PETRONAS TECHNICAL STANDARDS

HEALTH, SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENT

DECOMMISIONING, REMEDIATION AND

RECLAMATION OF ON-SHORE E & P SITES

(GUIDELINE)

PTS 60.3401
JUNE 2006

1 JUNE 2006
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 PREFACE

PETRONAS Technical Standards (PTS) publications reflect the views, at the time of publication, of
PETRONAS Group of Companies and joint Ventures.

They are based on the experience acquired during the involvement with the design, construction, operation
and maintenance of processing units and facilities. Where appropriate they are based on, or reference is
made to, national and international standards and codes of practice.

The objective is to set the recommended standard for good technical practice to be applied by PETRONAS'
Group of Companies and Joint Ventures in oil and gas production facilities, refineries, gas processing plants,
chemical plants, marketing facilities or any other such facility, and thereby to achieve maximum technical
and economic benefit from standardisation.

The information set forth in these publications is provided to users for their consideration and decision to
implement. This is of particular importance where PTS may not cover every requirement or diversity of
condition at each locality. The system of PTS is expected to be sufficiently flexible to allow individual
operating units to adapt the information set forth in PTS to their own environment and requirements.

When Contractors or Manufacturers/Suppliers use PTS they shall be solely responsible for the quality of
work and the attainment of the required design and engineering standards. In particular, for those
requirements not specifically covered, the Principal will expect them to follow those design and engineering
practices which will achieve the same level of integrity as reflected in the PTS. If in doubt, the Contractor or
Manufacturer/Supplier shall, without detracting from his own responsibility, consult the Principal or its
technical advisor.

The right to use PTS rests with three categories of users :

1) PETRONAS and its affiliates.

2) Other parties who are authorised to use PTS subject to appropriate contractual arrangements.
3) Contractors/subcontractors and Manufacturers/Suppliers under a contract with users referred to
under 1) and 2) which requires that tenders for projects materials supplied or - generally - work
performed on behalf of the said users comply with the relevant standards.

Subject to any particular terms and conditions as may be set forth in specific agreements with users,
PETRONAS disclaims any liability of whatsoever nature for any damage (including injury or death)
suffered by any company or person whomsoever as a result of or in connection with the use, application or
implementation of any PTS, combination of PTS or any part thereof. The benefit of this disclaimer shall
inure in all respects to PETRONAS and/or any company affiliated to PETRONAS that may issue PTS or
require the use of PTS.

Without prejudice to any specific terms in respect of confidentiality under relevant contractual arrangements,
PTS shall not, without the prior written consent of PETRONAS, be disclosed by users to any company or
person whomsoever and the PTS shall be used exclusively for the purpose they have been provided to the
user. They shall be returned after use, including any copies, which shall only be made by users with the
express prior written consent of PETRONAS. The copyright of PTS vests in PETRONAS. Users shall
arrange for PTS to be held in safe custody and PETRONAS may at any time require information satisfactory
to PETRONAS in order to ascertain how users implement this requirement.

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 AMENDMENTS RECORD SHEET

Chap Sect Description Issue Date Rev Date App by:

No. No. No. No. (initial)

All All PTS 60.198 Decommissioning 1 Sept 0 0 IGA

Remediation & Reclaimation 04

Chap Sect Description Issue Date Rev Date App by:

No. No. No. No. (initial)

All All PTS 60.3006 Decommissioning 1 June 0 0 IGA

Remediation & Reclaimation Of 05
On-shore E & P Sites

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CONTENTS 4.4 Considerations Relevant to
1 Introduction 6 Remediation and
1.1 Scope 6 Reclamation in Specific
1.2 Purpose of the Guidelines 6 Environments 52
1.3 Structure of the Guideline 7 4.4.1 Tundra 52
2 Program Planning 9 4.4.2 Boreal Forests 54
2.2 Community Contacts 10 4.4.3 Wetlands 54
2.3 Land Use Objectives 11 4.4.4 Tropical Rainforest 56
2.4 Decommissioning 4.4.5 Arid Environments
Objectives 11 (Savannah and Desert) 57
2.5 Remediation Objectives 13 4.4.6 Agricultural Lands 58
2.5.1 Generic Criteria 13 4.4.7 Urban Settings 60
2.5.2 Site-Specific Criteria 14 5 Monitoring 62
2.6 Reclamation Objectives 17 5.1 Confirmation of
2.7 Development of Worker Remediation Success 62
Occupational Health and 5.2 Confirmation of Reclamation
Safety Plan 18 Success 62
3 Heading 1 level 20 5.3 Post-Remediation and
3.1 Site Information Assessment 20 Reclamation Monitoring 64
3.1.1 Scope 20 6 Considerations for Future
3.1.2 Sources of Information 22 Decommissioning and
3.2 General Site Characterisation 22 Reclamation 65
3.2.1 Investigative 7 References 68
Techniques 22 Glossary of Terms 73
3.2.2 Suitability of Soil and
Plant Materials for Use Appendices
in Reclamation 27 A Generic Assessment and
3.2.3 Preliminary Sampling Remediation Criteria 79
and Analysis 28 B Sources of Information for
3.2.4 Data Evaluation 32 Site Information Assessment 82
4 Program Implementation 34 C Checklists for General Site
4.1 Decommissioning 34 Characterisation of a Typical
4.1.1 Well Abandonment 36 Well Site 86
4.1.2 Removal and Disposal D Sampling and Analytical
of Contaminated Procedures 110
Materials and Residues 38 E Remediation Technologies
4.1.3 Equipment Removal for Soils and Groundwater
and Disposal 38 Contaminated with
4.1.4 Pipeline Abandonment 39 Hydrocarbons and Salts 116
4.1.5 Containers 40
4.1.6 Utilities 40
4.1.7 Road Removal 40
4.2 Remediation 41
4.3 Heading 2 level 43
4.3.1 Surface Preparation and
Site Contouring 44
4.3.2 Installation of Drainage
and Erosion Control
Structures 47
4.3.3 Revegetation 49
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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 Overview of Decommissioning, Remediation and Reclamation

Figure 2 Key Components of the Evaluation Phase

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Guidelines for Selection of Remedial Criteria

Table 2 Issues to be considered in development of Worker Occupational Health and
Safety Plan
Table 3 Utilisation of Typical General Site Characterisation Information
Table 4 Typical Geophysical Survey Methods
Table 5 Onsite Methods used to analyse Soil or Water
Table 6 Parameters useful for Soil Reclamation Assessment
Table 7 Typical Analytical Parameters for Oil and Gas Production and
Petrochemical Sites
Table 8 Decommissioning of Facilities
Table 9 Commonly used Remediation Technologies for Facilities
Table 10 Reclamation Strategies for various Facilities
Table 11 Erosion Control Measures
Table 12 Guide for Diversion Berm Spacing
Table 13 Criteria for Assessing Reclamation Success
Table 14 Preventative Measures for Reducing Decommissioning, Reclamation and
Reclamation Costs.

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1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 SCOPE

These guidelines have been prepared for oil and gas and petrochemical companies
to provide information on decommissioning, remediation and reclamation of on-
shore oil and gas exploration and production and petrochemical sites.
Decommissioning, remediation and reclamation programs should be prepared on a
site-specific basis. The guidelines therefore promote flexibility in planning by
recognising a range of environmental conditions, which could be encountered by
oil and gas and petrochemical operations worldwide. These guidelines will have
particular relevance in those countries where regulations concerning
decommissioning, remediation and reclamation are not yet developed.

The following terms are defined for the purposes of these guidelines:

Decommissioning: facility closure followed by removal of process equipment,

buildings and structures. This includes the plugging and abandonment of wells.

Remediation: the management of contaminated soil, surface water and

groundwater to prevent, minimise or mitigate risks to public health and safety of
the environment.

Reclamation: the actions required to return a site to a pre-determined land use that
meets company, government and/or local needs.

Further definitions are provided in the Glossary of Terms.

1.2 PURPOSE OF THE GUIDELINES

The purpose of these guidelines is to provide information on the steps necessary to

plan and implement decommissioning, remediation and reclamation programs.
They are particularly relevant for exploration sites, small oil and gas production
sites and petrochemical sites and have been developed for use by OPU/JV
company field supervisors and regulatory agency personnel. The guidelines are not
intended to provide a prescription for implementation of decommissioning,
remediation and reclamation programs. This can be achieved through development
of a detailed site or project decommissioning plan with assistance of advisors and
in consultation with relevant regulatory agency and community representatives.

The specific objectives of these guidelines are:

- To outline a phased approach for developing and implementing a

decommissioning, remediation, reclamation and monitoring plan for a given
site.

- To provide decommissioning, remediation and reclamation guidelines for the

types of operations and facilities relevant to the oil and gas and petrochemical
industries including: access roads, camp sites, drill sites, seismic lines, well
pads, oil and gas treatment and storage facilities, gathering lines, pipelines, gas
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 plants, petrochemical plants, waste disposal and/or treatment sites, pits, ponds
and dumps.

1.3 STRUCTURE OF THE GUIDELINES

Experience has shown that a phased approach to decommissioning, remediation

and reclamation is the most practical and cost effective. This phased approach
allows the level of investigative and remediation effort to be tailored to the size
and complexity of the problem. The required level of effort for decommissioning,
remediation and reclamation is dependent on the type, size and age of the sites,
historical waste management practices, the environmental and regulatory setting,
and the proposed future use of the property. The guidelines are presented in
sections that correspond to the phases of decommissioning, remediation and
reclamation:

* Planning (Section 2)

This section describes land use, decommissioning, remediation and reclamation

objectives and considerations relevant to program planning.

* Evaluation (Section 3)

This section outlines the steps for gathering information necessary to characterise a
site for planning purposes. These steps include undertaking site information
assessments, general site characterisations and detailed site characterisations.

* Implementation (Section 4)

This section describes measures that may be used to implement decommissioning,

remediation and reclamation programs.

* Monitoring (Section 5)

This section provides measures for confirmation of program success and

considerations for post-remediation monitoring.

An overview of the decommissioning and reclamation process is given in Figure 1.

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Figure 1 – Overview of Decommissioning, Remediation and Reclamation Process

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2 PROGRAM PLANNING

It is essential to execute decommissioning, remediation and reclamation activities

within the context of an overall plan. The main activities involved in developing
this plan are:

- determining regulatory requirements;

- developing a community involvement strategy;

- establishing land use objectives;

- determining decommissioning objectives;

- determining remediation objectives;

- determining reclamation objectives; and

- developing a worker occupational health and safety plan.

2.1 REGULATORY CONTACTS

Regulations relating to decommissioning, remediation and reclamation typically

address:

- planning and permitting;

- environmental protection; and

- health and safety issues.

Involvement of regulatory agencies at appropriate times is essential to obtain the

necessary consents and approvals. Typically the oil and gas and petrochemical
regulatory agencies will have the guidelines or prescriptive regulations on
abandonment of wells and other decommissioning activities. Thus the
jurisdictional issues usually involve the agencies responsible for oil and gas and
petrochemical regulation, environmental protection, water resources and public
health and safety.

It is important to provide for sufficient lead time in the decommissioning,

remediation and reclamation plan to ensure that approvals are obtained prior to
implementation of the field programs. A local government agency may require
information on the condition of the site, the remediation and reclamation program
to be undertaken and measures proposed for the protection of public health and the
environment. Regulatory agencies may be concerned with transportation and
disposal of contaminated material off-site, materials and equipment used and
workforce health and safety. Environmental protection legislation may require
compliance with air and water quality standards, waste management regulations
and remediation criteria.

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 Depending on the host countries regulatory requirement on the individual OPU/JV
company internal requirement, an Environmental Impact Assessment may need to
be prepared and approved prior to implementation.

2.2 COMMUNITY CONTACTS

The decommissioning, remediation and reclamation process encompasses social,

economic and political issues. Community concerns normally include:

- environmental and human health risks (e.g. those posed by surface water,
groundwater pollution, air emissions and transportation of contaminants);

- economic issues (e.g. local employment, effects on property values, impacts on

local industry and the value of infrastructure);

- social issues (e.g. effects on community image, aesthetics, alternative and

future land uses); and

- community issues (e.g. the vested interests of particular groups, responsibility

for site management and local control).

In developing countries, community concerns may also focus on more particular

issues, such as:

- access and use of scrap or waste materials from the site;

- reuse of buildings, structures, water supply systems and other similar facilities;

- land use and ownership rights (may be considered from an economic or social
perspective); and

- maintenance of temporary access (e.g. tracks, bridges, ferries, etc.).

Community involvement should be tailored to the specific needs and concerns of

the area and will be dependent on the scale of the project, the sensitivity of the site
setting and the political and regulatory environment. Key elements of a community
involvement strategy include:

- identifying the different interest groups (stakeholders) in the community;

- understanding legal or traditional land or water ownership and use rights;

- preparing a decommissioning, remediation and reclamation plan that permits

full consideration of program alternatives and mitigation of negative impacts
on the community;

- communicating as appropriate with local community representatives about the

decommissioning, remediation and reclamation program objectives; and

- considering opportunities for positive impacts on the community (e.g., through

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 turning over roads, ponds, local employment, etc.).

2.3 LAND USE OBJECTIVES

Future land use alternatives should be discussed with regulatory agencies and other
stakeholders as appropriate at an early stage in the planning process so that there is
common agreement on decommissioning, remediation and reclamation goals.

Some of the more common end land use objectives are:

- agricultural production;

- commercial forest production;

- wildlife habitat;

- natural growth or parkland areas;

- recreation;

- industrial development; and

- residential development.

2.4 DECOMMISSIONING OBJECTIVES

The objectives of decommissioning planning are to:

- identify facilities/materials requiring removal (e.g. stored raw materials,

chemicals and products, above or below ground piping, buildings, foundations,
instrumentation, electrical and mechanical equipment, roads);

- identify facilities required for future operations or the anticipated land use;

- identify all wells that must be abandoned;

- identify health hazards and develop appropriate procedures to minimise

exposure;

- identify operational and/or logistical constraints associated with

decommissioning;

- develop a contaminated material (chemicals, scales, sludges) removal strategy;

- develop a planned sequence for equipment removal; and

- develop safety procedures.

Decommissioning alternatives that may be considered are facility mothballing,

partial site decommissioning and complete decommissioning.

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 Facility mothballing applies where a facility is closed with the intention of future
reactivation. Building structures and equipment should be maintained in a state
where deterioration is minimised and reuse is possible. Access to the site should be
controlled and site conditions monitored on a regular basis. Produced fluids and
chemicals that could pose a hazard during the shutdown period should be removed.
Any existing contamination may need to be treated or controlled to ensure
compliance with applicable regulations and/or to prevent significant incremental
contamination.

Partial decommissioning can be used for progressive decommissioning over a

facility's life cycle. Progressive or phased decommissioning offers the following
potential benefits:

- the opportunity to re-use structures and equipment while they may still have
some useful service life;

- the incremental environmental degradation resulting from unremediated

contamination can be minimised;

- remediated land areas can be made available for facility expansions that might
otherwise occupy previously undisturbed lands;

- the cost effectiveness of various decommissioning, remediation and/or

reclamation strategies can be evaluated on a site specific basis before a
comparatively large scale, complete facility close out must be executed; and
- positive aesthetic impacts.

Alternatively partial decommissioning may simply involve leaving portions of the

facility in place after shutdown when this is compatible with the anticipated future
land use. For example, a land owner may prefer that most of a well site be
decommissioned except for the access road. In any case, partial decommissioning
should incorporate the same technical processes involved in complete
decommissioning.

Progressive decommissioning and restoration of facilities in North-West Australia

Construction of a Shelf Gas Project located on the Burrup Peninsula, north-west Australia
continued over a 10 year period. However all areas of the Peninsula temporarily disturbed by
construction were decommissioned and reclaimed as soon as their interim use ceased. A work
camp for 3,000 personnel was used for construction of two LNG trains. Facilities included the
barracks, sewage treatment plant, water supply and tanks, roads and recreational areas. The
work camp was located between rolling hills in an isolated site with no local population. The
site was rocky, hot and arid with plant cover consisting of scrub grass and few trees. The
objective was to return these areas to their previous environmental state. Areas reclaimed
included laydown areas, borrow pits, roads and a construction camp. Topsoil was carefully
recovered and stockpiled prior to construction activities commencing. After construction use,
all man-made structures were removed and the area recontoured to conform with surrounding
landforms. The conserved topsoil and vegetative material was then spread over the site and the
area deep ripped following surveyed contour lines. Slight berms were created across the
contour to collect runoff water in this arid environment. These became starting points for
vegetation reestablishment. Semi-annual botanical surveys carried out over a 3 year period
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 confirmed the success of the decommissioning and reclamation program.

There are three basic options for the disposition of equipment, infrastructure and
buildings:

- sale or donation of serviceable equipment and buildings;

- recycling of unserviceable equipment and clean demolition wastes as scrap; and

- disposal of unmarketable or contaminated material as waste.

The first two options are the most desirable given their potential for reducing overall
decommissioning costs and for limiting environmental impacts.

2.5 REMEDIATION OBJECTIVES

The objectives for site remediation are to ensure that the site:

- adequately protects human health, safety and the environment;

- is suitable for the proposed land use; and

- is aesthetically acceptable.

Remediation objectives are strongly influenced by the land use objectives

established for the site. For example, remediation requirements for agricultural
land uses are typically more stringent than for industrial land uses.

Remediation criteria can be used to determine when a site is contaminated, when

site remediation is necessary and when site remediation is performed to acceptable
levels. Remediation criteria are generally categorised into two groups: 1) Generic
Criteria; and 2) Site-specific Criteria. Some guidelines for selection of criteria are
provided in Table 1.

2.5.1 Generic Criteria

Generic criteria are non-site specific concentrations of contaminants in soil,

sediments, surface water or groundwater that are intended to reflect acceptable
levels of risk to human health or the environment. These generic criteria are
applicable to a wide range of sites and are sometimes referred to as "absolute"
because they are independent of site conditions. In most cases, these generic
guidelines are based on conservative assumptions and professional judgement.

