater illustrated
in Figure 13. This is made up of a number of
sections.
The Heater Battery A receives the cold air first and
accounts for approximately 60% of the total heat
output of the air heater. The rate of condensation
within Section A is therefore very great. However,
by the time the air reaches Section C it is very warm
and there is little steam condensed. Steam
therefore enters the outlet pipework of Section C
and reaches the trap, causing it to close. It has, in
simple terms, short circuited Section A and B.
With the trap closed, condensate now being
formed in Section A can no longer flow to the
steam trap and as a consequence, will he held back
within the heater tubes. This causes the heater to
lose temperature, which then produces in turn
streams of cool air and hot air. The heater loses a
great deal of efficiency. Therefore, “group trapping”
is incorrect for this application. The correct solution
is to individually trap each section of the air heater,
as shown in Figure 16.
Figure 15: Group trapping
(figure used with permission from TLV Co Ltd)
3.5.6 CHECKING THE
PERFORMANCE OF
STEAM TRAPS
Correct operation of steam traps is
essential because they provide a vital
link between the steam and condensate services. A
single continuously leaking 12.5 mm (0.5 inch)
steam trap can waste thousands of rand a year.
Figure 16: Individual trapping
(figure used with permission from TLV Co Ltd)
STEAM TRAPS CHECKLIST
• Maintain steam traps adequately.
• Instigate a regular inspection and
servicing routine.
• Replace internal parts, if possible, from
time to time.
• Confirm that the most suitable types are
being used for particular applications,
paying attention to ease of repair
and/or replacement.
Steam trap failure in the closed position is usually
indicated by poor plant performance, although it
can go unnoticed on steam mains. Failure in the
open position is also not always obvious.
Traps usually discharge into a common
condensate return system. While live steam at
the collecting tank indicates that there is a
23
problem, it will not distinguish the particular
defective trap.
3.5.6.1 TRAPS DISCHARGING
OPEN-ENDED
Visual inspection
Thermodynamic traps, conventional balanced
pressure traps, and inverted bucket traps handling
moderate loads all discharge open-ended. An
untrained eye can usually decide whether the trap is
working correctly by looking at the trap discharge.
Traps with a blast or intermittent discharge are
particularly easy to check. When the trap is closed,
only a wisp of steam should be visible. This is caused
by the evaporation of any drops of hot condensate
left in the outlet connection. When the trap is
discharging, a quantity of flash steam will normally
leave the outlet with the condensate. This should
not be mistaken for live steam.
Float traps, bi-metallic traps and some balanced
pressure traps with stainless steel elements
generally, but not always, give a continuous
discharge. With these types of trap, it is more
difficult to tell if they are working correctly. If there is
a short transparent zone in the discharge with a
bluish hazy appearance, this suggests that the trap is
blowing steam. If a trap discharging to atmosphere
is stuck wide open, then the noise and unvarying
discharge provide a strong indication that
something is wrong.
3.5.6.2 CLOSED SYSTEMS
Test cocks
Fitting a test cock on the downstream side of a trap
allows the discharge to be diverted to atmosphere.
The trap will then discharge open-ended and
performance can be assessed as described above.
The drawback with this solution is that the trap is
relieved of back pressure. This will alter the
effective setting of bi-metallic traps, and if high
enough, will render impulse or thermodynamic
traps inoperative. The test is therefore not
entirely conclusive and the results must be
considered accordingly.
Sight glasses
An alternative is to observe the discharge through a
sight glass - a window fitted on the downstream
side of a trap. This method is generally effective in
the case of traps having a blast discharge since the
on/off characteristic is clear.
Temperature measurement
Although temperature-sensitive crayons and the
latest pyrometers have been used, these methods
are of limited use. However, they will detect a trap
causing serious waterlogging.
The temperature of the condensate and flash
steam on the downstream side of a correctly
working trap is normally around 100ºC. However,
since the temperature is controlled by the line
pressure, the condensate and live steam on the
downstream side of a defective trap will have
the same temperature. In this situation,
temperature measurement gives no guide to trap
performance.
Noise
While thermodynamic traps have a distinctive and
regular ‘click’, which can be detected by an
untrained ear, many traps have no distinctive signal.
24
Condensate and flash steam immediately
downstream of the trap orifice can sound the same
as condensate and live steam at the orifice. Both
sounds are affected by mass flow and pressure.
A defective trap under light load conditions gives a
lower signal than a correctly functioning trap under
full load conditions. However, a ‘scan’ across the
base of a trap can produce an astonishing spread of
different signals. Other problems arise due to
interference from the sound of adjacent traps
transmitted through the pipework. Ultrasonic leak
detectors can be effective with some traps,
although they may need careful tuning to match, or
suit, trap conditions.
Electrical conductivity
A recent device, which utilises the electrical
conductivity of condensate, involves fitting a sensor
chamber containing an inverted weir on the
upstream side of the steam trap.
When the steam trap is working normally,
condensate flows under the inverted weir which
has a small hole at the top to equalise the pressure
on each side. The presence of condensate is
detected by a sensor on the upstream side. The