There are generic criteria available from many jurisdictions that may be considered
for application (Appendix A). The various criteria demonstrate that there can be a
wide range of values that have been judged to be acceptable for a given chemical
of concern. The criteria values have generally been developed for a specific
environmental, social and regulatory context. As a result, these criteria may have
limited applicability outside the jurisdictions in which they were developed. An
owner or operator choosing to use such criteria in other jurisdictions should have a

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 clear understanding of how they were derived and their suitability for use outside
the jurisdictions where they were developed.

2.5.2 Site-Specific Criteria

The development of site-specific criteria often involves a risk assessment

undertaken to quantify human health and environmental risks posed by a site. The
site-specific criteria derived by this process may be referred to as "risk-based"
criteria because they are related to the probability of adverse human health or
environmental effects resulting from the presence of contaminants.

A risk assessment involves combining the contaminants' effects on humans and/or

the environment (e.g., the toxicity of the contaminant to human, plant or animal
life) with a measurement of the probability of exposure to the contaminant. This
process includes consideration of the relevant aspects of current and future human
habitation, soil and groundwater characteristics, the potential for contaminant
migration from the location and the interactions of the residual contaminant with
all the biological components of the ecosystem.

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Table 1 - Guidelines for Selection of Remediation Criteria

Sites where remediation may not be necessary or can be deferred

* There is no evidence of contamination, the concentration of any contaminants are not
significantly elevated above background levels or contaminant concentrations are less
than the absolute assessment criteria recognised by local regulatory authorities, or
industrial / international standard.
* Contamination is present, but has impacted modest material volumes and is permanently
isolated from people and/or sensitive environments.
* Situations involving jurisdictions that allow the responsible deferral of remedial action.
* Situations where natural attenuation will reduce contaminant levels to acceptable
concentrations within reasonable timeframes.
* Situations where remediation (through access or disturbance) will generate greater health
and/or environmental risks than leaving residual contamination in place.
Sites where generic remediation criteria may be appropriate
* Contaminated material volumes and remediation costs are not sufficient to justify the
time and expense associated with the development of site-specific risk-based criteria.
* Situations requiring quick remedial action.
* Situations involving stakeholders that will not be receptive to owner/operator developed
risk-based criteria.
* Situations involving jurisdictions that accepts above background residual concentrations,
which depend on land use.
Sites where risk-based remediation criteria may be appropriate
* Contaminated material volumes and remediation costs are high enough to justify the time
and expense associated with the development of site-specific, risk-based criteria.
* The time required to develop defensible risk based criteria does not result in significant
incremental environmental degradation.
* Situations involving stakeholders that will accept owner/operator developed risk based
criteria.
* Situations involving jurisdictions that do not recognise generic criteria or that will not
accept generic criteria above background levels.

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An adverse effect can only occur if the contaminant comes in contact with, and is
absorbed by, a receptor (human, animal or plant). The main exposure pathways between
life forms and a contaminant are:

- ingestion or plant uptake via soil, food or water;

- inhalation of vapours or contaminated dust; and

- direct contact of skin or plant surfaces with contaminated air, soil or water.

A wide variety of conceptual and mathematical models can be used to assess the pathways
by which the contaminant can potentially influence human health and/or the environment.
Each model has its own particular data requirements and limitations. This process assumes
a knowledge of tolerable risk levels in a population for acute and chronic exposures to
specific doses and an understanding of the doses which would result from exposure to soil,
water or air containing a given concentration of contaminants. 1 In an assessment of
human health risks, lifetime risks to individuals in a population are at issue. In ecological
risk assessment, risks to larger scale population balances in the ecosystem are considered
rather than risks to individual organisms.

Many risk assessment models have been derived for specific types of contaminants or for
specific portions of the environment. For example, the American Society for Testing and
Materials has developed a protocol entitled "Emergency Standard Guide for Risk-Based
Corrective Action Applied at Petroleum Release Sites" (RBCA). It is a step-by-step
approach, primarily to issues in the downstream sector of the petroleum industry, that
assesses human health risk from petroleum residues (or associated chemicals) at specific
sites 2. The tiered RBCA approach advocated is appropriate for analysing both simple or
complex situations with the appropriate level of resources. This protocol currently has
only a limited ecological component and is being adapted for E&P sites.

Use of Risk Assessment in Setting Remediation Goals

Two oily pit areas originating from the early 1900's had been abandoned by pushing in the
sides of the pits. As an adjacent city grew, the sites came under regulatory screening. A site
assessment and risk assessment were subsequently undertaken and a remediation plan
developed in consultation with regulatory agencies. Approximately 20,000 m3 of soil was
estimated to be contaminated with crude oil (greater than 3% TPH). The state had initially
recommended a cleanup level of 1% TPH but accepted a 3% TPH cleanup level based on the
findings of the risk assessment. This resulted in savings of about $300,000 in remediation
costs but still provided the required level of public protection.

It should be noted that it is not always necessary or desirable to develop site specific
criteria on the basis of detailed quantitative risk assessments. Depending on
contaminated material volumes and the anticipated costs of risk assessment, it may be
advantageous to apply non-generic standards that are readily available or comparatively
easy to assemble (e.g. background levels or standards demonstrated as acceptable in other
similar ecosystems). In addition, depending on the scale of the problem and/or sensitivity
of the local environment, relatively simple qualitative or semi-quantitative risk
assessments may be acceptable alternatives to more elaborate and time consuming
approaches.
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2.6 RECLAMATION OBJECTIVES

The broad objective of reclamation is to return the site to a land capability

equivalent to pre-disturbance conditions or to that of adjacent lands. The land
capability is defined as the ability of the land to support a given land use based on
characteristics such as topography, drainage, hydrology, soils and vegetation 3.
This approach allows for flexibility in setting land use objectives in that the
proposed future land use may be different from previous land uses or the adjacent
land use, provided the land capability is unchanged. Specific reclamation
objectives include the following:

- ensuring that the site is suitable for the proposed land use;

- ensuring that replaced soils (topsoil and subsoil) have a soil capability
sufficient to meeting the land use objective;

- contouring the land surface to meet the land use objective and to ensure
stability;

- protecting the land surface against wind or water erosion;

- providing for surface drainage;

- revegetating the land to meet the land use objective;

- re-establishing surface water resources to meet the land use objective; and

- ensuring that the site is aesthetically acceptable.

Although reclamation typically proceeds after decommissioning and remediation,

reclamation planning should be incorporated as early as possible into the overall
planning process. In addition, reclamation may be required at various times during
a project's life-cycle, not jut after facility shut down. For example, construction
activity typically disrupts considerably more land surface than is used during
facility operations. This means that at least partial reclamation will be necessary
many years before facility abandonment. These partial or phased reclamation
requirements may also become evident as portions of a producing field are shut
down for various operational reasons (e.g. high water cuts). These partial
reclamation needs emphasise the requirement to undertake some planning
comparatively early in a facility's life cycle. Indeed, some of this planning should
proceed in concert with the development of a project Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA) and environmental management plan. Guidance for these early
planning efforts can be found in (E&P Forum 55).

Failure to incorporate reclamation into decommissioning planning ultimately leads to

site degradation.
Exploration drill sites were located in mixed dipterocarp forest in Brunei. The drill sites of
approximately 4 to 5 ha were cleared of forest vegetation, levelled and paved with laterite at
the site of the drill rig. Storage pits were excavated to hold water and drilling mud. Upon
abandonment, after up to 18 months of drilling activity, the paving was removed and the
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storage pits infilled. No attempt was made to revegetate the abandoned sites. The result was
that 14 years after site abandonment over half the cleared area was still bare ground with
extensive erosion. The remainder of the site was covered with the coarse grass Imperata
cylindria. Natural revegetation of the abandoned drill sites by forest had not occurred 4.

2.7 DEVELOPMENT OF WORKER OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND

SAFETY PLAN

Prior to implementation of any field program, appropriate health and safety

protocols should be put in place to adequately manage the risks of incident from
physical, biological and chemical hazards to workers. This typically includes
development of a worker occupational health and safety plan as a part of the
overall planning process.

The main components of a typical plan include:

- a site characterisation describing the study location, project scope and duration;
- a hazard analysis describing potential chemical, physical, pathological and
safety hazards that are anticipated on the site;

- a description of the key personnel involved with the project, their

responsibilities with regard to health and safety (including designation of a
project health and safety coordinator and a site safety advisor) and a reporting
structure;

- requirements for personnel protection equipment (PPE);

- procedures for equipment and materials handling;

- site access protocols;

- requirements for controlling and monitoring personnel exposures and for

handling/storing chemicals, fuels and contaminated materials;

- a site safety protocol incorporating recommendations for personal conduct

(e.g. use of the "buddy system") and personal safety measures (e.g. security
arrangements during in-country travel and at living quarters).

- an emergency contingency plan describing the location of hospitals and clinics,

first aid procedures, emergency response procedures and an evacuation plan.

A summary of the issues to be considered in the development of a health and safety

plan are provided in Table 2.

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Table 2 - Issues to be considered in development of a Worker Occupational Health and
Safety Plan

Hazard Issue Worker Safety Plan

Electrical Underground and above ground
power cables.
Physical Unstable slopes; dangerous
debris; heavy machinery; surface
water; confined spaces; trenches,
excavators.
Noise Aesthetic impact and ear
damage.
Temperature Stress and heat exhaustion;
hypothermia.
Radiation Exposure to radiation from
NORM, LSA scale.
Pathological Disease, infections and parasites.
Chemical Explosion; fires; skin and eye
contact/irritants; inhalation and
ingestion (e.g., heavy metals,
acids, caustics, herbicides,
volatile organics, PCB's, other
chlorinated hydrocarbons,
asbestos, H2S).
Gas Underground public utility or oil
field pipelines.
Transportation Helicopter, air and road travel.
Requirements
Determine location of power cables
prior to drill programs or
excavation of pits; Safety protocols
and training.
PPE (hard hats, flotation devices);
pit/trench supports; safety protocol
and training; barriers and access
controls (marking/maps).
PPE (ear muffles); safety protocols
and training.
Safety protocols and training;
clothing.
Dosimeters to monitor exposure;
dust suppression; respirators; safety
protocols and training.
Inoculation; medical examination;
PPE (e.g. respirators, insect
repellents).
Determine locations of
underground pipelines prior to drill
programs or excavation of pits;
decontamination equipment and
clothing; vessel entry procedures;
control of ignition sources; PPE
(e.g. latex or neoprene gloves,
Tyvex suits, safety glasses, etc.);
dust suppression; respirators;
medical examination; prohibition of
eating, drinking and smoking on-
site; safety protocols and training.
Identification; demarcation; worker
instruction.
Equipment selection; safety
protocols and training.

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3 EVALUATION

The purpose of the evaluation phase is to gather information on facilities for

decommissioning, remediation and reclamation planning and implementation.
Evaluation may encompass up to three levels of investigation: site information
assessment, general site characterisation and detailed site characterisation (Figure
2). Evaluation of a given site may stop at the completion of any of the three levels
of investigation if sufficient information has been obtained to assess risks and
reclamation and decommissioning needs. An owner or operator can then proceed
directly with implementation.

3.1 SITE INFORMATION ASSESSMENT

The objectives of the site information assessment are to identify wells, facilities
and structures requiring decommissioning, to identify known or potential sources
of contamination and to identify reclamation requirements for the proposed land
use. The site information assessment identifies and defines environmental concerns
associated with a facility primarily through a desk study and a brief visual
inspection. Information (if available) should be reviewed back to the first property
use (i.e., prior to development) that may have affected site environmental
conditions. The effective identification and utilisation of existing knowledge is far
more economical than obtaining the knowledge from field programs and provides
an historic context that cannot be obtained by other means.

3.1.1 Scope

The site information assessment typically involves compiling and reviewing the
following information:

- site and facility description;

- well location and history;

- construction practices;

- development and operational history;

- location and history of fuel and chemical storage;

- waste production and disposal history;

- spill and leak history;

- environmental protection practices;

- environmental setting; and

- environmental monitoring records.

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Figure 2 - Key Components of the Evaluation Phase

21 JUNE 06
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The assessment scope will be dependent on the age and nature of the facility to be
decommissioned. For example, the available operational history will normally be more
extensive for petrochemical and gas processing plants than for a well site. If neighbouring
properties may affect, or be affected by the property they should be included in the site
information assessment. Where possible, an orientation visit to the site should be made, or
current photographs of the site examined, to provide an indication of the physical layout of
the site and to confirm the accuracy of available site and facility description information.

3.1.2 Sources of Information

Information on the ecological setting and operational history of the facilities or

individual well site can be obtained from a number of sources including owner or
operator records, government agency records, maps and reports (Table B1,
Appendix B). The assessor should document each source of information that is
examined, even if a source provided no findings or no response was received. In
many countries, some types of information (e.g., spill records, waste management
records, as built drawings) will be unavailable or unreliable. Current and historical
aerial photographs and satellite imagery can be used to identify physical features of
the site, site infrastructure and access, potential contaminant sources and current
and historic impacts.

Interviews with current and former employees with knowledge of the facility and
regulatory agency personnel are often one of the best sources of information.
Questionnaires in the local language can be provided to the relevant personnel
prior to any interviews. These should include requests for records, maps and site
plans and should cover the topics listed in Section 3.1.1.

3.2 GENERAL SITE CHARACTERISATION

The objectives of the general site characterisation are to confirm the findings of the
site information assessment and to provide site-specific inputs for
decommissioning, remediation and reclamation planning and implementation
(Figure 2). Typically a phased approach is used when undertaking field
assessments to characterise facilities. A general site characterisation (which is
usually a visual inspection with limited media sampling and analysis) may be
followed by a detailed characterisation which incorporates a more comprehensive
sampling and analysis program (Figure 2).

For many small oil and gas production sites (e.g. a well site or battery) a general
site characterisation may adequately establish environmental conditions and
provide sufficient information for decommissioning, remediation and reclamation
purposes. However, on larger or more complex sites, a more detailed sampling and
analysis program may be necessary.

3.2.1 Investigative Techniques

General site characterisations usually involve the use of simple techniques to

describe site conditions augmented with limited soil, surface water and
groundwater sampling and analyses.
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3.2.1.1 Site Inspection

Standard field assessment data sheets should be prepared prior to the site
inspection. These can be completed at each site and will provide for consistent
evaluations of conditions. An example checklist for a general site characterisation
is given in Appendix C. A description of how the information recorded can be used
is outlined in Table 3.

3.2.1.2 Geophysical Surveys

Geophysical survey methods that may have application for general site
characterisations are given in Table 4. These surveys can sometimes be helpful in
identifying general stratigraphic conditions, subsurface inorganic contamination
(e.g., groundwater contamination resulting from saline produced water), buried
metal structures (e.g., pipelines, underground storage tanks, buried drums, etc.) and
landfills. Geophysical methods can be used to reduce requirements for soil and/or
groundwater sampling and analysis. 5 However, these techniques are subject to
interferences from various natural and/or man-made phenomena that limit their
usefulness in some situations (e.g. variations in stratigraphy, adjacent metallic
structures and equipment). Local conditions should be evaluated carefully before
undertaking geophysical investigations .

3.2.1.3 Portable Instrumentation

Portable instrumentation can be used for preliminary characterisations of soil and

water conditions, particularly at remote sites (Table 5). Data from these
preliminary analyses should be compared with visual observations (soil staining,
patches of bare vegetation, hand auger logs) to describe the potential scale and
mobility of contamination. These instruments will provide an indication of the
relative severity of contamination at a given site but analyses for individual
parameters of concern will still be necessary to compare contaminant levels to
remediation criteria (see Section 2.5).

In some oil and gas fields, naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORMs) may
be present in the form of scale and sludge in production tubing, heater treaters and
salt water tanks 6. Where the presence of NORM is suspected, a sodium iodide
scintillation detector can be used to survey the exterior of production equipment at
selected sites using appropriate survey techniques 7, 8.

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 Table 3 - Utilisation of Typical General Site Characterisation Information
Type of Information
Site infrastructure (plants, wellheads, injectorStructures or process equipment which
wells, pits, lagoons, tanks, buildings, and
access roads).
Topography and surface drainage pattern.
Extent of surface disturbance and natural
recovery.
Adjacent land use and vegetation cover.
Hydrogeological Conditions
Location of surface water bodies and shore
lines.
Surface erosion, soil stability.
Fuels, chemicals and wastes present on site.
Contents of electrical equipment and hot oil
systems.
Storage tank/process equipment contaminant Types, locations, quantities and condition
inventory.
Spill and stain characterisation.
Pit inventory.
Soil resources present.
24
Use
require decontamination prior to removal
and disposal; potential sources of
contamination; structures that must be
removed or altered to allow natural drainage
across the site; access requirements.
Pathways for spread of contamination;
length and steepness of slopes determine
need for recontouring prior to revegetation.
Areas requiring reclamation; gravelled or
compacted road surfaces that require
removal or physical treatment prior to
revegetation.
Proximity to residents and other potential
receptors; determining land capability and
land use objectives; remediation objectives;
surface water and groundwater use in the
area; plant materials for use in revegetation.
Information on water table and aquifer
depths, subsurface stratigraphy and natural
groundwater quality is necessary to assess
the risks that contamination might pose to
both groundwater and surface water
resources.
May need to evaluate impacts of site
discharges on benthic communities and
sediment/water quality.
Need for recontouring, erosion control
measures.
Types, locations, quantities and condition
requiring removal or treatment.
Estimate volumes of PCB containing
materials and the potential for PCB
contamination of soils and waters.
requiring cleaning and/or removal.
Determine number of underground storage
tanks and evaluate the associated potential
for leakage.
Preliminary estimate of volumes of
contaminated soil from leaks and spills.
Types, locations, condition and contents of
pits that may require remediation.
Quantity and quality of suitable surface soil
(or organic amendments) available on or
near site for use in remediation and/or
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 reclamation of disturbed surfaces.
Surface water, spring and seepage (leachate) Local surface water and groundwater
characterisation. quality.
Location map of samples collected and Estimate of area and volume of
borehole/test hole logs. contaminated soil; rate of contaminant
movement.
Photographic log and site sketch. Historic and Location of significant spills or other soil
current aerial photos if available. staining; general layout of site infrastructure;
historic impacts on vegetation.

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Table 4 - Typical Geophysical Survey Methods
Survey Method Applications Advantages and
Disadvantages
Magnetometers (including Location of buried steel Magnetic surveys are easy to
vertical gradiometers) pipelines, vessels and casing perform with minimal
heads. training; depth limitation for
small objects.
Ground conductivity meters Mapping the extent of leaks Fast surveys are easily
or leaching from pits, ponds performed by one person;
and landfills; produced water depth of investigation ranges
leaks from pipelines; and from under 1 m up to about
aquifer contamination from 30 m; metal conductors
produced water. interfere with readings; little
or no data processing is
required for single frequency
systems.
Ground penetrating radar Can be used to locate oil Only effective when
leaks, old pits, trenches, large sufficient oil is present to
pipes and other structures. appreciably alter the
dielectric permissivity of soil
or groundwater; even a small
quantity of clay in the soil
will severely limit the depth
of penetration.

Source: (Young 9).

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Table 5 - Onsite Methods used to analyse Soil or Water
Method
Total organic vapour analyser
Portable Gas Chromatography/Mass
Spectrometry (GC/MS) Equipment
Indicator (Drager) tubes
Scintillometer
Conductivity meters
pH meters
Specific ion electrode
Enzyme immunoassay (e.g. ENSYS Penta
RISc System) and other (e.g. HNU-Hanby
alkylation reaction) test kits
Applicability
Provides a gross measure of total volatile
hydrocarbons; various analysers (using
flame ionisation or photo ionisation
detection) are available; measurement of soil
vapour concentrations can be used to
delineate extent of contamination where
volatile hydrocarbons are present.
Provides on-site quantification of volatile
organic compounds.
Indicator tubes are available for specific
substances (e.g., benzene, mercury vapour);
some other chemical substances may
interfere with results.
Measures gamma radiation levels; can be
used to detect presence of NORM.
Measures specific conductance of soil/water
suspension or water samples; indication of
total soluble salts.
Measures acidity or alkalinity of soil/water
suspension or water samples.
Can be used to measure specific ions (e.g.
chloride) which may indicate produced
water contamination; other chemicals may
interfere with results.
Quantitative or semi-quantitative methods to
indicate the presence of contaminants above
specified threshold limits; kits are available
for PCBs, BTEX, PAH, total petroleum
hydrocarbons and various pesticides. These
kits can be helpful for large scale site
screening where time constraints are factor
or in areas where laboratory capabilities are
unavailable or unreliable. Detection limits
are generally higher than laboratory methods
and these kits will therefore have limited
application where detection limits exceed
remediation standards.

3.2.2 Suitability of Soil and Plant Materials for Use in Reclamation

The end land use may require reclamation and revegetation of the site following
decommissioning and remediation. The capability of surface soils to support the
appropriate vegetation cover should be assessed during the general site
characterisation. This is particularly important where the end land use is
agricultural. Soil from undisturbed areas on the site should be examined to
determine horizon sequence and the thickness and depth of topsoil. The volume of
topsoil in storage piles should be estimated so that the availability for respreading
over disturbed areas can be calculated. Samples from the major soil horizons
27 JUNE 06
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 should be collected and analysed to determine the suitability and/or limitations of
in place soils for use in reclamation. Some of the key physical and chemical
properties that should be assessed and their desirable ranges are given in Table 6.

Plant materials such as seedlings, cuttings or leaf litter (which may contain seeds
of indigenous plant species) should also be assessed for their potential use in
revegetation efforts.

3.2.3 Preliminary Sampling and Analysis

A plan describing sample locations, equipment needs, sampling methods and

quality assurance/quality control (QA/QC) procedures should be developed before
sampling begins. However, the sampling plan should be sufficiently flexible to
permit adjustments during field activities. Problems such as restricted access,
equipment failure or unavailability, unanticipated subsurface conditions or adverse
weather conditions may necessitate program changes. An overview of sampling
procedures for soils, sludges, surface waters and groundwaters is given in
Appendix D.

For a general site characterisation, screening or indicator parameters can be used to

determine if contaminants are present. These should be selected to be relevant to
the location and situation at hand. Some indicator parameters suitable for general
assessments of the facilities are given in Table 7. Some non-routine screening
parameters such as extractable organic halides (EOX), polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs) or polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) may be included where
the site information assessment has indicated that they may be present. The
significance of these parameters as indicators of contamination is given below:

- pH - provides an indication of acidity or alkalinity when produced water, acid

or caustic spills are suspected.

- Electrical conductivity - provides evidence of salt contamination from

produced fluid spills.

- Chloride - provides evidence of salt contamination from produced fluid spills.

- ICP metals scan - provides evidence of contamination by metals (e.g.,

chromium, barium in some drilling muds, lead in pipe dope).

- Hg - provides evidence of mercury leakage from process instrumentation and

equipment flowline.

- Total petroleum hydrocarbons - assesses total purgeable and extractable

hydrocarbon levels to provide for preliminary evaluations of the toxicity and
mobility of hydrocarbon contamination.

- Extractable organic halides - provides evidence of contamination by

halogenated compounds that may be associated with some herbicides or
solvents.

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- PAH scan - provides evidence of contamination by toxic and persistent
compounds (polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons) sometimes associated with
flare pit sediments and process sludges.

- PCBs - provides evidence of contamination by toxic and persistent compounds

sometimes present in electrical transformers and capacitors.

29 JUNE 06
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 Table 6 - Parameters useful for Soil Reclamation Assessment
Soil Parameters Significance Desirable Range a
Texture Related to soil moisture and 20 to 80% sand; <50% clay;
nutrient holding capacity; <50% coarse fragment
susceptibility to erosion. content.
Consistency Related to soil workability Very friable to firm (when
(ploughing); susceptibility to moist).
erosion and compaction;
water infiltration and plant
root penetration.
Reaction (pH) Influences availability of pH 6-9.
nutrients to plants, solubility
of metals.
Salinity and Solidity Related to salt toxicity to Electrical conductivity (EC)
plants; plant moisture <4 dS/m b
availability; soil structure.
Sodium adsorption ratio
(SAR) <8-12 c
Organic Matter Related to soil moisture and 1-10%.
nutrient holding capacity;
soil structure.
Nutrients Macronutrient (N, P, K, S) Dependent on plant species.
and micronutrient
deficiencies may limit plant
growth.
Total Petroleum Related to plant growth and <1%.
Hydrocarbons (TPH) soil moisture

a These are general ranges, the owner or operator should determine their applicability to
a particular site and regulatory environment.

b If EC >4 dS/m is caused by ions other than sodium, soil structure may not be
negatively affected.

c SAR values above 8 indicate permeability problems in clay - textured soils, higher
SAR values may be needed to affect soils that contain less clay and more sand.

Sources: (API 10, 11), (Sims et. al. 12).

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Table 7 - Typical Analytical Parameters for Oil and Gas Production and Petrochemical
Sites

Soil/Sediment Samples
Routine: Salinity (EC, Na, K, Ca, Mg, SO4, Cl)
pH
Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons (TPH)
Metal Scan (including Ba, Pb, Cd, Hg, As,
Se, hexavelant Cr)
Non-Routine: Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)
Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP)
Elemental Sulphur
Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)
Benzene, Toluene, Ethylbenzene and
Xylenes (BTEX)
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)
Halogenated Volatile Organic Compounds
(VOCs)
Extractable Organic Halides (EOX)
Radioactivity
Glycols and Amines
Sterilant Scan
Water Samples
Routine (Field): Temperature
pH
Dissolved Oxygen
Conductivity
Routine (Laboratory) Total Alkalinity
Total Hardness
Total Dissolved Solids
Dissolved Cations, Anions
Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons (TPH)
Total Phenols
Total Nitrogen
Total Phosphorus
Total Organic Carbon (TOC)
Dissolved Organic Carbon (DOC)
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
Non-Routine: Metal Scan (including Ba, Pb, Cd, Hg, As,
Se, hexavelant Cr)
Benzene, Toluene, Ethylbenzene and
Xylenes (BTEX)
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)
Halogenated VOCs
Absorbable Organic Halides (AOX)
Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)

(a) Parameters should be selected on a site specific basis.

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3.2.4 Data Evaluation

Completion of the general site characterisation is a decision point determining

subsequent actions. If contamination on the site does not represent a significant
risk to public health and/or the environment (e.g. soil contamination is not severe
or widespread; surface water or groundwater resources are not in jeopardy) and
sufficient information is available on site structures, equipment and reclamation
resources, it is possible to proceed directly to development of a decommissioning,
remediation and reclamation plan (Figure 2).

If further information is required on the extent of contamination, hydrogeological

conditions and/or exposure pathways before remediation options or risk
management strategies can be determined, a detailed site characterisation may be
necessary.

3.3 DETAILED SITE CHARACTERISATION

The objectives of the detailed site characterisation are to delineate the boundaries
of contamination, assess contaminant pathways and to identify potential
decommissioning and remediation strategies (Figure 2).

The sampling strategy for a detailed site characterisation program should be based
on a working hypothesis (conceptual model) that identifies the major issues that
need to be addressed. Activities usually focus on areas of concern identified in the
general site characterisation. In contrast to the general site characterisation, sample
analyses typically focus on target chemical parameters. This is needed to provide
information on site contamination that can be evaluated against specific
remediation guidelines or for risk assessment activities. Target parameters used for
assessing contamination at oil and gas production or petrochemical sites are given
in Table 7.

A detailed site characterisation may also be required to provide further information

necessary for decommissioning planning. These additional studies may include:

- equipment interior inspections;

- evaluating equipment suitability for reuse or recycling; and

- sampling and analysis of scales, sludges, catalysts, transformer oils and process
fluids from vessels, tanks and piping.

Where necessary, detailed site characterisation should also include more

comprehensive evaluations of soil types and properties, hydrogeological
conditions, surface water and groundwater quality, local plant life and re-
revegetation resources (see Appendix D). In situations where significant
reclamation activity is anticipated, heavy equipment access requirements should be
assessed and the impacts on local environments and publics resulting from
reclamation activity evaluated.

32 JUNE 2006
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Detailed site characterisation may also incorporate reclamation field trials. These
trials might take the form of test plots or studies designed to evaluate:

- different methods of erosion control or slope stabilisation;

- different techniques for surface scarification;

- various recontouring angles; and

- different vegetation types, planting techniques or fertiliser mixtures.

Comparative data from test plots in areas where erosion, rapid vegetation or soil
fertility are concerns can help optimise reclamation programs and avoid expensive
rework and environmental damage. Test plots should be considered when activities
are being carried out on small areas adjacent to drilling, construction or production
operations before larger scale decommissioning and reclamation activities begin.

More comprehensive information relating to the execution of detailed site

characterisation programs can be found in (CCME 5, 46), (USEPA 43, 44) and
(Department of the Environment 45). The Malaysian EQA may be used in
countries where there are no guidelines available.

33 JUNE 06
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4 PROGRAM IMPLEMENTATION

The implementation component of the decommissioning, remediation and

reclamation process involves integrating the objectives established during program
planning with data from the evaluation phase into a detailed action plan for the site
(Figure 1). It is important to note that planning, evaluation and implementation
should not necessarily proceed in a linear fashion. The most likely approaches and
technological options available for implementation should be considered
throughout the program and thereby incorporated into the approved planning and
evaluation processes.

4.1 DECOMMISSIONING

Facility decommissioning refers to the decontamination of process equipment and

facility structures and the dismantling and removal of structures. Decommissioning
is implemented after a facility has been shut down and vessels, piping and
equipment have been depressurised. The major tasks for decommissioning are:

- down hole abandonment of wells;

- cleaning and purging of process equipment and piping of fluids and sludges;

- treatment and/or disposal of process fluids and sludges;

- removal of wastes and/or chemicals for disposal or reuse;

- dismantling of wellheads, piping and plant facilities with reusable items placed
in laydown areas;

- removal and cutting (if necessary for size reduction) of equipment and
materials tagged for sale as scrap;

- removal and cutting or sealing of contaminated equipment, tagged for disposal;

- removal of transformers, instrumentation and electrical systems for reuse or

disposal;

- removal of structures, pads and foundations not destined for reuse;

- isolation of underground piping, tanks and structures which are left in place;

- removal of bridges, drainage culverts, roads and other civil works not needed
for future access or erosion control; and

- installation of access controls for remaining structures.

Decommissioning strategies for various facilities are summarised in Table 8. As

discussed in the Table, plans for future uses of roads and camp sites should be
discussed with local authorities and communities to determine whether such
infrastructure can be productively reused and maintained. Consideration should be
34 JUNE 2006
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given to whether abandonment in place may result in undesired impacts such as in-
migration into sensitive areas, establishment of squatter communities, and potential
failure of structures or bridges due to misuse or poor maintenance. In such cases
complete removal of buildings and structures, removal of bridges, culverts and
boat landings, break-up of roadbeds or aircraft landing areas and blocking or
screening of access tracks should be included in the decommissioning process.

35 JUNE 06
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Table 8 - Decommissioning of Facilities
Exploration, appraisal, injection, production, Leave potable water wells as agreed with
water and observation wells. local authorities; isolate production interval
to prevent communication between aquifers
of different nature or salinity; isolate from
the surface; plug and abandon down hole
according to applicable guidelines 15; place
surface cement plug below the cellar to
allow removal of surface components;
backfill to surface.
Production, processing and utility facilities Purge and clean to remove lubricants,
including production manifolds, separators, residues, etc.; reuse, recycle or scrap
heaters, dehydration/storage tanks, pumps, redundant equipment such as generators,
compressors, generators including all piping, compressors, etc.; landfill remaining
instrument and electric cables/tubing and equipment.
fencing.
Flowlines and pipelines. Purge and flush with water to remove
residues; cut above ground lines and sell for
scrap; remove or plug and abandon below
grade lines.
Redundant buried structures, foundations Purge and clean to remove residues; abandon
and cables. in place or remove completely according to
proposed end land use.
Concrete and steel structures including Remove steel structures for reuse or
concrete foundations, wellhead cellars, skid recycling; remove wellhead cellar to 1 m
foundations and telecom masts, gratings, below soil surface; remove concrete
buildings (including workshops, offices, foundations and slabs down to soil level
houses, etc.) and bridges. (unless abandoned in place for future use);
break up concrete slabs at ground level into
1 m2 to allow vegetation to regrow through
the fissures or remove completely according
to proposed end land use; remove buildings
or leave in place for reuse; provide access
controls for physical structures remaining
on-site, that are unsafe or hazardous to
humans or animals.
Earthworks such as roads, airstrips, quarries, Reach agreement with local authorities for
asphalt covered areas and berm walls. use of usable assets such as roads, airstrips,
quarries; remove asphalt for remediation
and/or land filling; level mounds and dispose
of waste rock; remove and recycle or reuse
gravel (if clean); decompacted subsoils and
re-establish vegetation.

Source: (Shell Gabon 16).

4.1.1 Well Abandonment

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 In many oil and gas producing jurisdictions, systematic procedures for well
abandonment have been developed and published. This guidance, which normally
takes the form of regulations or local industry practice, should be consulted
wherever it is available.

4.1.1.1 Down Hole Abandonment

The basic objectives for a down hole abandonment program should be to abandon
each completed formation separately and to cover the base of groundwater
protection. Options for meeting these objectives include 54:

- setting a bridge plug within about 15 metres of the perforations or open-hole

section, pressure testing and capping with cement;

- setting a cement retainer above the perforations or open-hole section and

cement squeezing the perforations or open-hole section, pressure testing the
retainer and capping with cement;

- setting a plug in a permanent packer, pressure testing the plug and packer and
capping with cement; and

- setting a cement plug across the perforations or open-hole section, with a

minimum 15 metres of cement above and below the completed interval.

Non-perforated wells should have the existing casing string pressure tested. After
the completed interval is abandoned, the well bore should be circulated to a
corrosion-inhibited fluid. Weighted inhibitors may be used if the well does not
have tubing. Alternatively, the well bore may be circulated to inhibited fluid prior
to conducting abandonment work.

Other issues requiring consideration during down hole abandonment include:

- the need to confirm that groundwater resources are adequately protected,

particularly if surface casing does not extend below the deepest available
aquifer; and

- the need to ensure that risks associated with vent flows and gas migration are
adequately managed.

4.1.1.2 Surface Abandonment

Surface abandonment activities should be undertaken shortly after down hole

operations have been completed and typically include 54:

- cutting the casing strings off a minimum of 1 metre below the final contour
elevation;

- plugging production or intermediate casing at surface with a cement slurry on

top of a wiper plug or a steel plate welded across the production or
intermediate casing; and

37 JUNE 06
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 - welding a steel plate across the surface casing.

In some situations, it may be desirable to cut the casing strings lower than the
minimum 1 metre level below final contour elevation. These include:

- areas with special farming practices, such as deep tillage, drainage works and
peat lands; and

- areas in close proximity to urban development (e.g. wells within 15 kilometres

of a city should have casing strings cut 2 metres below final contour elevation).

4.1.2 Removal and Disposal of Contaminated Materials and Residues

Fluids and sludges should be recovered from process vessels

(separation/dehydration vessels, etc.) and tanks. Flow lines, fuel gas lines and
pipelines should be purged of fluids and the fluids recovered. Particular emphasis
should be given to the removal of mercury, PCB and other hazardous materials
prior to disposal. Sludge materials and decontamination residues should be
dewatered where possible to reduce bulk and disposal costs. Treatment and
disposal options for various materials and residues that may result from
decommissioning of facilities are given in (E & P Forum 13).