completeness of the electrical circuit is checked by
plugging a lead from the sensor into a portable
indicator; a visual signal (green or red) indicates
whether the trap is working correctly or not. If the
trap fails in the open position, then a relatively large
volume of steam will flow towards the trap. This
depresses the water level on the upstream side of
the weir and exposes the sensor. The electrical
circuit is broken and the portable indicator signals
that the trap has failed.
This method has the advantage that a positive signal
is provided, which can be interpreted without the
need for experience or personal judgement. Use of
suitable wiring allows the test point to be installed
remotely from the sensor chamber. This can be
useful in the case of the traps located at high level or
in ducts which would otherwise be inaccessible.
Various versions of this equipment are also able to
identify traps that have gone cold due to a faulty
trap, a blocked strainer or a closed valve upstream.
Indirect method
Steam metering provides a ‘standard’ figure when
everything is operating correctly. A significant rise in
steam consumption therefore indicates that the
traps are beginning to pass steam. However, steam
metering usually applies to a relatively large
machine or area, making it difficult to determine
which particular traps are giving trouble.
Nevertheless, it is a useful prompt that individual
traps should be checked.
3.5.7 ROUTINE MAINTENANCE
OF TRAPS
Steam traps should be examined and, if necessary,
serviced on a regular basis. Although this approach
is applied routinely to larger pieces of plant, it is
rarely extended to steam traps.
The work depends on the type of trap. For
example, a balanced pressure thermostatic steam
trap has an element which is designed for easy
replacement. While changing these elements, say
every two years, may seem wasteful in terms of
time and materials, it removes the need for trap
checking and should ensure a trouble-free system
with no losses through defective traps.
To be cost-effective, routine maintenance should
25
include the renewal of any suspect parts. This
avoids spending time and materials cleaning and
reinstating partially-fatigued parts, such as bellows,
only to produce a trap that will require checking and
be prone to fatigue.
Generally it is only the internal moving parts which
will wear, as the body of the trap usually lasts as long
as the plant to which it is fitted. It is therefore
advantageous to be able to renew the internals of a
steam trap from time to time. The value of this
measure depends greatly on the ease with which
new parts can be fitted and the reliability of the
refurbished trap. The elements of most
thermostatic traps can generally be changed by
removing a screwed-in seat.
Replacement is simple and the remade trap reliable.
However, if the joint between the trap body and
the seat (the weakest point) has been allowed to
blow steam, remaking will be impossible.
Another factor is site conditions. Small float and
inverted bucket traps are designed so that the
cover, with the internals attached, can be taken to
the workshop for attention without the need to
disturb the pipework. This is preferable to renewing
the seats of inaccessible traps. welded into the
pipework.
On some sites, high labour costs will rule
out the repair of all but the largest traps.
In these cases, it is therefore essential
that the traps themselves can be changed
easily. While flanged connections provide one
solution, flanged traps are more expensive than the
equivalent screwed ones and the mating flanges are
an additional expense. Alternatively, traps with
swivel connections can be fitted; in this case, the
joint between the trap and the pipeline is
maintained by only two bolts.
3.6 STEAM LEAKS
Steam leaks cause a surprisingly large amount of
energy to be wasted.
STEAM LEAKS CHECKLIST
• Monitor safety valves and boiler crown
valves for passing steam. Monitoring the
vent pipes for excess temperature
serves as a quick check.
• Give high priority to repairing steam
leaks.
• Costs can soon mount up with only a few
leaking valve glands.
• Operate a documented system for
reporting and rectifying steam leaks.
Table 4 shows the approximate annual cost of
losses of 7 barg steam through holes of various
diameters. Because it is difficult to relate a leaking
flange gasket to a hole size, another commonly
referenced measure is the visible plume length of a
steam leak. Table 4 shows the expected plume
length for each hole diameter, based on 7 barg dry
saturated steam. Ambient conditions, including
background lighting, all serve to make this a very
approximate measure. Nevertheless, it is a useful
one. If a steam cost of 5c/kg is applied and the steam
Table 6:The cost of steam leaks (1998 prices)
Hole diameter(mm) Steam loss(kg/hour)
2 10
4 40
6 90
8 160
26
main is assumed to be live for 4,500 hours each
year, then the annual cost of steam leakage can be
calculated.
Visible steam leaks give employees the impression
that site management does not care about energy
efficiency. In the same way as leaving lights switched
on steam leaks do not motivate staff to save energy.
The main difficulty associated with rectifying steam
leaks is operational, as access to cold lines rarely
occurs at convenient times.
Techniques involving the pressure injection of fast-
setting resins into leaking flanges are available. Valve
selection also plays a part: a bellow design can
justifiably be used for critical valves in certain
process areas. This type of valve, which
incorporates a double seal, allows on-line removal
of the main gland, if necessary, without affecting
operations.
3.7 INSULATION
Insulating unlagged sections of pipework and fittings
is one of the simplest and most cost-effective ways
of increasing the energy efficiency of a heat
distribution system. The payback period is typically
less than a year.
Plume length(m) Annual cost(R)
0.7 225
1.5 900
1.8 2025
2.2 3600