All friable asbestos insulation, gaskets, packing or other such applications should
be removed and placed in marked containers or bags, or encapsulated/encased
where removal is not a viable option. PCB containing materials should be shipped
to a licensed disposal facility or sealed in drums for secure storage prior to ultimate
disposal. Lubricating oil should be recovered from rotating equipment (pumps,
compressors, etc.).

Spent iron sponge from gas processing operations will contain iron sulphides prone
to spontaneous oxidation. Combustion hazards should be controlled by keeping the
sponge wet, by limiting the thickness of sponge to prevent heat build-up and by
periodically raking the sponge to maximise exposure to air. The sponge is safely
oxidised when it has changed from a black colour to one varying from deep red to
red-brown to grey-red 53.

If process equipment exhibits NORM contamination above regulatory action

levels, it should be labelled as NORM contaminated, segregated and stored in an
area with controlled access. This equipment should not be transferred to another
owner for reuse or sold as scrap. Disposal options for NORM contaminated
equipment are described in (E & P Forum 8) and (API 14).

4.1.3 Equipment Removal and Disposal

A site layout drawing should be prepared showing topographic contours and

physical features, underground utilities and equipment and buildings slated for
disposition. If buildings are contaminated, the surfaces and associated sumps and
duct work should be cleaned using appropriate techniques. Equipment associated
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 with typical oil well and separation facilities can be reused, recycled, scraped or
landfilled.

Equipment disposition activities will include:

- removal of components such as valves, pumps, motors and instruments which

can be reconditioned and readily used;

- removal of vessels and dismantling of tanks and other large components which
may be sold or reused;

- dismantling of other piping, structures and equipment which may be sold as

scrap, placed in a recovery yard or landfilled; and

- removal or demolition of remaining structures, buildings and foundations.

As discussed in Table 8, removal plans for buildings, foundations, structural steel

and paved pad areas should be compatible with reclamation plans for recontouring
and erosion control and anticipated future land uses. As a general guideline, all
physical facilities should be removed to ground level or to a sufficient depth to
allow soil cover for the desired revegetation to occur. In areas where future land
use may include agriculture, residential or other such uses where surface
cultivation may occur, then facilities should also be removed to 1 meter below the
final ground surface.

4.1.4 Pipeline Abandonment

Underground pipelines can generally be plugged and left in-situ without significant
impacts on the environment. However, all surface components should be removed.
Factors which need to be considered when abandoning pipelines include ensuring
that:

- the pipeline is not a potential source of contamination;

- the pipeline does not act as a conduit to surface water;

- the pipeline is not a physical barrier (e.g. to deep ploughing and excavation);
and

- the pipeline will not be exposed by streambed scour and surface erosion.

Disadvantages of full or partial pipeline removal include:

- the technical impracticalities of removal in some circumstances;

- the extent of surface disturbance resulting from removal;

- the need to dispose of the pipe; and

- the potential for ground subsidence with its attendant hazards for livestock,

39 JUNE 06
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 wildlife and/or equipment.
4.1.5 Containers

Empty drums, portable tanks, storage bins and other containers should be returned
to vendors or recycled. They should not be sold or donated unless thoroughly
cleaned. If no other alternatives are available, containers should be cleaned and
crushed for scrap or landfilled.

4.1.6 Utilities

The following should be undertaken or considered as site power, water and/or gas
utilities are decommissioned 52:

- contact utility or appropriate regulatory authority for removal of any utility

owned substations, transformers, above ground electrical distribution systems,
surface water intakes, pumping facilities and/or pressure reducing stations;

- confirm utility owned electrical equipment has not created any PCB related
liabilities;

- determine, in consultation with the appropriate authorities and the future land
owner, whether or not any water supply wells will be left in place for
consumptive or monitoring purposes or abandoned; and

- plug and abandon any redundant water supply wells.

4.1.7 Road Removal

The following should be undertaken to decommission any roads that may not be
compatible with the anticipated future land use 52:

- identify all crossings (utilities, pipelines, streams, etc.);

- locate topsoil stockpiles (if available);

- check topsoil piles for quantity and quality (e.g. mixing with subsoil);

- address any areas of surface contamination caused by hydrocarbon or produced

water spills or sterilant applications;

- remove any culverts and cattle guards and either reuse or dispose at approved
locations or give/sell to landowner/tenant;

- remove road bed material (e.g. pit-run or crushed gravel) offsite (in cases
where the subsoil consists predominantly of granular materials, consideration
can be given to working road bed material uniformly into the subsoil);

- ensure that road subgrades are decompacted to levels required to support

revegetation;

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 - reinstate road areas to contours that reflect natural drainage patterns; and
- revegetate areas as described in Section 4.3.3.

Decommissioning of a Well Site in a Remote Rainforest

An oil exploration drillsite was established in a remote rainforest area using long line
helicopter supply. After the exploration well was completed, the site was abandoned by
disassembling the drill rig and flying out all equipment, crew quarters, chemicals, fuel tanks
and other materials, including the support lumber used under the drill rig. Temporary
structures built from native wood and plastic sheeting were disassembled. Domestic wastes
were burned and buried in an onsite pit. Drilling mud and cuttings were handled by land
spreading. Prior assessment of the low toxicity water based mud and the local soil types had
determined that no contamination of water supplies or reduction in soil fertility would result
from land spreading.

4.2 REMEDIATION

Contaminants typically associated with oil and gas and petrochemical facilities are
hydrocarbons, chemicals(BTEX) and salts (principally sodium chloride) that are
largely associated with produced water. Other secondary contaminants may
include chromium and barium from drilling muds, mercury at metering stations,
process equipment, lead in pipe dope, PCBs from electrical transformers or
capacitors and naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORMs). Examples of
commonly used remediation technologies for contaminated soil or groundwater
resulting from the various activities are given in Table 9.

Remediation can be undertaken using In-Situ or Ex-Situ techniques. In-Situ

technologies involve the treatment or management of soils and groundwaters in
place. An advantage of such technologies is that material excavation and handling
problems are reduced. In-Situ technologies can be long-term and require particular
efforts for verification because of the variability that is typically evident in
subsurface conditions. However, they may be the only practical option for sites
with access or logistical constraints.

Ex-situ treatment technologies involve the removal of contaminants from their

original setting so that they can be treated and/or disposed of. Ex-situ approaches
vary from simple landspreading to complex thermal destruction techniques. They
involve costs associated with excavation and transport of materials, facility design,
construction and/or mobilisation. In some situations centralised facilities can be
located so that remediation costs are spread over large material volumes.

A list of remediation technologies for hydrocarbon and salt impacted soils and
ground waters is given in Tables E-1 and E-2 (Appendix E). These tables are
intended to provide a list of options which can be used for selecting the most
appropriate remediation technology. Only those options which incorporate proven
technology and have potential applications in remote settings are included.

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 Table 9 - Commonly used Remediation Technologies for Facilities

Potential Typical Facility Source of Remediation

Contaminant Source (Soils, contaminated Alternatives a
Sludges, Sediments) groundwater
Hydrocarbons Leaks and spills from Landspreading; land Oil/water separator;
wellheads, flowlines, treatment; passive air stripping; air
pipelines and tanks; remediation; in-situ sparging; passive
oil- containing pits; bioremediation; remediation.
flare pits. composting/biopiles.
Methanol, glycols, Leaks and spills from Landspreading; land Air stripping; air
amines pipelines, tanks; treatment; sparging; passive
sludges. composting/biopiles. remediation.
Salts Leaks and spills from Landspreading; land Passive remediation;
wellheads, flowlines, treatment with pumping plus
pipelines and tanks; amendments; land injection or disposal.
oil-containing pits; filling.
flare pits.
Metals Leaks and spills from Landspreading; land Passive remediation;
wellheads, flowlines, filling. pumping plus
pipelines and tanks; injection or
oil- containing pits; treatment.
flare pits.
Halogenated Solvent spills; soil Land treatment; Enhanced
hydrocarbons sterilants. composting/biopiles; bioremediation.
thermal treatments.
PCBs Electrical Disposal at Pumping plus
transformers or specialised treatment disposal at
capacitors. facility. specialised treatment
facility.
NORMs Oil-process Injection in approved Pumping plus
equipment such as NORM injection injection in approved
tubing, heater well; disposal at NORM injection
treaters, separators specialised treatment well.
and salt water tanks; facility.
gas processing
equipment such as
inlet filters and reflux
pumps.
a Refer to Appendix E for additional information on remediation technologies.

4.2.1 Remediation Technology Selection

The most appropriate remediation option is dependent on site conditions, the types
and concentrations of contaminants present, the resources that are readily available
and regulatory agency and stakeholder requirements. Where multiple contaminants
are present, a combination of technologies may be required. Tables E-1 and E-2
(Appendix E) provide information on typical implementation times, relative costs
and limitations for various cleanup technologies. Remedial option selection criteria
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 may include:

- proven technology effectiveness;

- risk reduction capabilities;

- ease of implementation;

- environmental and socio-economic impacts;

- regulatory compliance;

- time requirements;

- capital costs; and

- operating, maintenance and monitoring costs.

Further information on the selection of remediation technologies can be obtained from

(U.S. EPA25) and (Construction Industry Research and Information Association 20).

In-situ remediation of drilling mud and cuttings by solidification with cement.

The liquids in mud/cuttings pits at three drilling sites in Indonesia were left to evaporate during
the dry season. The semi-dried mud was then manually mixed in the pits with 15 to 20% low
grade cement. Drain holes (10 cm plastic pipes) were inserted in the cement slab at a density of
one for every 30 m2. The mud pit was then filled and covered with 0.8 to 1.0 m of soil from the
surrounding area. The sites were then revegetated with small trees and grass as requested by the
local authorities and villagers. A visual inspection of these sites approximately two years later
indicated that plant growth appeared to be more vigorous above the former mud pit compared to
the rest of the well site. This may be because the concrete slab acts to retain soil drainage water,
providing better conditions for growth during the dry season.

4.3 RECLAMATION

Final site reclamation for all surfaces that will be revegetated involves three main
activities:

- surface preparation and site contouring;

- installation of drainage and erosion control structures (if needed); and

- revegetation.

Reclamation strategies for various types of disturbances associated with the

various activities are summarised in Table 10 and briefly described in the
following sections.

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4.3.1 Surface Preparation and Site Contouring

The purpose of surface preparation is to provide a suitable seedbed for seedling

establishment and to minimise erosion. The main tasks for surface preparation are
as follows:

- Remove crushed rock for reuse, remove timber and geotextiles or rip in place.

- Alleviate subsoil compaction before topsoil replacement. This can be

accomplished using cultivators, discs or harrows (note that this decompaction
will also reduce erosion potentials).

- Leave the final surface following contouring in a roughened state with

microsites that trap seed and moisture.

- Replace salvaged subsoil and topsoil evenly across the site. If topsoil is in short
supply, give priority to areas with the greatest erosion potentials so that
vegetation is re-established as quickly as possible.

- Apply surface amendments such as peat, straw, wood chips or manure to

increase moisture and nutrient retention as required.

- Plan and execute operations to minimise impacts on previously undisturbed

areas (this is particularly important in those biomes with sensitive surface
covers (e.g. desert regions).

- Apply surface covers for erosion control as required.

The purpose of site contouring is to provide a stable surface that is compatible with
the end land use. General guidelines for site contouring are as follows:

- Contour the site to conform to, or blend into, the surrounding topography.

- Reduce slopes to a maximum of 50% for coarse-textured, well-drained soils

and 33% for fine textured, poorly drained materials.

- Contour slopes with slightly concave shapes to reduce water run-off velocity
and consequent erosion.

- Avoid using salvaged topsoil for grading and contouring.

- Contour banks of watercourses and dredged fill areas to ensure stability and to
facilitate revegetation.

- Restore natural drainage channels and stream flows where possible.

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Table 10 - Reclamation Strategies for various Facilities
Facility Planning Surface Preparation Drainage and Revegetation
Consideration and Site Contouring Erosion
s Control
Seismic Erosion Replace cuttings and Re-establish Create roughened
Lines control; stream debris from shotholes; natural surface by gouging or
(includin crossings; seal, and level excess drainage; scarifying; respread
g barriers to materials; install traffic install cut brush and
vibroseis restrict public barriers of natural diversion compact with
operation access; visual materials at road berms on long bulldozer if necessary
s) impacts. crossings as required. slopes. to promote seedling
establishment; if
necessary, use
several different seed
mixes for different
sections; fertilise,
mulch and plant as
required for end land
use.
Roads, Erosion Strip surface gravels Re-establish Create roughened
Helipads control; stream for reuse; remove natural surface by gouging,
, crossings; culverts and cattle drainage; scarifying to promote
Airstrips barriers to stops; recontour install seedling
restrict public according to end land diversion establishment; if
access; visual use; round-off cut berms on long necessary, use
impacts. slopes to smooth slopes, several different seed
transition; terraces on cut mixes for different
decompacted by slopes as sections; fertilise,
ripping; install traffic required. mulch and plant as
barriers of natural required for end land
materials as required; use
respread topsoil.
Well Assisted Strip surface gravels Re-establish Create roughened
Sites, revegetation for reuse or bury in cut natural surface by gouging or
Camp may be to prevent surface drainage; scarifying to promote
Sites required to exposure; recontour install seedling
encourage according to end land diversion establishment; seed,
establishment use; round-off cut berms on long fertilise, mulch and
of native slopes to smooth slopes; plant as required for
vegetation; transition; terraces on cut end land use.
visual impacts. decompacted by slopes as
ripping; respread required.
topsoil.
Pits Safety hazards; Where possible pits Install Leave roughened
subsidence; should be dried or diversion surface to promote
potential use as solidified in-situ prior berms and seedling
wildlife habitat to filling; mound pit to terraces to establishment; seed,
or water source. allow for settling; prevent fertilise, mulch and
respread topsoil. erosion of fill plant as required for
material. end land use.

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Pipelines Erosion Backfill trenches and Re-establish Create roughened
control; stream compact; mound to natural surface by gouging or
crossings; allow for settling; drainage; scarifying to promote
subsistence; grade cut and fill install seedling
encouragement slopes to conform to diversion establishment; if
of natural adjacent terrain; install berms on long necessary, use
revegetation traffic barriers of slopes. several different seed
from edge natural materials at mixes for different
vegetation road crossings as sections; fertilise,
communities; required; respread mulch and plant as
barriers to topsoil. required for end land
restrict public use.
access; visual
impacts.
Source: (U.S. Department of the Interior and U.S. Department of Agriculture 26).

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Site Preparation and Erosion Control in a Forest/Alpine Environment

A comprehensive site preparation, erosion control and reclamation program was required
for a 2,400 m deep exploratory well drilled in a forest/alpine setting less than 30 km from a
National Park. Elements of the program included topsoil stockpiling, reduced cut slopes,
cross drains, rock-blanketed and rip-rapped road drainage ditches, installation of culverts,
gravel caps on road surfaces, construction of a temporary gravel pit so that a local creek
was not impacted by increased sedimentation from runoff, site specific well pad design
criteria, landslide stabilisation and temporary erosion and sedimentation controls that were
to remain in place until revegetation occurred. During the drilling of the well, the program
included inspection of all erosion and sediment controls for effectiveness. The topsoil
stockpiles were seeded with grass to prevent wind and water erosion until they could be
used for reclamation purposes. Once all the roads, the staging area and the well pad had
been gravelled, a stock pile of gravel was created for maintenance use and the rest of the
gravel pit was reclaimed.
The reclamation components of the plan included removing culverts and repairing damage
to the channel of a local creek resulting from previous ranching practices. The surfaces of
all disturbed areas were scarified prior to respreading topsoil and recontoured back to
natural grade. The Plan also required seeding, fertilising, mulching, noxious weed control,
slash redistribution, reforestation and maintenance of all revegetation efforts on an annual
basis until it was determined that the reclamation efforts had been successful.

4.3.2 Installation of Drainage and Erosion Control Structures

The original drainage pattern for the area should be restored during the contouring
stage. Streams and drainage ditches should be sized to accommodate the peak
anticipated flow. If water flow is expected to be concentrated such as in spring
runoff or tropical rain storms, then the ditch bed should be lined with cobbles,
boulders or synthetic material to prevent erosion.

Surfaces with high erosion potentials will often require installation of control
structures to provide stable surfaces that encourage re-vegetation. Typically these
areas involve sloping terrain but, in the case of wind erodible surfaces, may also
involve comparatively shallow slopes. In general, erosion potentials can be
characterised as follows:

- high with runoff over fine-textured soils on slopes greater than 10%;

- high with runoff over medium to coarse textured soils on slopes greater than
30%; and

- high with wind blowing over coarse surface textures (e.g. sand, loamy sand or
sandy loam).

The most common erosion control measures involve the development or placement
of vegetation, diversion berms, mulches and/or erosion control mats (Table 11).

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Table 11 - Erosion Control Measures
Treatment Description
Surface roughening by Track marks and ridging must be horizontal to slope;
scarification or surface rough surface holds moisture and seed promoting seedling
tracking establishment.
Seeding and fertilising Drilling is preferred to broadcasting where slope
conditions permit; otherwise, cover seed by raking or
dragging a chain; a nurse crop of rapidly establishing
species can be used to provide ground cover until
permanent cover becomes established.
Mulches The mulch holds seed in place until vegetative cover is
established; can be applied as slurry using hydroseeder;
materials used include straw, wood fibre, etc., with
various binding agents.
Erosion mats Useful for steep and/or dry slopes; mats comprise organic
(jute) or synthetic material covered with mesh netting;
secured by wire staples; installation is labour intensive.
Soil stabiliser These are applied as a solution to penetrate and bind the
soil surface.
Bioengineering methods Brush layering and wattling techniques utilise plant
materials to stabilise slopes; willow species are suitable
for this purpose.
Diversion berms and cross These are constructed of earth or logs and placed at
ditches intervals along slopes to intercept and divert runoff; they
must extend beyond the full width of the disturbed slope
into existing vegetation to be effective.
Sediment traps Straw bales or sand bags can be placed across drainage
ditches to trap sediment in runoff water.
Bank Protection Gravel, rip-rap, gabions and/or sheet piling can be used to
minimise erosion along stream banks and shorelines.