INSULATION CHECKLIST
• Check insulation thickness regularly
and. as fuel prices increase, calculate
whether extra thickness is justifiable.
• Check for waterlogging as this reduces
insulation values.
• Check for loose fitting sections of
insulation as these allow air to circulate
between the insulation and the pipes.
• Cover hot liquid surfaces with either a lid
or a blanket of plastic balls. Measure the
surface temperature of all warm
surfaces regularly. As a rough guide, all
insulated pipes, insulated surfaces, bare
surfaces of tanks, etc. inside buildings
should be well below 60°C.
• Insulate steam supply pipes to unit
heaters, etc. left uninsulated on the
grounds that the heat loss contributes to
space heating. Without insulation,
overheating can occur in mild weather.
Heat losses at high level can also
accentuate temperature gradients
within a building.
3.7.1 COMPARATIVE ENERGY
COSTS OF UNINSULATED
AND INSULATED PIPEWORK
In this example, fuel costs are 5c/kWh, which was
about average for South Africa in 1998 although it
can vary widely from region to region, especially
with coal. The boiler efficiency is taken as 76%.
UNINSULATED PIPEWORK
If steam is fed from the hypothetical boiler through
an uninsulated 150 mm bore pipe to a 1 500 kW
user situated 100 metres away from the boiler, the
27
heat loss is 1.5 kW/metre.
The overall heat loss is 150 kW.
\ The amount of steam actually supplied from
the boiler house = 1 500 + 150 =1 650 kW
Final end-user efficiency = 1.500 x 76% = 69.1%
1.650
The revised energy cost = 5 = 7.24 c/kWh
0.691
INSULATED PIPEWORK
If the pipe were insulated with 100 mm of mineral
fibre, the heat loss would be reduced from 1,500
W/metre to 60 W/metre.
The overall heat loss is 6 kW for 100 metres.
\ The amount of steam actually supplied from
the boiler house = 1 506 kW
Final end-user efficiency = 1500 x 76% = 75.7%
1506
The revised energy cost = 8 = 6.61clkWh
0.757
Insulation has reduced pipework heat losses to
negligible amounts.
Improving or installing thermal insulation is one of
the simplest and most cost-effective ways of
achieving savings in a heat distribution system.
Improvements can generally be made without
interrupting operations.
3.7.2 CHOICE OF INSULATION
MATERIAL
Depending on the specific conditions and pipework
locations, different types of insulation are
available to enable a durable and effective
installation to be made. The following factors
should be considered when selecting an insulation
material:
• cost of both insulation material and
installation;
• resistance to physical damage;
• condensation;
• maximum temperature capacity;
• fire properties; and
• ease of maintenance, i.e. removability/
replaceability.
With most pipework pre-formed mineral wool
with aluminium cladding performs well. Flanges
should be either boxed in or given flexible covers.
Uninsulated pipes in an occupied area should never
be justified on the grounds that they may contribute
to space heating. Space heating should always be
controlled: a circulation pipe is not controlled
particularly if it is running continuously to serve
process needs from the same circuit. Space heaters
are designed to direct heat to an area through
radiation or directed convection currents. A hot
pipe at high level and next to a wall loses much
more heat through the roof than an possibly be
directed down to floor level.
• ambient temperature:
• cost of insulation material; and
• required payback period.
For a given return on investment, the lowest
combined cost of insulation and heat loss is
required. The heat loss graph given in Appendix 2
shows the heat losses for pipes with a surface
temperature of 1500C and 100 mm (4 inch)
nominal bore with different thicknesses of
insulation.
The cost of the heat loss over the selected
evaluation period, can then be compared with the
installation cost of different thicknesses of
insulation. Installation costs should be obtained
from an insulation supplier or contractor. Such
calculations demonstrate the substantial cost of
leaving pipes completely uninsulated and the
significant savings achieved by only 25 - 50 mm of
insulation.
3.7.4 INSULATING VALVES AND
FLANGES
All the flanges and valves should be included when
calculating heat loss from total lengths of

3.7.3 ECONOMICS OF INSULATING

PIPEWORK

The economic thickness of insulation for pipework

in heat distribution systems depends on:

• cost of fuel/heat:
• annual operating hours: Figure 17: Heat loss through unlagged
• pipework temperature and diameters: flanges (figure used with permission from TLV Co Ltd)

28
uninsulated pipework. In terms of heat loss, a flange
is equivalent to 0.5 metre of pipe, while a valve may
be equivalent to 1 metre of pipe. Insulating a pipe
reduces the heat loss by approximately a factor of
ten. Thus an uninsulated flange is equivalent to a five
metre length of insulated pipe and an uninsulated
valve is equivalent to ten metres of insulated pipe.
Although the pipework distribution system may
have excellent insulation on the pipes themselves.
all the flanges and valves may have been be left bare.
Completing the insulation with flange and valve
covers could halve distribution heat losses. Heat
loss through unlagged flanges is shown in Figure 15.
Insulation is one of the best ways of preventing leaks
because it reduces temperature differentials and
the stresses associated with them. Any leaks will still
become apparent very quickly.
A modified approach is required for both flange and
valve insulation. While it is generally a simple task to
remove standard mineral fibre insulation with its
aluminium pop-riveted cladding. It is often time-
consuming to refit it properly. The additional
expense of flexible and tailored valve covers with
quick-release fasteners for insulating pipe fittings is
worthwhile as they are much more likely to be
replaced. When employing contractors, their
written terms of reference should include a
requirement to replace insulation after working.
3.8 CONDENSATE RETURN
3.8.1 THE IMPORTANCE OF
CONDENSATE RECOVERY
Steam condenses after giving up its latent heat to
the process being heated. This condensate carries
with it a sizeable proportion of the original heat
29
content put in by the fuel - around 20%. It is
wasteful to throw this away so either an alternative
use for it must be found in another process or it
must be retained within the steam system.
Condensate that has not been in direct contact
with the process is chemically pure and therefore
needs little water treatment apart from pH
adjustment. Both water treatment costs and
blowdown losses can therefore be reduced.
The savings achieved by returning the condensate
can be calculated as shown below.
Step 1: Estimate the condensate quantity
returned per hour together with
temperature levels.
Step 2: Compute the quantity of heat
recovered
Q = W x 4.2 x (Th – Ta) kJ/hr
where W = the quantity of condensate
flowing/hour (kg/hr)
Th = the temperature of the hot
condensate (ºC)
Ta = the temperature of the make-
up water (ºC)
Step 3: Quantify the savings
S = (Q x N x FC) / (BE x GCV x 10)
where Q = the quantity of heat saved (kJ/hr)
N = annual operating hours
BE = boiler efficiency (%)
GCV= average gross calorific value of
fuel (kJ/kg)
FC = fuel cost (R/ton)
S = savings (R/year)
Experience from many industrial and commercial
sites has shown that much less importance is given
to the condensate recovery system than to the
steam system. All too often condensate is not
returned to the boiler house and is discharged to
drain. Investment in condensate recovery systems
including pipes, valves, transfer pumping equipment
and insulation has, on many occasions, been shown
to produce quick returns.
3.8.1.1 EXCEPTIONS
There are some exceptions usually associated with
large-scale sites where the capital cost of installing
and operating condensate collection is prohibitive.
One such exception usually occurs where there is a
relatively small load a long way from the boiler
house. Another exception is where the length of
pipe run, even when well insulated, is so long that
there would be no useful heat content left in the
condensate at the boiler house. In some cases,
however, it may still be economic to return cold
condensate over long distances because of the high
cost of raw water and feedwater treatment.
Even when it is uneconomic to return the
condensate to the boiler house, its energy content
should not be discarded unless there is no
alternative. The heat content of the condensate
can, for example, be used either directly or
indirectly for process hot water generation.
Unfortunately the condensate can sometimes
become contaminated by contact with some
other substance being processed. Contaminated
condensate, if returned to the boiler, often
results in fouling of the heat transfer surfaces,
thereby reducing efficiency. In the worst cases
catastrophic failure of the boiler can result from
overheating of the metal as a result of this fouling. In
most cases the amount of contaminated
condensate is small and does not justify the
30
expense of buying and maintaining heat recovery
equipment. In those exceptions where the
quantities are significant and where there is a use for
process hot water, a simple heat exchanger can be
used to avoid wasting the energy involved. It must
be remembered, however, that the heat exchanger
will also suffer from fouling by the contaminated
condensate, but regular cleaning should be simpler
to arrange in this situation.
The one rule that must apply, and which overrides
all considerations of energy conservation, is that
wherever there is any doubt as to the purity of the
condensate it must not be returned directly to the
boiler feedwater.
3.8.1.2 IN SUMMARY
THROW CONDENSATE AWAY -
THROW MONEY AWAY
3.8.2 SYSTEM DESIGN
3.8.2.1 PIPE SIZING
It is just as important to ensure that the correct size
of pipework is installed for the condensate as it is for
steam, and for basically the same reasons. If the pipe
is too small, more energy is needed to overcome
the back pressure generated within the system, i.e.
condensate pumps will need to generate higher
heads. If the pipe is oversized the installation cost
will be higher and the surface heat losses greater.
Accurate sizing of condensate pipework is much
more difficult than the equivalent for steam. Under
normal operating conditions some of the
condensate will ‘flash’ to steam in the pipework.
 Table 7: Condensate/Flash Steam Capacity in Relation to Pipe Size