Hydroseeding as a method to control erosion and promote the return of natural

vegetation in the tropics.

On a badly eroding site located in tropical rainforests in Gabon, hydroseeding was found to
provide a vegetation cover effective in controlling erosion. Hydroseeding involves spraying
a slurry of hygroscopic mulch, slow-release fertilisers, binding agents and an appropriate
mixture of local seeds (mainly grass and legume species). Before application, the ground
surface was scarified to break-up any surface crusting or soil compaction. On horizontal
surfaces erosion was reduced by about 98 percent. On sandy slopes with a gradient of 20
percent, erosion was reduced by about 80 percent. After the hydroseeding there was a
critical period of about three weeks during which heavy rainstorms caused erosion but after
this period the vegetation was sufficiently established to withstand heavy rain showers and
the three month dry season.

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Use of diversion berms to stabilise badly eroded seismic lines.

Bulldozers were used to cut seismic lines and roads in an area of tropical savannah with
rolling hills and highly erodible soils. The average annual rainfall was 320 cm with heavy
rains occurring from March through May. An assessment made less than two rainy seasons
after the seismic program was completed indicated that severe gully erosion had developed
in areas where slopes were greater than 10%. A pilot reclamation program on one of the
seismic lines involved infilling the erosion scars by bulldozing fill material from the edges
of the seismic line or access road above the scar. Diversion berms were then constructed at
10 m intervals to deflect runoff water onto vegetated slopes adjacent the line. Seeding was
not considered necessary as the native grass species quickly re-established on disturbed
sites in this region where soil conditions were stable.

Table 12 can be used as a guide to estimate the appropriate spacing of berms for gradients
up to 25%. The berms should be oriented such that the gradient along the berm itself has a
slope of between 5 and 10%. Berms are normally constructed by excavating a small ditch
and using the excavated material to build a berm immediately down slope. Artificial
materials such as sand bags can also be used where the terrain is sensitive to disturbance
(e.g., ice-rich permafrost). Wherever possible, the berms should extend 1 to 3 m beyond
the edge of the disturbed slope, terminating in undisturbed terrain. On slopes steeper than
25% it is often advisable to place an erosion control mat over any bare surfaces to provide
maximum protection for establishing vegetation.

Table 12 - Guide for Diversion Berm Spacing

Slope Gradient Soil Erodible (Fine- Normal (Medium- Rocky (Coarse -
Condition textured soils such textured soils such textured soils such
as silts and clays) as loams) as sands and
gravels)
Gentle (<5%) 45 m 60 m No erosion likely
Moderate (5-10%) 30 m 45 m 60 m
Steep (>10%) 15 m 30 m 45 m
a Water must be diverted into vegetated areas adjacent the disturbance. Berm spacing
may need to be adjusted for areas with intense rain showers.

Source: (Alberta Energy and Natural Resources 27).

4.3.3 Revegetation

The purpose of revegetation is normally twofold:

- to rapidly establish a 'cover crop' on disturbed surfaces so that erosion is

minimised; and

- to generate the shade and leaf litter needed to promote revegetation.

Small disturbance areas can often be left to revegetate naturally where there is a
natural seed source nearby and surface conditions are favourable. This process may
be enhanced by the replacement of slash and/or forest duff over restored soils.

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 Natural vegetation offers advantages beyond economy including:

- a tendency towards a higher diversity of species in forest areas with a wide

range of vegetation;

- a better representation of the natural distribution of species without concerns

about introducing foreign varieties through seeding; and

- a tendency to mirror natural processes in areas where tree falls and land slips
create disturbed areas.

Disadvantages of natural revegetation include the potential for:

- invasion by noxious welds;

- higher rates of erosion; and

- slow rates of indigenous species establishment.

Where an active or managed revegetation program is required, local suppliers of

species should be contracted so that native species adapted to the local
environment can be selected. Government institutions and universities can often
provide advice in these areas. It is important that fertiliser and planting stock be
ordered with sufficient lead-time to allow collection and/or seedling development.

Hand Seeding in a Rainforest Environment

Infield road construction for a new oil field development in a remote rainforest environment
resulted in soil banks on fill areas which were subject to rapid erosion due to the high
rainfall. Soil areas adjacent to the road were hand seeded with Puracia species, a rapidly
growing legume. Plant cover was quickly established on the soil banks, dramatically
reducing erosion. Larger tree species began to naturally colonise the soil banks, due to
seeding from the adjacent forest corridor.

Seeding should be done at a time when climatic conditions are the most conducive to
seedling germination and establishment. This usually means the season when soil moisture
is greatest. Care should be taken to provide sufficient time for seedling establishment
before the onset of drought or winter frosts that can kill immature seedlings. Sometimes it
is necessary to apply seed during suboptimal conditions because of access problems such
as the need to seed bog/muskeg terrain during winter months. This can be successful but
seeding rates should be increased to compensate for seed lost because of run-off and wind.
The selection of a seed application method (e.g. cyclone spreaders, drill seeders,
hydroseeders, hand seeding) depends on access to the site, availability of equipment, the
size of area to be seeded and hand seeding the susceptibility of the area to erosion. Seed
application rates are typically expressed as weight of the mixture per unit area. A useful
guide for a standard grass mixtures is a rate of 25 kg/ha. This should be increased to as
much as 50 kg/ha for highly erodible areas and can be reduced to 15 kg/ha for drill seeded
areas.

Planting of woody species should be attempted as soon as the ground surface is stabilised.
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In many situations it may be necessary to plant early successional species which will act as
nurse crops that allow for the natural invasion of those species characteristic of the desired
end land use. Depending on the growth characteristics of the individual species, seedlings
can be propagated by planting cuttings from larger individuals in the vicinity, by direct
transplanting of individuals growing nearby, or by planting seedlings reared in commercial
greenhouses from seed or cuttings.

Use of a "cover crop" of Acacia to ameliorate site conditions to encourage establishment

of indigenous plant species in the humid tropics.

An abandoned drill site located in the Labi area of Brunei was planted with two species of
Acacia; A. mangium, and A. auriculiformis at 2 m spacings across the whole site. Both
species are tolerant of thin, eroded, nutrient poor soils. These N-fixing species were found
to produce nutrient rich litter, reduce soil bulk density and increase soil fertility. After less
than one year the Acacia seedlings had facilitated the colonisation of a degraded site by
many herbaceous pioneer species. Over 80% of freely drained areas on the drill site had
complete vegetation cover 4.

Seedlings are typically hand-planted in a grid pattern at a spacing of 1 to 2 m between

individuals. As with seed mixtures, planting should be timed to take advantage of good
moisture conditions. In temperate climates it is usually best to plant seedlings that are in a
dormant or semi-dormant condition rather than actively-growing individuals (this avoids
desiccation after planting).

Use of wildings as source of seedlings for revegetation of mangroves in the Niger Delta.

In a pilot revegetation project, seedlings of three species of mangrove plants, Rhizophora

racemosa, R. mangle and R. harisonii were collected during the local dry season (January to
April) and placed in plastic pots. These were placed in a nursery located near the disturbed
site. They were grown in these pots for 10 to 12 weeks and to about 30 cm in height before
replanting on the disturbed site. The local host community was involved extensively in
tending the nursery, replanting the seedlings and ensuring the transplanted mangroves were
left undisturbed until they reached maturity.

It is advisable to apply a chemical fertiliser at the time of seeding to promote rapid

seedling establishment. Where possible, fertiliser composition and rate should be based on
soil test analyses. If these are not available, then a general guideline is to apply the
following rates of the three main macronutrients:

- Nitrogen (N) 50 - 100 kg/ha

- Phosphorus (as P2O5) 50 - 150 kg/ha
- Potassium (as K2O) 50 - 75 kg/ha

It is usually necessary to apply these rates by blending two or more commercially

available fertilisers. Fertiliser can be applied using the same methods used for seed
applications and can even be applied with the seed in one operation.

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The Use of Fertilisers in Tropical Reclamation

Oil exploration and development in a tropical area with karst limestone surface topography
resulted in drill pad and camp locations with compacted limestone surfaces. To determine
the most effect method to rehabilitate these surfaces, test plots were established on one
abandoned exploration well site. Some areas were ripped using a bulldozer to establish a
more uneven surface better able to trap seed, fertiliser and water. Various fertiliser mixtures
were applied to the plots, and a test species was seeded in each of the areas.

Surprisingly, it was found that the ripping treatment did not greatly accelerate establishment
of vegetative cover. Rather use of the proper fertiliser mixture and adequate time resulted in
the best growth. It appeared that the limestone surface required some time to "age" and
develop a thin layer of algae and lichens before other plant growth could take hold.

4.4 CONSIDERATIONS RELEVANT TO REMEDIATION AND

RECLAMATION IN SPECIFIC ENVIRONMENTS

Implementation of remediation and reclamation programs requires an awareness of

the particular requirements of the environmental setting in which the facilities are
located. This section provides a brief overview of environmental characteristics
within each of the following major biomes of the world: tundra, boreal forest,
wetlands, tropical rainforest, arid environments (savannah and desert), agricultural
lands and urban areas. The environmental sensitivities of these different settings
relative to remediation and reclamation are described and implementation
guidelines provided.

The decommissioning component of facility retirement tends to be less region

specific and is therefore not addressed herein in more detail than outlined
previously (Section 4.1).

4.4.1 Tundra

The term "tundra" is used to describe any ecosystem in which the plant cover
consists of low herbaceous, dwarf shrub or lichen vegetation in places which have
summers too cold to allow tree growth. The tundra biome is mainly associated with
arctic and alpine climates but it is also widely distributed in sub-Arctic areas.
Arctic and alpine tundra share a common characteristic of a short (about 60 days)
and cold growing season 29.

The slow growth rates of tundra vegetation make them particularly vulnerable to
disturbance. The disruption of drainage systems or the disturbance of the insulating
organic layer in arctic tundra may lead to problems of thermokarst and erosion.
Environmental protection measures for arctic environments are provided in (IUCN
30). In alpine areas the low temperatures, combined with coarse-textured and
nutrient-poor soils, present special challenges for reclamation of disturbed areas.
On any given alpine site, the distribution of plants and soils is strongly influenced
by topography through its influence on solar radiation and soil moisture, soil and
air temperatures and both the abrasive and protecting aspects of snow. This
diversity of sites can greatly influence the selection of measures appropriate for

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 reclamation of a given area.
Remediation and reclamation guidelines for a tundra environment are as follows:

- Use abandonment procedures that will minimise the potential for subsidence.

- Close pits or burial sites by containing when frozen.

- Overlap the pit edges with fill to reduce the possibility of post-abandonment
subsidence.

- Place compacted mound/cap (>1.5 m) of material over the pit to reduce

infiltration.

- Make allowance for settlement of backfilled excavations.

- Install drainage and erosion control measures in ice-rich permafrost with

minimum disturbance to the organic mat.

- Consider use of artificial structures, such as sand bags, to create erosion control
diversion berms.

- Where necessary, conduct reclamation work during the winter months when
the surface is trafficable.

- Spread organic soils and any windrowed timber over the site. Leave a
roughened surface to encourage vegetation growth.

- Time revegetation to avoid winter kill of seedlings.

Restoration of arctic coastal tundra after an oil spill in Alaska.

An estimated 300 to 500 bbl. of crude oil and produced water leaked from a valve in a
production pipeline contaminating 0.6 ha of arctic coastal tundra. A site assessment
revealed that most of the oil was confined to the surface of the water-saturated tundra,
although minor amounts of water-soluble oil fractions had mixed into the subsurface. The
operators and the Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation agreed on a set of
quantitative standards that had to be met within three years.

To promote both aerobic and anaerobic biodegradation of the oil remaining after initial
cleanup, the site was heavily fertilised once in mid-June and once in mid-July. The surface
was aerated in mid-July with a rotating bar equipped with 20 cm long tines. Surface
moisture and groundwater levels were also controlled within the containment area. Finally,
a snow fence was set up around the area to keep out wildlife and a wildlife guard was
posted.

Cleanup activities (scraping and removal of the frozen oily moss mat) caused substantial
damage to vegetation at the tundra surface but preservation of subsurface roots and stems
had allowed partial recovery by the end of the first growing season after the spill. In places
where the surface was not scraped during cleanup, many sedges and willows readily
survived the oiling. In heavily scraped areas both sedges and willows vigorously

53 JUNE 06
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resprouted. Periodic sampling for total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH) revealed a
significant reduction in hydrocarbons at the soil surface 31.

4.4.2 Boreal Forests

The Boreal forest or taiga forms a continuous belt of coniferous forest across both
North America and Eurasia. Extensions occur in the mountains, even in the tropics
32. The growing season is relatively short (June to August in the northern
hemisphere) and cool, and winters are very cold. Precipitation is moderate.

Boreal forests are highly valued as a source of commercial timber, as well as for
watershed conservation, wildlife habitat and recreation. Areas cleared of forest
cover are susceptible to water erosion, particularly on soils with a high proportion
of very fine sand or silt. Disturbed sites in the boreal forest may also be susceptible
to invasion of exotic weed species. Reclamation of disturbed sites may require
restoration of soil capability to support production forests. Sensitive areas are steep
unstable slopes, unstable geologic substrata, areas adjacent to watercourses and
key wildlife habitat zones such as waterfowl staging and production areas, and
ungulate winter ranges.

Remediation guidelines for a boreal forest environment are as follows:

- Water based drilling fluids from the pit can often be discharged onto the
surface of a well site.

- Landspreading and landfarming are favourable for remediation of hydrocarbon

contaminated soil.

- Drainage control is necessary at treatment sites to prevent the spread of

contamination.

Reclamation guidelines for a boreal forest environment are as follows:

- Where erosion is not a problem, reforestation without application of seed mixes

may encourage faster reclamation to a forest system.

- Revegetation to encourage wildlife use may be appropriate.

- Measures should be taken to restrict access; (e.g. creating berms or placing

boulders to prevent vehicle traffic or spreading woody debris over reclaimed
access roads).

- Woody debris spread over a reclaimed site often encourages regrowth of native
vegetation.

4.4.3 Wetlands

A wetland is defined as land or a delta that is saturated with water long enough to
promote aquatic processes as indicated by poorly drained soils, hydrophytic

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vegetation and various kinds of biological activity which are adapted to a wet
environment 33. Wetlands occur in many parts of the world but are most common
at mid-latitudes (between 45 and 750N) and in equatorial regions 34.

Wetlands are a transitional zone between aquatic and terrestrial environments.

They play an important role in the hydrology of watersheds by attenuating flood
peaks and storm flows, modifying water quality and protecting shorelines from
erosion. They are also important for providing animal habitat (especially
waterfowl) and for recreational use. Environmental protection measures for the
activities in mangrove areas are provided in (IUCN/E & P Forum 35).

Remediation guidelines for a wetland environment are as follows:

- Disruption of water flow during the construction of new roads, channels or

deep vehicle tracks should be avoided.

- Surface disturbance that may lead to increased runoff of sediment should be

avoided.

- Synthetic liners are recommended for soil treatment facilities to prevent

seepage.

- Burial of non-biodegradable wastes is not recommended because of the risk of

exposure in this dynamic environment.

- Dredged access channels/slots can be left to refill naturally.

Reclamation guidelines for a wetland environment are as follows:

- Natural drainage flows should be restored wherever possible by removal of

structures blocking or diverting drainage or by creation of drainage channels.
However, in some cases removal of causeways may cause additional damage
and may be best left in place.

- Where roads are to be removed both the surface and subbase of the road should
be removed to facilitate revegetation.

- Backfilling excavated areas with impermeable materials that impede surface

flow through should be avoided.

- Erosion control should be a priority to avoid siltation of water bodies.

- Where an organic mat overlays subsoil, this layer should be salvaged and
replaced during reclamation.

- Revegetation should be undertaken with indigenous species, vegetation

material can be transplanted from adjacent wetland areas.

- Re-seeding and fertiliser applications are not recommended in wetlands.

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 - Dredged, organic materials may be acidic and should be handled and stored
appropriately.

Passive remediation of an oily waste pit in a wetland environment.

A 40 year old pit used for disposal of tank bottoms had been abandoned for about 15 years.
Aquatic vegetation and trees up to about 10 m tall were present in the pit area. Heavy end
hydrocarbons and trivalent chromium were found in sludges at the base of the pit. However,
only very low levels of hydrocarbons and chromium were found in surface waters and
groundwater. A clay layer about 5 m thick beneath the pit was found to have a very low
hydraulic conductivity.

Remediation options considered included on-site solidification and burial, off-site

treatment, dilution/burial on-site and passive remediation. Passive remediation was chosen
as the most viable remediation option and was accepted by the regulatory agency (Texas
Railroad Commission). Passive remediation was accepted because there was no evidence of
leaching of contaminants into the environment, the floodwater retention capacity of the pit
would be maintained, there was the potential for contaminant releases and loss of wildlife
habitat during implementation of the other remediation options and because costs were
lower than the other alternatives.

4.4.4 Tropical Rainforest

Tropical rainforests occur in a region approximately 10 degrees north and south of

the equator. These areas are characterised by high temperatures (minimum average
of 18ºC) and heavy rainfall. There may be frequent and intense rain showers.
Typically over 40% of rain events have intensities exceeding 25 mm/hr compared
to less than 5% in temperate areas 36.