Pipe sizeMm CapacityKg/h

15 160
20 370
25 700
32 1 500
40 2 300
50 4 500
65 9 000
80 14 000

The proportion involved is normally small in weight recover it at a lower pressure and to use it
but occupies a relatively large volume, and an elsewhere within the process. The alternative is to
understanding of this form of two-phase flow is install a closed pressurised condensate return
required when determining the correct pipe size. system. Such systems are, however. expensive to

Fortunately, years of practical experience have install because every piece of equipment must be
produced a rule of thumb that all condensate able to withstand the high pressures involved.
pipework should be sized for water flow under Furthermore, many components within such a
start-up conditions. Under these conditions steam system form pressure vessels and so are subject to
condenses rapidly and the consumption will be at insurance inspection.
least twice that of normal operation. Experience
has shown that pipes sized in this way will be In summary:
adequate to carry the mixed flash steam and
condensate under operating conditions. UNDERSIZED PIPES
• Wasted Energy In Pumping
Table 5 gives the maximum capacity of pipes in OVERSIZED PIPES
common practice. This is based on a pressure drop • Higher Surface Heat Losses
of 0.8 mbar per metre run of pipe.

However Table 5 and the rule of thumb given

3.8.2.2 LAYOUT
above only apply for steam system pressures up to
14 bar. At higher pressures the quantity of extra
In a well designed system, the condensate return
flash steam occurring in the pipework is much
will not impose an unreasonable back pressure on
greater and requires the condensate pipework to
the steam traps. This is essential, especially during
be even more generously sized.
start-up when the traps have to vent first large
quantities of air from the system and then large
The best way of dealing with the additional flash
volumes of water.
steam occurring in high pressure systems is to

31
It is rarely possible to gravity feed condensate back Steam traps
Condensate Vent
to the boiler feed tank. It is conventional to install
condensate receivers at low level, thereby Float
Electrical circuit
minimising the back pressure on the steam traps,
and then to pump the condensate back to the Condensate return
boiler house. Either electric pumps, as shown in Receiver
Figure 18, or an automatic pumping trap, as shown
in Figure 19, can be used. Whichever is selected, it Pump
must be able to cope with condensate that is near
Figure 18: Electric condensate return pump
its boiling point. All condensate collecting vessels (figure used with permission from TLV Co Ltd)
should be properly vented because they are not Vent pipe
manufactured as pressure vessels and cannot
withstand full steam pressure when a steam trap Condensate return
from steam traps
fails.

Vented
Lifting Condensate receiver

Gate valve for Steam

All good reference books state that condensate isolating pump Discharge
should never be lifted from a low level outlet to a
Strainer
high level collecting vessel or pipe. In practice,
however, often the only convenient place to install
condensate pipework is at high level. Figure 20
shows the typical arrangement for lifting
Figure 19: Pumping trap for
condensate and indicates the position of a check condensate return
(figure used with permission from TLV Co Ltd)
valve which is essential.
Condensate
return
The steam pressure at the trap has itself to be used
to lift the condensate. The condensate exerts a
back pressure of 1 bar for each 10 metres of lift. This
in turn reduces the pressure differential across the Steam
trap which means that it can pass less condensate. If
6m
a trap has to lift condensate 10 metres from a vessel (20ft)
with steam at 3 bar, it can only pass approximately
65% of the amount it would pass if the condensate
were to be discharged to atmosphere. To
overcome this problem larger steam traps must be
used. Steam trap
Jacketed pan Check valve

If the differential pressure across the trap is allowed 5.5 bar (80 psi) 0.7 bar (10 psi)
Back pressure
to fall too low it will not operate, especially under
Figure 20: Lifting of condensate
start-up conditions, and this will result in (figure used with permission from TLV Co Ltd)

32
 Table 8: Suction Head Required for Various feedwater inlet to the boiler. Table 6 shows the
Feedwater Temperatures minimum height differences required for various
feedwater temperatures.
Temperature (ºC) Suction Head (m)

86 1.5
90 2.1
95 3.5 3.8.3 CONDENSATE INSULATION
100 5.2
It is not uncommon to find that, whereas steam
pipework is insulated, condensate pipework is not.
Although condensate lines are at a lower
waterlogging. Another instance where this quite temperature, the main object of a condensate
often occurs is where thermostatic control of a recovery system is to recover the heat, so all
process vessel such as a jacketed-pan is required. If condensate pipework should be insulated.
this is achieved by throttling the steam supply the
steam pressure falls too low to operate the trap. Table 7 shows the loss from bare pipes. Under
average conditions, insulation will reduce this loss
Feed Pump Problems by about 7%.

Improving the amount of condensate returned to
the boiler house may lead to other problems. The
feed tank temperature will now be high and this
may result in problems of cavitation and vapour
locking at the boiler feed pump. To overcome
these problems the pump must have sufficient net
positive suction head: this, in simple terms, can be
expressed as the height of the feed tank above the
The boiler feed tank into which the condensate is
finally delivered should be adequately insulated and
fitted with either:
- a lid containing a vent to atmosphere;
- a floating blanket of hollow plastic balls on the
surface of the water. These prevent heat loss from

Table 9: Heat emission from pipes

Theoretical heat emission from a single horizontal bare steel pipe free
exposed in ambient air at temperatures between 10ºC and 20ºC.W/m
Temperature Pipe size
difference
ºC 15mm 20mm 25mm 32mm 40mm 50mm 65mm 80mm 100mm
55 59 70 88 110 118 150 180 210 260
60 66 78 98 120 130 170 200 230 290
70 80 95 120 160 160 200 240 280 350
80 96 110 140 170 190 240 290 330 410
90 110 130 160 200 230 270 330 380 480
100 130 150 190 230 260 320 390 450 550

33
 Plain lid loss Open top still air (1-1,2m/s 3-4 fps)
Loss 47,500w (162,000 Btu/hr
3.977w
Lagged Tank 1,8 x 1,8 x 0,9m
tank loss with 0,76m of water at 96°C
645w ambient temperature 21°C
50mm 5 tons of coal
2,5 tons of fuel oil 34 tons of fuel oil
Lagging
or 125 GL of gas or 1,500 GL of gas
Figure 21: Effect of insulation of Condensate Tank
(figure used with permission from TLV Co Ltd)
3.9 FLASH STEAM
HEAT RECOVERY
Flash steam is as good, as useful and often drier than
steam which comes direct from a boiler. In many
situations it can be recovered and put to good
economic use with the aid of simple equipment.
When steam condenses in a pipe or vessel, it forms
condensate which is at the same temperature as the
steam.
3.9.1 EXAMPLE
The steam tables in Appendix 1 show that if the
pressure is 7 bar, the temperature of the condensate
will be 170ºC and will hold 719 kJ/kg of sensible heat.
Water at nominal atmospheric pressure cannot be
above 100ºC, the temperature at which it boils.
Thus the water enters the trap with 719 kJ/kg and
leaves with 419 kJ/kg, a difference of 300 kJ/kg which
the water cannot retain. Part of this energy is used up
in re-evaporating some of the water and turning it
into steam. This is what is called ‘flash’ steam. The
greater the difference between the initial pressure
and the flash recovery pressure, the larger the
quantity of flash steam available.
In general, the standard methods of condensate
Increased 21/2 times
by a 16 Km/hr recovery make no real use of the heat in the flash
breeze
steam which is available at the steam traps. The
correct way to use the flash steam, and at the same
Bare tank
loss time to get over many of the difficulties of
8,110w
condensate which is too hot to handle, is to fit a flash
vessel either in the common condensate return
system or after the traps on big high pressure steam-
61 tons of coal using units. The flash given off from this can be taken
to a low pressure system or unit. Figure 24 shows a
simple layout.
Condensate at high pressure passes through the
traps A to the flash vessel B. The flash vessel is at a
lower pressure so that some of the condensate
flashes to steam as it leaves the traps. Figure 22
shows how much flash steam is available under
various operating conditions.
The important basis of flash steam formation is the
temperature and heat content of the condensate as
it leaves the trap. If thermostatic traps or any other
types are used which hold back the flow of
condensate until it has given up some of its sensible
heat, allowance must be made in calculating the
amount of flash steam available. It must also be
realised that recovery of flash steam at a low
pressure imposes a similar back pressure on the
general condensate return system. This could be of
importance where the high pressure plant is
thermostatically controlled.
The flash steam formed at the traps travels with the
condensate along the return lines. If the pipes are
uninsulated much of the steam will condense and
the heat will be lost to the air. If the pipes are
insulated, quite a lot of steam will reach the feed
tank.
If the condensate return is above the water level, the
flash will escape to the air; if the return is below the
34
 Figure 22: kg of flash steam per kg of condensate
(figure used with permission from TLV Co Ltd)