The diversity of plant species is greatest in tropical rainforest biomes and

conservation values are high. In many areas, a large number of people may be
dependent on forest ecosystems for their livelihood. The use of forest products,
clean water and fertile soil are particularly important to these populations 4.

Climax forest cover, including the surface leaf litter, provides physical protection
for the soil from raindrop impact. The litter layer and soil organic matter reduce
soil bulk density and increase infiltration of water. Most plant nutrients are tied up
in vegetation and the litter layer. Any of the forest canopy therefore exposes the
soil to the erosive force of the intense rain showers. Environmental protection
measures for the activities in tropical rainforest areas are provided in (E & P
Forum 37) and (IUCN 38).

Remediation and reclamation guidelines for a tropical rainforest environment are

as follows:

- Landspreading, landfarming and passive remediation may be particularly

attractive remediation options because of the favourable climate.

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 - Contaminant migration should be minimised by controlling runoff and by
maximising the retention of surface soil.

- Drainage channels designed to accommodate the intensity of rainfall should be

installed.

- Rapid reestablishment of ground cover (e.g. via hydroseeding) is necessary to

prevent soil erosion.

- Forest duff (leaf litter and humus layer on the soil surface) is a good source of
indigenous seeds. It can be collected and respread over the reclaimed area.

- Cover plants (pioneer or early successional species) can be used to improve

conditions for later successional species.

- Natural regeneration can be enhanced by planting species that will attract birds.
- The use of exotic species should be minimised where possible to avoid
invasion into natural areas.

- Windrowed debris should be rolled back for erosion control and to provide
microsites for seedling establishment.

- Suitable access controls or restrictions should be constructed to minimise

disturbance during reclamation.

Encouragement of natural regeneration on disturbed sites in a tropical rainforest

environment.

Birds are important for the spread of many tropical rainforest species. Natural regeneration
can be enhanced by planting species bearing seeds or fruits that will attract birds. Nepstad
et al. 39 found that the most important source of new trees establishing in degraded
Amazonian pasture was seed dispersed from nearby forest by birds and bats. They were
deposited preferentially beneath perching and rooting sites. Seeds of 18 tree species were
collected from beneath small trees in the pasture, while only two species were found in the
open.
4.4.5 Arid Environments (Savannah and Desert)

Tropical savanna biomes comprise grasslands with scattered trees or clumps of

trees. They are found in warm regions with an annual rainfall of 100 to 150 cm but
with a prolonged dry season when fires are an important ecological factor. Tropical
savannas cover extensive areas of Africa, the Middle East, South America and
Australia.

Deserts generally occur in regions with less than 25 cm of rainfall, or sometimes in

regions with greater rainfall that is very unevenly distributed.

Desert air and soil temperatures are high by day, drop abruptly at night and have
great seasonal ranges 40. There are three main forms of plants which are adapted to
deserts: annuals which avoid drought by growing only when there is adequate
moisture; succulents such as cacti, which store moisture; and desert shrubs with
57 JUNE 06
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 small, thick leaves that may be shed during prolonged dry spells 32.

The main limiting factors for plant growth are the low precipitation, high daytime
temperatures, low humidity and strong winds. In a cold desert, the frost-free period
is very short and frost may occur in any month of the year. Wind erosion is also an
important consideration for reclamation in deserts and savannah.

Remediation and reclamation guidelines for an arid environment are as follows:

- Water based drilling fluid volumes can be reduced by evaporation.

- Landspreading, land treatment and land filling are particularly suitable

remediation techniques for hydrocarbon contaminated soil.

- Wind erosion can be severe enough to warrant extraordinary erosion control

structures such as wind fencing.

- The timing of revegetation efforts must often be restricted to those short

periods when there is sufficient surface moisture.

- Surface broadcast seeding is often insufficient for revegetation and seed must
be covered either by harrowing or drill seeding.

- Drought-tolerant species are typically necessary for revegetation success.

Revegetation of sand dunes in Patagonia, Argentina

The Patagonia region of Argentina is characterised by large areas of arid or semi-arid

rangeland with annual rainfall ranging from 100 to 300 mm, and moderate to strong
westerly winds blowing most of the year. The natural grassland maintained a delicate
balance with the soil and native herbivores until the end of the last century. The
introduction of sheep and the resultant overgrazing and removal of trees and shrubs for
firewood by settlers caused a gradual reduction in total plant cover, exposure of soil to the
desiccating effects of the winds and the formation of sand dunes. Oil field development
activities in this area such as road construction, well site preparation, etc. have the potential
to exacerbate the effects of this wind erosion. Reclamation of old seismic lines and access
ways is accomplished by spraying the sand dune with water mixed with oil, using a tanker
truck. The oil acts to bind the surface sand, reduce moisture loss and as a carbon source for
microbial activity. The treated area is then fenced. Regrowth of native plants is at first
patchy but growth is rapid. Plants gradually spread to provide wide coverage. Lymus sp. (a
drought resistant grass) seed planted into treated areas also grows well.

4.4.6 Agricultural Lands

Agricultural lands throughout the world are primarily concentrated in areas

occupied by the temperate deciduous forest, temperate grassland and tropical
savanna biomes. Because of the favourable climate and productive soils, these
biomes have often been extensively developed for agriculture.

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 The sensitivity of agricultural lands to disturbance relates primarily to the loss of
topsoil through wind and water erosion. Causes of soil productivity loss include:
increased salt content (from spills of saline produced water) or increased coarse
fragment content (by mixing with subsoils with high coarse fragment content). Soil
compaction will also reduce plant productivity by impeding soil drainage, gaseous
exchange and plant root growth.

Remediation guidelines for agricultural lands are as follows:

- Topsoil should be stripped and salvaged prior to construction of any

contaminant treatment facilities.

- Measures should be taken to avoid soil compaction.

- Livestock should be considered as potential receptors.

- Buried structures may need to be removed to allow cultivation.

Reclamation guidelines for agricultural lands are as follows:

- Emphasis should be placed on maintaining soil productivity. Salvage of two or

more separate topsoil layers may be required to avoid bringing non-productive
layers (saline soils, stones) to the surface.

- Contouring should ensure that agricultural equipment can operate on reclaimed

lands.

- Measures to minimise wind and water erosion may need to be implemented.

- Fences and surface drainage structures should be replaced (e.g. rice paddy
berms) and subsoils decompacted.

- Revegetation mixes for pastures should be certified as "weed-free" and weed

control programs may be required following revegetation.

- Consideration should be given to using local farming expertise in developing

and implementing reclamation measures.

- Reclamation plans should accommodate the recovery time that may be needed
to restore lands to agricultural production.

Decommissioning and reclamation of exploration well site located on agricultural land in

central France.

A well site was located on flat agricultural land used for cereal production with a village
within 0.8 km and a river located 3 km from the site. Site preparation included removal and
storage of topsoil from a 0.4 ha area used to install the rig. A rainwater drainage system
including an oil/water separator was installed on the site perimeter.

A site assessment was undertaken before construction and after decommissioning. A special

59 JUNE 06
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access road for trucks and private cars was established in agreement with local authorities.
All wastes were removed and disposed of off-site.

To complete decommissioning, concrete surfaces were demolished and the debris removed to
an authorised disposal site. To accomplish reclamation, pits were backfilled and covered with
topsoil stored previously on the site, the well top was buried 1 m below surface and, after
removal of stones/gravel and geotextile, the site was regraded. Topsoil was respread along
with compost and the site was planted in sunflowers.

4.4.7 Urban Settings

In urban settings where land is likely to be used for residential, recreational or

commercial purposes, risk based assessment criteria may be particularly useful.
Special issues would include:

- ensuring removal of facilities and equipment to at least 1 metre below surface;

- removal of waste materials and scrap (including previously buried waste) to

appropriate disposal locations rather than burial onsite;

- additional precautions to ensure that well abandonment procedures will prevent

migration of natural gas to the surface or into structures; and

- considering the relatively high potentials for land use changes and site
disturbance in the evaluation of human health and environmental risks.

Remediation and reclamation guidelines for urbanised areas are as follows:

- Emphasis should be placed on safety procedures because of potential hazards

generated by buried utilities, vapour accumulations, excavations and dust.

- Public interest may be comparatively high and a particular emphasis on

community involvement may therefore be required.

- Property line monitoring programs may be required (air emissions, noise,

groundwater) because of the proximity to people.

- It may be necessary to give more consideration to the less intrusive of available

remediation technologies (e.g. in-situ vapour extraction).

- Reclamation to a residential or recreational use is often a priority.

- Measures must be taken to restrict access during reclamation work and

vegetation establishment.

Remediation of abandoned oil pits adjacent to a housing subdivision in S.E. Texas.

Fly ash solidification was selected as the remediation option for oil contaminated sludge.
Since a housing development was adjacent to the site, the fly ash was formed into a slurry
before mixing with soil to minimise the generation of dust. Air monitoring was also
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conducted at sites along the property boundary. The oil contaminated sludge was excavated
from the pits in 800 m3 lifts, and then the fly ash slurry was added to the sludge. The
material was mixed, allowed to cure and placed in a receiving area for burial on-site. About
7,300 tonnes of fly ash were mixed into 20,000 m3 of sludge. The stabilised soil was then
buried and the site capped with 30 cm of topsoil and the site seeded with native grass
species. Groundwater monitoring was planned to take place for 5 years after closure. The
site was recently leased to the city for use as a parking lot.

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5 MONITORING

Monitoring programs may be desirable to verify the effectiveness of remediation

and reclamation programs, and to ensure that residual contaminants remaining on-
site do not pose unacceptable risks to human and/or environmental receptors.
Monitoring can become an integral part of many remediation strategies (e.g.,
where passive remediation is employed and monitoring is necessary to confirm that
receptors are not impacted). Monitoring programs should be designed in
consultation with the appropriate regulatory agencies and should be implemented
on a site-specific basis.

5.1 CONFIRMATION OF REMEDIATION SUCCESS

On sites where remediation has been undertaken, confirmatory testing may be

required to demonstrate that the remediation criteria have been attained. This may
consist of:

- sampling and analysis of soil from the contaminated zones and adjacent areas;

- impacted; and

- sampling and analysis of sediments and waters from adjacent surface water
bodies to verify that contamination has not migrated during cleanup operations.

Analytical parameters suitable for monitoring purposes would be similar to those

described previously on Table 7. Analytical data should be evaluated considering
the remediation objectives established for the site.

5.2 CONFIRMATION OF RECLAMATION SUCCESS

The reclamation program can be considered complete when the disturbed lands
have an erosion controlling vegetative cover that meets the intended land use.
Criteria for assessing reclamation success are given in Table 13. The reclaimed site
can be compared with predisturbance conditions or adjacent land.

For sites where the reclamation goal is to restore native vegetation, the plant cover
should show evidence of native species invasion and be sufficiently well
established so that it will not require maintenance fertiliser or weed control.
For well sites or seismic lines in isolated areas, remote sensing techniques such as
air photo interpretation or helicopter reconnaissance may be used to verify
reclamation success. In accessible areas, periodic site inspections can be
undertaken to count the number, type and size of species and to compile
photographic records of specific locations.

62 JUNE 2006
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Table 13 - Criteria for Assessing Reclamation Success
Parameter Description
Drainage Site drainage should be consistent with the original
patterns, directions and capacity or be compatible with the
surrounding landscape facilities or features.
Erosion No more erosion gullies or blowouts than on adjacent land.
No above background sediment discharges to local surface
water bodies.
Water Quality Not significantly degraded from original assessments as
measured by parameters like total suspended solids,
dissolved oxygen, conductivity and metals.
Contour Contour and roughness must conform and blend with
adjacent contours or be consistent with present or intended
land use.
Stability No visible evidence of slope movement, slumping,
subsidence or tension cracks.
Gravel and Rocks May not be piled, windrowed or concentrated in one area.
Debris No industrial or domestic debris allowed; woody debris
(roots, slash) must not interfere with adjacent or normal
land use.
Plant Composition Revegetation species and species composition should be
compatible with original or control vegetation or meet
reasonable land management objectives.
Plant Health Plants should be healthy; characteristics to look for are
vigour, height, colour, disease and vegetation quality.
Bare Areas Frequency and extent of bare areas should not be greater
than original or control vegetation.
Source: (Alberta Conservation and Reclamation Council 28).

Reclamation Monitoring in a Rainforest

Construction of a new oilfield and export pipeline in a remote rainforest area was
accompanied by the development of a detailed Reclamation and Monitoring Program
(RMP). The RMP was based on detailed surveys of the soil and vegetation types, and
topographical reviews of all locations that would be affected by construction activities,
including a 170 km long pipeline right of way and 110 km access road corridor. The RMP
assessed the options for reclamation and revegetation of areas disturbed by construction and
identified monitoring locations for measuring regrowth rates. Recommendations were based
on observations of regrowth rates on various surfaces disturbed by previous oil exploration
activities.

Natural revegetation of the pipeline corridor was recommended, relying on the long
undisturbed forest corridor adjacent to the right of way as a seed source. Appropriate
erosion control batters and berms were installed in slope areas. Stream banks were restored
to their original contour and stabilised using gabions. Natural drainage channels in low-
lying swampy areas were restored. After construction, vegetative cover was rapidly re-
established, and monitoring observations indicated a good variety of plants were present.
Few problems with erosion or slope stability were reported. Regrowth was vigorous enough
that cutting programs to minimise vegetation height over the pipeline right of way had to be

63 JUNE 06
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established.

5.3 POST-REMEDIATION AND RECLAMATION MONITORING

It may not always be desirable to cleanup a site to a level that results in the
removal of all significant contaminant levels. Bio-remediation often takes more
than one growing season and remediation of contaminated groundwater may take
several years. A monitoring program can be used to ensure that the original
assumptions relating to the impacts of residual contaminants were correct and can
provide a basis for determining when a site can be formally abandoned. For
example, an old sump that still contains contaminants, has revegetated naturally
and has been left to remediate naturally may still need to be monitored to ensure
that groundwater quality remains unaffected. Post-remediation monitoring may
involve:

- inspection of on or off-site treatment facilities;

- sampling and analysis of groundwater;

- sampling and analysis of soils for nutrient status and contaminant levels;

- sampling and analysis of surface waters for contaminant levels and to verify
that there is no excessive sediment in runoff from the site; and

- inspections of stabilised structures, restricted access areas and erosion control

structures.

Post reclamation monitoring may be undertaken to confirm the success of

reclamation activities. The following may be considered:

- inspections of soils, slopes, drainage ways, vegetative covers and habitat

utilisation;

- inspections of site conditions (e.g. vegetation, soil productivity, stream

crossings) and the collection of monitoring photographs; and

- biological surveys.

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6 CONSIDERATIONS FOR FUTURE DECOMMISSIONING,
REMEDIATION AND RECLAMATION

Program planning should begin as early as possible in the development stage of a

facility. This will help to ensure that sound operational and waste management
practices can be implemented to prevent or reduce site contamination. An estimate
of the financial resources needed to decommission a facility and reclaim the site
should be made at the project planning stage so that appropriate reserves can be
made for these purposes during the life of the facility. Typical measures that can be
implemented during initial project design and operating phases to reduce eventual
decommissioning, remediation and reclamation costs are given in Table 14.

Further information on environmental protection measures for seismic operations

can be obtained from (IAGC 41) and (Indian and Northern Affairs Canada 42).
Environmental protection measures for well sites, access roads and production sites
are described in (E & P Forum 37), (IUCN/E & P Forum 35) and (IUCN 30, 38).

65 JUNE 06
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Table 14 - Preventative Measures for Reducing Decommissioning, Remediation and
Reclamation Costs
Seismic
- Use low impact seismic in ecologically sensitive areas (reduce width of line or cut line
around sensitive areas).
- Use existing trails whenever possible and minimise development of new trails.
- Avoid unnecessary cutting of trees; cut rather than uproot shrubs.
- Use light explosive charges in shallow holes.
- Replace cuttings and debris from shot holes and level excess materials.
- Store fuels and chemicals in appropriately contained areas (e.g. berms with liners).
Well Sites and Access Roads
- Select well site and access road locations to avoid sensitive areas and to minimise the
amount of vegetation removal and cut/fill requirements.
- Modify the size and shape of well sites to reduce disturbance to vegetation and surface
terrain.
- Use directional drilling where economically feasible to minimise disturbances to land,
water and to drill multiple wells from the same site.
- Use existing trails for access where possible, and use of geotextiles in soft or sensitive
terrain.
- Design pits and sumps to contain all fluids with no leakage.
- Use drilling fluid formulations which minimise impacts on vegetation and soil.
- Avoid leaded thread compound and leaded paint.
- Decrease the size of the well site once the well is in production.
Production Facilities
- Locate production facilities near all-weather main roads to avoid unnecessary road
construction.
- Include environmental sensitivity and socio-economic concerns in the site selection
process.
- Design site grading considering existing land contours so that cut and fill requirements
are minimised.
- Establish joint ventures with other producers to share existing facilities.
- Minimise the overall site footprint to the extent practical.
- Locate facility and waste storage areas over soils with low permeability, high buffering
capacities and high ion exchange capacities.
- Ensure in ground or underground tanks are designed to protect against leaks and are
instrumented to indicate leakage.
- Construct proper containment pads and berms under all vessels, pumps, loading areas and
aboveground storage tanks.

66 JUNE 2006
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Production Facilities (cont.'d)
- Install appropriate monitoring systems around areas where hazardous or toxic materials
are received, stored, shipped or disposed.
- Ensure adequate monitoring of air, soil and groundwater quality.
- Implement spill response and reporting procedures.
- Undertake environmental audits on a regular basis.
- Implement waste management systems.
- Implement employee environmental training and awareness programs.
Pipelines
- Include environmental sensitivity and socio-economic concerns in route selection
processes.
- Route flowlines adjacent to access roads wherever possible.
- Design site grading considering existing land contours so that cut and fill requirements
are minimised.
- Use equipment and procedures that minimise disturbance to vegetation and soils.
- Use access controls to minimise disturbance.
- Install erosion control measures where appropriate.
- Utilise risk assessments for high pressure lines in populated areas.