Flash steam

Relief valve
Pressure guage

Condensate and
flash steam

Steam trap

Strainer Condensate

Figure 23: Flash vessel

(figure used with permission from TLV Co Ltd)

water level, the flash may be condensed and the The flash steam is lead away through C and
temperature of the feed will be raised. This will only the residual condensate from B is led away through
happen, however, if there is a considerable the steam trap D, which should preferably be of the
percentage of cold make-up. float type with continuous discharge. The flash

35
vessel should be fitted with a pressure relief valve to Reducing valve
prevent excess pressure build up should the
demand for low pressure steam drop below the Bay1 Bay2 Bay3 Bay4 Bay5
HP HP HP HP HP
rate of flash formation. Ideally, the flash vessel
should be fitted in a situation where there is a
Flash vessel
continuous demand for all the flash available. LP Condensate return
Maximum heat recovery is best obtained by
keeping the system pipework to a minimum, thus
avoiding unnecessary heat losses. Figure 24: Method of using flash steam
in a heating system
(figure used with permission from TLV Co Ltd)
For this reason a number of small, self contained
recovery units around the plant are generally better flash heat recovery, where the flash steam can be
than one major unit. The flash vessel and all used advantageously in the initial design of the
interconnecting pipework should be insulated. system. If the building to be heated consists of five
bays, then four hays can be served with high
pressure (HP) steam from which flash steam is
3.9.2 EXAMPLES OF FLASH recovered to serve the fifth bay with low pressure
STEAM HEAT RECOVERY (LP) steam, as shown in Figure 24. In this way the
capital cost is kept reasonably low with the
There are good and obvious reasons for advantage of getting the full latent heat out of the
introducing flash recovery into existing plant, but it system.
is much better to incorporate it as part of the
original design.

A heating system can be a good example of building

36
 APPENDIX 1: STEAM TABLE

STEAM TABLE (SI Unites)

Specific Enthalpy Specific

Volume
Pressure Temperature Water Evaporation Steam Steam
(bar) (ºC) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (m3/kg)
Absolute
0.30 69.10 289.23 2,336.1 2,625.3 5.229
0.50 81.33 340.49 2,305.4 2,645.9 3.240
0.75 91.78 384.39 2278.6 2663.0 2.217
0.95 98.20 411.43 2261.8 2673.2 1.777
Gauge
0 100.00 419.04 2257.0 2676.0 1.673
0.10 102.66 430.2 2250.2 2680.4 1.533
0.20 105.10 440.8 2243.4 2684.2 1.414
0.30 107.39 450.4 2237.2 2687.6 1.312
0.40 109.55 459.7 2231.3 2691.0 1.225
0.50 111.61 468.3 2225.6 2693.9 1.149
0.60 113.56 476.4 2220.4 2696.8 1.083
0.70 115.40 484.1 2215.4 2699.5 1.024
0.80 117.14 491.6 2210.5 2702.1 0.971
0.90 118.80 498.9 2205.6 2704.5 0.923
1.00 120.42 505.6 2201.1 2706.7 0.881
1.10 121.96 512.2 2197.0 2709.2 0.841
1.20 123.46 518.7 2192.8 2711.5 0.806
1.30 124.90 524.6 2188.7 2713.3 0.773
1.40 126.28 530.5 2184.8 2715.3 0.743
1.50 127.62 536.1 2181.0 2717.1 0.714
1.60 128.89 541.6 2177.3 2718.9 0.689
1.70 130.13 547.1 2173.7 2720.8 0.665
1.80 131.37 552.3 2170.1 2722.4 0.643
1.90 132.54 557.3 2166.7 2724.0 0.622
2.00 133.69 562.2 2163.3 2725.5 0.603
2.20 135.88 571.7 2156.9 2728.6 0.568
2.40 138.01 580.7 2150.7 2731.4 0.536

37
 Specific Enthalpy Specific
Volume
Pressure Temperature Water Evaporation Steam Steam
(bar) (ºC) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (m3/kg)
2.60 140.00 589.2 2144.7 2733.9 0.509
2.80 141.92 597.4 2139.0 2736.4 0.483
3.00 143.75 605.3 2133.4 2738.7 0.461
3.20 145.46 612.9 2128.1 2741.0 0.440
3.40 147.20 620.0 2122.9 2742.9 0.422
3.60 148.84 627.1 2117.8 2744.9 0.405
3.80 150.44 634.0 2112.9 2746.9 0.389
4.00 151.96 640.7 2108.1 2748.8 0.374
4.50 155.55 656.3 2096.7 2753.0 0.342
5.00 158.92 670.9 2086.0 2756.9 0.315
5.50 162.08 684.6 2075.7 2760.3 0.292
6.00 165.04 697.5 2066.0 2763.5 0.272
7.00 170.50 721.4 2047.7 2769.1 0.240
7.50 173.02 732.5 2039.2 2771.7 0.227
8.00 175.43 743.1 2030.9 2774.0 0.215
8.50 177.75 753.3 2022.9 2776.2 0.204
9.00 179.97 763.0 2015.1 2778.1 0.194
9.50 182.10 772.5 2007.5 2780.0 0.185
10.00 184.13 781.6 2000.1 2781.7 0.177
10.50 186.05 790.1 1993.0 2783.3 0.171
11.00 188.02 798.8 1986.0 2784.8 0.163
11.50 189.82 807.1 1979.1 2786.3 0.157
12.00 191.68 915.1 1972.5 2787.6 0.151
12.50 193.43 822.9 1965.4 2788.8 0.148
13.00 195.10 830.4 1959.6 2790.0 0.141
13.50 196.62 837.9 1953.2 2791.1 0.136
14.00 198.35 845.1 1974.1 2792.2 0.132

38
 APPENDIX 2: EFFECTS OF INSULATION THICKNESS
ON HEAT LOSS FROM PIPES

The effects of varying insulation thicknesses on the amount of heat lost from different diameter
o
pipes with a surface temperature of 150 C are shown below.

6000 8000 1000

BARE PIPE

4000
2000
600 800 1000

Heat loss
25

400
100 88 75 63 50 38

200
40 50 60 70 80 90 100
INSULATION THICKNESS (mm)

30
20
10 W/m
500
450
400
350
300

250

200

15
150

125

100

80
65

50

40
32

25

20

10

Nominal bore (mm)

Heat loss for pipes with a surface temperature of 150oC with varying insulation thicknesses

39
 APPENDIX 3: GLOSSARY

Blowdown High pressure water at the steam saturation temperature. Released from a steam
boiler to control sludge and total dissolved solids.

Boiling Point The temperature at which water boils to form steam. This temperature increases as
the pressure is increased.

Cavitation Local boiling at pump inlets caused by pressure reduction. Resulting bubbles reduce
pump efficiency cause noise and damage the pump.

Check Valves Non-return valves inserted into lines to prevent reverse flow.

Condensate The liquid which is formed as steam condenses. Ideally pure water.

CrownValve The valve at the steam outlet of a boiler. (Historically on the top or “crown” of the
boiler).
Demineralisation Removal of inorganic contaminants found in water.

Desuperheater A device where water is added to return steam to saturated conditions.

Dryness Fraction A measure of how much water is entrained in the steam. Most boilers can achieve a
Dryness fraction of 0.98 (i.e. 2% entrained water droplets), but typically operate at
0.96 to 0.97.

Dry Steam Steam containing no water droplets.

Flash Steam The steam produced when the pressure of hot condensate is reduced.

Heat Content The enthalpy of a system. Given by H = U + PV where U is the internal energy.
P is the pressure and V is the volume of the system.

Hydraulic Head The pressure exerted by a column of water.

Latent Heat Heat that changes the state of a substance with no accompanying temperature rise.
When water is changed into steam, the heat is also known as the Enthalpy of
Evaporation.

Sensible Heat Heat that increases the temperature of the water or steam with no change of state.

SpecificVolume The volume (m3) occupied by 1 kg of steam at a given pressure. This of Steam
volume decreases as the pressure rises.

Steam Separators Devices used to remove entrained water droplets from wet steam.
or Dryers
SteamTraps Mechanical devices used to remove condensate (as it is formed) from pipes or plant.

40
Superheated Steam Steam to which sensible heat has been added to increase its temperature to above its
boiling point.

Thermal Fluids Generally mineral oils with high heat capacities that can be used as alternatives to
steam or hot water for process heating in the range 200 - 4000C.

Thermal-siphon The natural circulation that occurs in a system due to changes in Effect density as the
water is heated on one side of a pipe circuit.

Water Hammer The result of condensate being pushed, by steam pressure, down pipes as solid slugs.

Waterlogging The effect that occurs when the condensate that is formed cannot be removed
quickly enough and the pipe or vessel fills up with water, preventing steam from
entering.

Wet Steam A mixture of steam and water droplets.

SOURCES OF

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FURTHER
INFORMATION

For the latest news in energy efficiency technology:

“Energy Management News” is a free newsletter issued by the ERI, which contains
information on the latest developments in energy efficiency in Southern Africa and
details of forthcoming energy efficiency events.

Copies can be obtained from:

The Energy Research Institute

Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of Cape Town
Private Bag
Rondebosch 7701
Cape Town
South Africa
Tel No: (+27 21) 650 3892
Fax No: (+27 21) 686 4838
E-mail: 3E@eng.uct.ac.za
Website: http://www.3e.uct.ac.za

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