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7 REFERENCES

1. The Institute of Petroleum. 1993. Code of Practice for the Investigation and
Mitigation of Possible Petroleum-Based Land Contamination. The Institute of
Petroleum, London. 46 pp. and App.

2. ASTM. 1994. Emergency Standard Guide for Risk-Based Corrective Action

Applied at Petroleum Release Sites. American Society for Testing and Materials
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3. Alberta Environmental Protection. 1994. Guide for Oil Production Sites Pursuant
to the Environmental Protection and Enhancement Act and Regulations. Land
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4. Brown, N. 1994. Rehabilitation of Natural Forests in the Humid Tropics.

Proceedings of International Conference on Vegetation and Slopes. Stabilisation,
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5. Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME). 1994. Subsurface

Assessment Handbook for Contaminated Sites. Prepared by the Waterloo Centre
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7. American Petroleum Institute (API). 1987. Measurement Protocol for the

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12. Sims, H.P., C.B. Powter and J.A. Campbell. 1984. Land Surface Reclamation: A
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13. E & P Forum. 1993. Exploration and Production (E & P) Waste Management
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14. American Petroleum Institute (API). 1990. Management and Disposal Alternatives
for NORM Wastes in Oil Production and Gas Plant Equipment. Report
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15. American Petroleum Institute (API). 1993. Environmental Guideline Document:

Well Abandonment and Inactive Well Practices for U.S. Exploration and
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16. Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers (CAPP). 1994. Waste Treatment

Technology Field Assessment Project. 1993 Report, Volume 1 - Technology
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Technology Field Assessment Project. 1993 Report, Volume 2 - On-site
Remediation Technologies: Selection Protocol and Profiles. CAPP. Calgary,
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18. Canadian Petroleum Products Institute (CPPI). 1994. Manual for Remediation of
Groundwater Containing Dissolved and Free-Phase Hydrocarbons. Report CPPI
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Remedial Treatment for Contaminated Land. Volume III - Ex-situ Remedial
Methods for Contaminated Groundwater and Other Liquids. CIRIA Special
Production 108. CIRIA, London, U.K.

20. Construction Industry Research and Information Association (CIRIA). 1995.

Remedial Treatment for Contaminated Land. Volume IV: Classification and
Selection of Remedial Methods. Special Publication No. 104. CIRIA, London,
U.K.

21. Petroleum Environmental Research Forum. 1991. Remediation of Soils Containing

Petroleum Constituents. Project 88-04. Prepared by Remediation Technologies
Inc., Austin, Texas.

22. Petroleum Environmental Research Forum. 1991. On-Site Remediation of Oily

Exploration and Production Wastes. Project 88-05. Prepared by Remediation
Technologies Inc., Austin, Texas.

23. Petroleum Environmental Research Forum. 1991. On-Site Remediation of Refining

and Marketing Pits, Ponds and Lagoons. Project 88-05. Prepared by Remediation
Technologies Inc., Austin, Texas.

24. United States Environmental Protection Agency. 1995. How to Evaluate

Alternative Cleanup Technologies for Underground Storage Tank Sites. A Guide
for Corrective Action Plan Reviewers. Report EPA 510/B-94/003 U.S. EPA
Washington, D.C.

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25. United States Department of the Interior and United States Department of
Agriculture. 1989. Surface Operating Standards for Oil and Gas Exploration and
Development, "Gold Book". Prepared by Bureau of Land Management, United
States Department of the Interior and Forest Service, USDA. 3rd Edition. 45 pp.

26. Alberta Energy and Natural Resources. 1984. The Resource Handbook.
Operational Guidelines for Industry. Prepared by Forest Land Use Branch.

27. Alberta Conservation and Reclamation Council. 1994. Reclamation Criteria for
Wellsites and Associated Facilities. Alberta Conservation and Reclamation
Council Report C&R/IL/94/1. Alberta Environmental Protection, Edmonton.

28. Billings, W.D. 1974. Arctic and Alpine Vegetation: Plant Adaptations to Cold
Summer Climates. In: Arctic and Alpine Environments. Ives. J.D. and R.G. Barry
(eds.) Methicer, England.

29. IUCN and E&P Forum. 1993. Oil and Gas Exploration and Production in Arctic
and Sub-Arctic Onshore Regions - Guidelines for Environmental Protection. The
World Conservation Union (IUCN)/E & P Forum joint publication. E & P Forum
Report No. 2.55/185.

30. Jorgenson, M.T., L.W. Krizan and M.R. Joyce. 1990. Bioremediation and Tundra
Restoration After an Oil Spill in the Kupanik Oilfield, Alaska. In: Fourteenth Arctic
and Marine Oil Program Technical Seminar, p. 149-154.

31. Odum, E.P. 1959. Fundamentals of Ecology. 2nd Edition. W.B. Saunders
Company, Philadelphia.

32. Tarnocai, C. 1980. Canadian Wetland Registry. In. Proceedings, Workshop on

Canadian Wetlands. C.D.A. Rubec and F.C. Pollett (eds). Land Directorate,
Environment Canada. Ecological Land Classification Series No. 12. Ottawa,
Ontario.

33. Gore, A.J.P. 1983. Ecosystems of the World. Volume 4A. Mires: Swamp, Bog, Fen
and Moor. A.J.P. Gore (ed.). Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company. Amsterdam,
The Netherlands.

34. IUCN and E & P Forum. 1993. Oil and Gas Exploration and Production
Operations in Mangrove Areas. - Guidelines for Environmental Protection. World
Conservation Union (IUCN)/E & P Forum joint publication. E & P Forum Report
No. 2.54/184.

35. Hudson, N.W. 1971. Soil Conservation, Batsford, London.

36. E & P Forum. 1991. Oil Industry Operating Guideline for Tropical Rain Forests.
Report No. 2.49/170. E & P Forum, London, U.K.

37. IUCN. 1991. Oil Exploration in the Tropics: Guidelines for Environmental
Protection. IUCN Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, U.K.

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38. Nepstad, D.C., C. Uhl and E.A.S. Serrao. 1991. Recuperation of a Degraded
Amazonia Landscape: Forest Recovery and Agricultural Restoration. Ambio
20:248-255.

39. Oosting, H.J. 1956. The Study of Plant Communities. An Introduction to Plant
Ecology. 2nd Edition. W.H. Freeman and Company, London.

40. International Association of Geophysical Contractors (IAGC). 1994.

Environmental Guidelines for Worldwide Geophysical Operations. IAGC.
Houston, Texas.

41. Indian and Northern Affairs Canada (INAC). 1988. Environmental Guidelines.
Northern Seismic Operations. Prepared by Hardy BBT Limited for Northern
Affairs Program, INAC, Ottawa, Canada.

42. United States Environmental Protection Agency. 1991. Description and Sampling
of Contaminated Soils. A Field Pocket Guide. Report EPA/625/12-91/002.

43. United States Environmental Protection Agency. 1993. Subsurface

Characterisation and Monitoring Techniques. A Desk Reference Guide. Volume I:
Soils and Groundwater. Appendices A and B. Report EPA/625/R-93/003a.

44. Department of the Environment, UK. 1994. Sampling Strategies for Contaminated
Land. Contaminated Land Research Report No. 4. Prepared by the Centre for
Research into the Built Environment. The Nottingham Trent University, England.

45. Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME). 1993. Guidance

Manual on Sampling, Analysis and Data Management for Contaminated Sites.
Volume I. Main Report. The National Contaminated Sites Remediation Program.
Report CCME EPC-NCS62E.

46. American Petroleum Institute (API). 1989. A Guide to the Assessment and
Remediation of Underground Petroleum Releases. API Publication Number 1628.
API, Washington, D.C.

47. Board, P. 1993. Quality Assurance Principles in Contaminated Land Analysis.

Land Contamination and Reclamation: 1(4): 201-206.

48. United States Environmental Protection Agency. 1986. Test Methods for
Evaluating Solid Waste, Physical/Chemical Methods. SW-846, 3rd ed. Office of
Solid Waste Emergency Response, U.S. EPA, Washington, D.C.

49. American Public Health Association (APHA). 1992. Standard Methods for the
Examination of Water and Wastewater. 18th edition.

50. American Petroleum Institute (API). 1995. Site Assessment and Remediation
Guidance for E & P Facilities.

51. Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers (CAPP). 1992. Decommissioning

and Reclamation Guidelines for Small Oil and Gas Sites in Western Canada.

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 CAPP. Calgary, Alberta.

52. B.C. Ministry of Environment. 1993. De-listing Protocol for Treated Spent Iron
Sponge. Province of British Columbia, Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks.

53. Alberta Energy and Utilities Board. 1996. Guide G20, Well Abandonment Guide.
Alberta Energy and Utilities Board, Calgary, Alberta.

54. E&P Forum. 1994. Guidelines for the Development and Application of Health
Safety and Environmental Management Systems. Report No. 6.36/210. E&P
Forum, London, UK.

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GLOSSARY OF TERMS
abandon (a well) To cease work on a well and seal it with cement plugs.
amendment (soil) A substance (such as lime, gypsum, manure) added to soil
for the purpose of making the soil more suitable for the
growth of plants.
assess or assessment Investigations, monitoring, surveys, testing and other
information gathering activities designed to identify: (1)
the existence, source, nature and extent of environmental
affects resulting from physical disturbance or release into
the environment of a chemical substance; and (2) the
extent of risk to the public health, safety, welfare and the
environment.
baseline data Data gathered prior to exploration and development
activities for the purpose of describing conditions existing
on the undisturbed site.
Battery A facility for the temporary storage and separation of
produced fluids.
bentonite A naturally occurring clay which is often a major
constituent of drilling muds.
biodegradation The process of using micro organisms to degrade organic
contaminants.
biome A complex biotic community covering a large geographic
area and characterised by the distinctive life-forms of
important climax species.
broadcast seeding The random scattering of seed on the ground's surface.
Aerial seeding and hydroseeding are types of broadcast
seeding.
brush layering Layers of shrub stems loosely laid and buried either across
the slope or directly into the slope. The stems may sprout
and spread by suckering to stabilise the slope.
cellar A (concrete) lined space under the working floor of a
drilling rig.
chronic Refers to the long term impacts of exposure to a
substance.
cleanup The containment, treatment or removal of a contaminant
to prevent, minimise or mitigate risks to public health and
safety, or the environment that may result from the
presence of the contaminant.
coarse fragment content The proportion of soil particles ranging from 2 to 250 mm
in diameter.
coarse texture (soil) A soil containing predominantly sand, loamy sand or
sandy loam textural classes.
compaction Increasing the dry density of a granular soil by means such
as impact or by rolling the surface layers.
consistence A measure of the cohesion or adhesion of the soil mass
and the resistance of the soil to deformation or rupture. A
soil's consistence can influence its susceptibility to
erosion, rate of water infiltration and plant root
penetration.
containment Action taken to prevent or minimise the release of a

73 JUNE 06
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 substance so that it does not generate unacceptable risks to
public health, safety, welfare or the environment.
contaminant A substance which is not naturally occurring in the
environment.
contaminated A material containing a substance which is not naturally
occurring in the environment.
climax vegetation Stable combinations of plants which will develop in a
given environment given sufficient time without
disturbance.
criteria (cleanup) The concentrations of contaminants that are established to
define if a soil or water is contaminated (assessment
criteria) and if that contamination is significant enough to
warrant cleanup (remediation criteria).
cuttings (drill) The fragments of rock dislodged by the drill bit and
brought to the surface in the drilling mud.
cuttings (plant) Sections of stems or branches from woody plants that are
cut from a plant for replanting at a site being revegetated.
decommissioning The closure of a facility followed by the removal of
process equipment, buildings and structures.
Decommissioning includes the plugging and abandonment
of wells.
dipterocarp A family of dicotyledonous plants having mostly stipulate,
alternate leaves, a prominently exerted connective and a
calyx that is mostly winged in fruit.
dismantle To take apart equipment or a process.
dose The amount or concentration of a substance absorbed into
the body exposed to the substance.
drilling mud A specialised fluid made up of a mixture of clays, water
(and sometimes oil) and chemicals, which is pumped
down a well during drilling operations to lubricate the
system, remove cuttings and control pressure.
duff Leaf litter and humus layer on the ground in a forest.
equivalent land capability The ability of the land to support post reclamation land
uses that are compatible with pre-disturbance or adjacent
land uses.
erosion The process of detachment and movement of soil or rock
fragments by running water, wind, ice or gravity.
exposure Contact with (e.g. via ingestion, inhalation or assimilation)
of a substance.
facilities Structures, buildings and equipment associated with
exploration and production activities.
fertility (soil) The status of a soil with respect to the amount and
availability to plants of elements necessary for growth.
field The geographical area in which a number of oil or gas
wells produce from one or more reservoirs.
fine texture (soil) A soil containing predominantly silt or clay size particles.
flowline The surface pipe through which oil travels from the well
to processing equipment or to storage.
formation A bed or deposit composed throughout of substantially the
same type of rock; a lithological unit; each different
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 formation is given a name.
friable (soil) Easily crumbled or crushed into fine particles.
gas field A field with hydrocarbon reservoirs containing natural gas
but little or no oil.
gathering station A facility at which oil or gas from a number of wells in a
producing field is collected, and where the oil, gas and
water are separated.
gully erosion The removal of soil by running water, causing the
formation of deep channels.
halogenated compounds Compounds containing chlorine, fluorine, bromine,
astatine and/or iodine. The presence of halogenated
organic material is normally indicative of synthetic
chemical contamination.
horizon (soil) Layers in the soil that differs in characteristics,
composition or structure from adjacent layers.
hydrocarbon One of a very large group of chemical compounds
composed only of carbon and hydrogen; the largest source
of hydrocarbons is from petroleum crude oil.
hydroscopic Refers to water absorbed by dry soil minerals from the
atmosphere in amounts depending on the physicochemical
character of the surfaces and relative humidity.
hydroseeding The hydraulic dissemination of seed in a water medium.
Mulch and fertiliser can be incorporated into the sprayed
mixture.
ICP Acronym for inductively coupled argon plasma; an
instrument used for metal analyses.
indigenous species Species originating in, or being native to, a particular
region or environment.
Ingestion The act or process of taking a substance into the body of
an organism.
infrastructure All facilities/utilities required to support the operation of a
site (e.g., roads, power, water, fuel gas, telephone, etc.).
injection well A well used to inject gas or water into an oil/gas reservoir
to maintain reservoir pressure during secondary recovery
processes; can also refer to a well used to inject wastes
into selected formations for disposal.
land capability The ability of land to support a given use based on
characteristics such as topography, drainage, hydrology,
soils and vegetation.
landspreading A treatment method whereby waste is spread over a
predetermined land area based on an acceptable loading
rate. Landspreading is usually done for wastes containing
elevated hydrocarbons and/or salts, and typically involves
a single incorporation of wastes into the soil.
land treatment A waste treatment/disposal method whereby single or
multiple applications of biodegradable wastes are made on
a dedicated parcel of land which is managed in a manner
which allows the soil system to degrade, transform and
assimilate the waste constituents.
leaching The removal of soluble constituents from soil by the

75 JUNE 06
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 action of percolating water.
liquids (also fluids) Materials that contain less than 5% total suspended solids.
medium texture (soil) A soil intermediate between fine and coarse textured
containing predominantly sandy loam, silt/loam or loam
textured classes.
mothball To close a facility for an extended period of time in a
fashion that preserves its integrity for start-up. There is
usually no intent to immediately reclaim the site.
mulch Material placed for the purpose of protecting soil from
erosion or protecting plants from heat, cold or drought.
muskeg Undrained boggy land characterised by Sphagnum moss
vegetation.
natural regeneration Propagation of new plants over an area by natural
processes.
NORM Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials. Low Specific
Activity (LSA) scale is one example of a NORM.
nurse crop (cover crop) Plants that are adapted to disturbed sites and that modify
micro environmental conditions during initial
establishment.
organic matter content The organic fraction of a soil. Soil organic matter
increases the soil nutrient and moisture retention capacity
and can improve soil structure.
PAH Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbon.
passive remediation Allowing the natural processes of dilution, adsorption
and/or degradation to mitigate the health and/or
environmental risks generated by contamination.
pathway The route along which a chemical substance moves in the
environment.
permafrost A layer of permanently frozen subsoil, including the
accumulation of ice masses in the soil caused by
alternating processes of dehydration of the soil and
hydration of ice crystals. Consists of frozen mineral soil,
organic soil or rock.
population A group of organisms occupying a specific geographic
area or biome.
produced water Water originating from the natural oil reservoir that is
produced along with the oil and gas and is subsequently
separated from the oil and gas.
production The process of bringing reservoir fluids to the surface via
wells, separating them and storing, gauging and/or
otherwise preparing the product for the pipeline.
pump station One of the installations built at intervals along an oil
pipeline that contain storage tanks, pumps and other
equipment to route and maintain the flow of oil.
reaction (soil) A measure of the acidity of a soil that is expressed as a pH
value. Soil reaction can affect the availability of various
nutrients to plants.
receptor A plant, animal or human exposed to a substance via an
exposure pathway.
reclamation The actions required to return a site to a pre-determined
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 land use that meets company, government and/or local
needs.
remedial alternative Measures or combinations of measures proposed to
cleanup a contaminated site.
remediation The management of contaminated soil, surface water and
groundwater to prevent, minimise or mitigate risks to
public health and safety or the environment.
remediation criteria Specified concentrations for contaminants in various
environmental media (soil, groundwater, surface water
and air) for a specific land use that should not normally be
exceeded by residual concentrations remaining after
completion of remediation. Residual concentrations
exceeding the remediation criteria will require further
remedial action or on-going monitoring.
risk assessment A systematic process to quantify the human health and/or
environmental risks posed by a site.
run-off That portion of rainfall that is not absorbed by soils, used
by vegetation or lost by evaporation. Runoff may find its
way into streams as surface flow.
salinity Soluble salts in the soil that can restrict plant growth as a
result of direct toxicity of the salt itself or the influence of
the salt on soil structure or moisture availability. Salinity
is commonly measured by electrical conductivity (EC).
SAR Sodium adsorption ratio, an empirical relationship to
express the relative activity of sodium ions in soil
solution. SAR is calculated by the formula:

Where concentrations are expressed in meq/L of saturated

extract.
savannah A grassland with scattered trees or scattered clumps of
trees. The numbers of species of trees and grasses is small
because of the limiting effects of drought and fire.
seismic survey A survey conducted to map the depths and contours of
rock strata by timing the reflections of sound waves
released from the surface or from a shot hole.
sites Drill pads, wells, batteries, production units, access roads,
disposal areas, camps and all other areas associated with
the operations.
sodic soil A soil containing sufficient sodium to interfere with the
growth of most crop plants.
soil-adsorption complex Organic and inorganic colloidal substances in the soil
capable of adsorbing other materials.
solids Materials containing at least 5% solids.
stakeholder A person or group having an interest in the conclusion of a
decision making process.
texture (soil) A measurement of the distribution of soil particles less
than 2 mm in diameter including sand (0.02 to 2.00 mm),
silt (0.002 to 0.02 mm) and clay (<0.002 mm); medium

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 textured soils are generally best for revegetation.
thermokarst The process in which subsidence of the terrain occurs as a
result of melting ground ice.
topsoil The surface mineral horizon that is characterised by the
accumulation of organic matter which imparts a dark
colour to the soil. In general, it has high fertility and
desirable physical characteristics (structure and texture).
total petroleum Dichloromethane or Freon extractable hydrocarbons
hydrocarbons (TPH) detected by gas chromatography after silica gel cleanup to
remove polar compounds (EPA SW-846).
toxicity A measure of the potential of a substance to cause damage
to humans, plants or animals.
tropical rainforest Forests located in areas characterised by high temperatures
(minimum average of 18‾C) and heavy rainfall (yearly
minimum above 1.5 m).
tundra An ecological zone in which plant cover consists of low
herbaceous, dwarf shrub or lichen vegetation in places
which have summers too cold to allow tree growth.
ungulate Refers to an animal that has hoofs.
volatile organic compounds Organic compounds with sufficiently high vapour
(VOC) pressures to form vapours at ambient temperatures.
wattles Shrub stems bound together in bundles that are buried in
trenches across a slope and staked in place. The bundles
act to trap sediment and the stems may sprout and grow to
further stabilise the slopes.
well bore The hole made by drilling or boring a well; it may be
open, or a portion may be cased.
well head Structures which form the junction of the subsurface well
with the surface system of flow control valves.
wetland Land that is saturated with water long enough to promote
wetland or aquatic processes as indicated by poorly
drained soils, hydrophytic vegetation and various kinds of
biological activity which are adapted to a wet
environment.
workover A process by which a completed production well is
subsequently re-entered and any necessary cleaning, repair
and maintenance work done.

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APPENDIX A GENERIC ASSESSMENT AND REMEDIATION CRITERIA

The following list of generic guidelines may be considered by operators and regulatory
agencies to select acceptable criteria in the absence of guidelines specific to the
country/region in which decommissioning and remediation are being undertaken. This list
of generic guidelines is not meant to be comprehensive but provides examples from
jurisdictions in which oil and/or gas are produced. The operator and regulatory agencies
should have a clear understanding of how these criteria were derived and their suitability
for use outside the jurisdictions in which they were developed. In any case the respective
amendments should be applicable to the requirement.
The generic guidelines are often divided into assessment criteria and remediation criteria.
Assessment criteria typically approximate background concentrations or analytical
detection limits for contaminants in soil and/or water and are used to indicate whether a
site is contaminated. Natural background values can vary considerably from site to site,
particularly for metals, and in coastal areas soil salt levels tend to be elevated. This needs
to be taken into consideration when selecting assessment criteria for a particular site.
Remediation criteria generally represent higher contaminant concentrations which are still
considered protective of human health and the environment. They often have a scientific
(human or ecological health) basis but in some cases may be based on experience and
professional judgement. If a contaminant concentration exceeds the remediation criteria
value then further investigation and/or remediation should be considered. The remediation
criteria chosen for a particular site should be appropriate for the intended land use.

* Alberta Tier 1 Criteria for Contaminated Soil Assessment and Remediation (Alberta
Environmental Protection, 1994). Soil Protection Branch, Waste and Chemicals
Division, Alberta Environmental Protection. Lethbridge, Alberta.

* Amendment to Statewide Order No. 29-B (State of Louisiana, 1990). Office of

Conservation, Department of Natural Resources. Baton Rouge, Louisiana.

* Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for the Assessment and Management of
Contaminated Sites (Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation
Council, 1992). Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council
and Natural Health and Medical Research Council. Canberra.

* Burial of Materials On-Lease (Alberta Conservation and Reclamation Council,

1994). Alberta Conservation and Reclamation Council Report C&R/1L/9414.
Alberta Environmental Protection, Edmonton.

* California Technical Standard for Determination of Soil Remediation Levels

(California Department of Health Services, 1990).

* California Environmental Health Standards - Hazardous Waste Title 22.

* Canadian Water Quality Guidelines (Canadian Council of Resource and Environment

Ministers, 1987). Prepared by the Task Force on Water Quality Guidelines.

* Circular on Intervention Values for Soil Remediation (Dutch Ministry of Housing,

Physical Planning and Environmental Conservation, 1994).

79 JUNE 06
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* Criteria for pH in Onshore Solid Waste Management in Exploration and Production
Operations (American Petroleum Institute, 1995). API Publication Number 4595.

* Criteria for Managing Contaminated Sites in British Columbia (British Columbia

Ministry of the Environment, 1995). Waste Management Protection. British
Columbia Ministry of the Environment. Victoria, B.C.

* Drilling Waste Management Guide G-50 (Alberta Energy Resources Conservation

Board, 1993). Energy Resources Conservation Board. Calgary, Alberta.

* Evaluation of Limiting Constituents suggested for Land Disposal of Exploration and

Production Wastes (American Petroleum Institute, 1991). API Publication Number
4527. Health and Environmental Sciences Department and Exploration and
Production Department, API.

* Guidance on the Assessment and Redevelopment of Contaminated Land (ICRCL,

1984). Inter-departmental Committee on the Redevelopment of Contaminated Land.
Report ICRCL 59/83: Second Edition July 1984. ICRCL, London, U.K.

* Interim Canadian Environmental Quality Criteria for Contaminated Sites (Canadian

Council of Ministers of the Environment, 1991). Report CCME EPC-C534. Prepared
by the CCME Subcommittee on Environmental Quality Criteria for Contaminated
Sites. CCME Winnipeg, Manitoba.

* Interim Guidance for Remediation of Petroleum Impacted Sites, Soil Screening

Levels (California Regional Water Quality Control Board, 1994). California
Regional Water Quality Control Board, Los Angeles Region. Monterey Park,
California.

* Maximum Allowable Concentrations and Tentative Safe Exposure Levels of Harmful

Substances in the Environmental Media (USSR State Committee for Science and
Technology, 1984).

* Metals Criteria for Land Management of Exploration and Production Wastes:

Technical Support Document for API. Recommended Guidance Values (American
Petroleum Institute, 1995). API Publication Number 4600. Prepared by Metals
Management Workgroup. Production Waste Issue Group, API.

* Proposed Guideline for the Clean-up of Contaminated Sites in Ontario (Ontario

Ministry of Environment and Energy, 1994).

* Protocol for Derivation of Environmental and Human Health Soil Quality Guidelines
(Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment, 1995).

* Regulation and Licensing of Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials (NORM),

Title 33, Part XV, Nuclear Energy, Adoption of Permanent Rule for NORM
(Louisiana Department of Environmental Quality, 1989).

* Soil Screening Guidance (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 1994).

Report EPA/540/R-94/101. Office of Solid Wastes and Emergency Response
80 JUNE 2006
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 USEPA.

* Statewide Rule 91 (16 TAC 53.91) (Railroad Commission of Texas, 1993). Oil and
Gas Division, Railroad Commission of Texas, Austin, Texas.

* Rule 8 - Water Protection (State of Texas, 1984).

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APPENDIX B SOURCES OF INFORMATION FOR SITE INFORMATION
ASSESSMENT

Table B-1 - Sources of Information for Site Information Assessment

Type of Information Use Possible Sources
Aerial photographs Evaluating historic and Universities, public libraries,
current land usage and government agencies (Land
impacts; identifying Survey, Defense), companies
locations of site structures that undertake aerial
such as tank farms, pits and photography.
sumps, poor drainage areas,
access roads and areas of
disturbed soil.
Satellite imagery (SPOT, Evaluating historic and Government agencies (Land
LANDSAT) adjacent land usage; general Survey).
site features.
Maps
Bedrock geology, Can provide information on Universities, public libraries,
hydrogeology groundwater flow patterns, government agencies (Land
aquifer yields and Survey).
groundwater chemistry.
Surficial geology, soils Can provide information on
topsoil depths, soil chemical
status (e.g., salinity), soil
fertility and susceptibility to
erosion. Soil type is also
important in predicting
contaminant migration.
Topographic Identifying areas of fill on a
site; planning re-
establishment of contours
and water courses during
reclamation.
Site plans Well site layout and location Company records,
of sumps, pits, areas of fill, government agencies
site drainage. (Energy).
Construction plans Dimensions of pits and Company records,
ponds; location of buried government agencies
utilities. (Energy).
Production and maintenance Well status, well spud date, Company records,
records well completion date, government agencies
cumulative production, (Environment).
workover records,
operational history of
injection wells and storage
tanks.
Waste management records Waste handling and disposal Company records,
practices including location government agencies
and operation of historic and (Environment).

82 JUNE 2006
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current landfills, pits, sumps
and dumps.

83 JUNE 06
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Spill records Spill date, gross volume of Company records,
spill, volume recovered, government agencies
method of cleanup and (Environment).
natural resources affected by
spill.
Permit records Regulatory requirements for Company records,
effluent discharge; government agencies
characterization of (Environment).
discharges.
Emergency response or Nature of potential Company records,
contingency plans contaminants. government agencies
(Environment).
Chemical inventories/records Chemical use including pest Company records.
and weed control practices
used on-site, types of
chemicals used, application
areas and disposal practices.
Electrical layout plan Location of electrical Company records.
transformers, capacitors,
electromagnetic and other
equipment that may have
dielectric fluids containing
PCBs.
Tank inventory records and Inventory of underground Company records,
regulations and aboveground storage government agencies
tanks and their contents. (Energy, Environment).
Laboratory records Laboratory operational Company records,
practices, chemicals used and government agencies
waste handling and disposal (Energy, Environment).
methods.
Environmental monitoring Water quality records for Company records,
records surface water and government agencies
groundwater; site (Environment).
climatological data.
Environmental and Environmental impact Company records.
geotechnical reports statements and biological
surveys provide information
on environmental setting.
Geotechnical, geological and
hydrogeological (including
borehole logs) reports
provide information on
subsurface conditions.
Regulatory information Plant operating permits, Company records,
complaints or situations government agencies
related to environmental (Environment, Health,
compliance provide Labour, Natural Resources).
information on potential

84 JUNE 2006
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contaminants.

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APPENDIX C CHECKLISTS FOR GENERAL SITE CHARACTERISATION OF
A TYPICAL WELL SITE

General Site Characterisation

Field Name

Site :

Assessment Date

Condition Temperature:
s

Weather
Condition:

Assessment Personnel

Name/Function/Coordinates

Facility Name:

Facility Function:

Coordinates:

Age and Construction

Status Date:

Current
Status:

Environmental If available provide a brief summary and attach relevant

Documentation information
Audit
Findings

86 JUNE 2006
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Spill Record:

Air Photos:

Previous
Reports:

87 JUNE 06
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General Site Characterisation
Field Name
Site :

Site Infrastructure Include past and present installations and indicate their status
by :
A - Active B - In place but out of use C - Removed N - Not
present
Attach additional data
sheets
if necessary. Number Status Evidence of Environmental
Spill #
Concern
On-Site Off-Site
Yes No Yes No
If yes provide spill number and detail on attached spill
characterisation sheets.
Metering Equipment

Pumping Equipment

Electrical Substation
(Transformers)

Pig Launcher

Pig Receiver

Above Ground Fuel Tank

Underground Fuel Tank

Above Ground Product

Tank

Underground Product Tank

Above Ground Chemical

Tank

Underground Chemical
Tank

Load-in

Load-out

88 JUNE 2006
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Underground Pipeline

Above Ground Pipeline

Maintenance Building

Filtering Apparatus

Generator

Satellite/Manifold

Wellhead

Flare Pit If present see

Sump attached pit
Waste Pit data sheet
Landfill

Drum Storage Area

Bone Yard

Other ( )

89 JUNE 06
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General Site Characterisation
Field Name

Site :

Waste Materials

Quantity Method of Environmental Spill#

Disposal Concerns
Liquid Waste If present provide additional detail on attached data sheets.
Used Oil :

Tank Bottoms :

Produced Water :

Sewage :

Pigging Waste :

Other ( )
Solid Waste
Scrap Metal :

Filters

Domestic Solid
Waste:

Industrial Solid
Waste :

Landfill :

Other ( )

Air Emissions : If present provide detail of equipment type, emission type and impact
on off-site areas.

Hazardous Materials If present provide additional detail on attached data

sheets.

90 JUNE 2006
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Chemicals :

Oils :

Solvents :

Asbestos :

Radioactive
Materials:

Background
Radiation :
Comments :

91 JUNE 06
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General Site Characterisation
Field Name

Site :

Site Description

Estimated Disturbed
Area :

Site Drainage :

Erosion :

Erosion Control :

Topography :

Vegetation :

Soil Profile :

Depth to
Groundwater :

Housekeeping:

Other :

Adjacent Land Use Proximity to site / Type / Number / Size / Impacts from site

Inhabited Buildings :

Surface Water :

Groundwater :

Water Wells :

Agriculture :

Industry :

Native Vegetation :

Wildlife :

92 JUNE 2006
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Soil Profile :

Other :

93 JUNE 06
PTS 60.3401
General Site Characterisation
Field Name

Site :

Spill Characterisation See additional comments adjacent spill number on previous

data sheets.
Note : Use one spill characterisation sheet for each separate
spill
Spill Number and Location : Number : 1 Location :
See attached sketch for general overview of spill.
Has this spill been previously Is containment provided for the spill ?
reported ? :

Is the spill confined to the site ? Depth to Groundwater: Metres

Crude oil Produced Tank Refined Fuel Chemic Sump

al
Contaminant : Water Bottoms Oil Fluids

Spill Source : Tank Tank Pipeline Drum Pit Wellhe

ad
AST UST

Spill Cause : Rupture Overflow Leak Dump Human Servicing/Workov

Error er

Spill Source Exposed Buried At Below Above Bermed

Exposure:
Grade Grade Grade

Visual
Appearance :

Estimated Spill Area ( m2 Depth ( Vol ( m3 Comment

Size : ) m) ) s:

94 JUNE 2006
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Estimated Spill In Progress Recent Old Comment
Age : s:

Sample Identificati From ( To ( cm Type Evidence of Contamination

Summary : on cm ) )

Surface Vegetated Barren Comment

Appearance : s:

Soil Profile
Description:

Other :

95 JUNE 06
PTS 60.3401
General Site Characterisation
Field Name

Site :

Site Sketch Schematic drawing of site layout and sample locations. Not to
scale.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
96 JUNE 2006
PTS 60.3401
-
-

97 JUNE 06
PTS 60.3401
General Site Characterisation
Field Name

Site :

Photographic Record Photographer :

Roll Number Photograph Description

Number Describe location and associated
infrastructure.

98 JUNE 2006
PTS 60.3401
99 JUNE 06
PTS 60.3401
General Site Characterisation
Field Name

Site :

Test Hole Logs & Sample Were soil samples obtained ?

Summary

Site Sample Depth Soil Description

Identification ID (cm) Texture

Water Sample Summary Were water samples obtained ?

Additional Assessment
Notes

Subject :

100 JUNE 2006

PTS 60.3401
101 JUNE 06
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General Site Characterisation
Field Name

Site :

Physical Disturbances

Estimated Size of Physical

Disturbance :

Nature and Cause of

Disturbance :

Description of Vegetation and Soils on Adjacent Areas :

Vegetation :

Soils :

Description of Vegetation and Soils on the Disturbance :

Vegetation :

Soils :

Is there evidence that humans, animals or vegetation have been affected by the disturbance ?
Yes / No Detail :

102 JUNE 2006

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Is the impacted area increasing in size due to erosion ? Yes / No Detail :

Are there any contaminant issues related to this disturbance ? Yes / No Detail :

103 JUNE 06
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General Site Characterisation
Field Name

Site :

Open Pits Pit Identification:

Pit Status :

Pit Use :

Pit Dimensions :

Pit Contents :

Freeboard
Remaining :

Evidence of
Overflow :

Evidence of Seepage
:

Integrity of Base &

Walls :

Soil Type :

Samples Obtained :

Other :

Pit Identification:
Pit Status :

Pit Use :

Pit Dimensions :

Pit Contents :

Freeboard
Remaining :

Evidence of
Overflow :
104 JUNE 2006
PTS 60.3401
Evidence of Seepage
:

Integrity of Base &

Walls :

Soil Type ;

Samples Obtained :

Other :

105 JUNE 06
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General Site Characterisation
Field Name

Site :

Spill Characterisation See additional comments adjacent spill number on previous

data sheets.
Note : Use one spill characterisation sheet for each separate
spill
Spill Number and Location : Number : Location :
See attached sketch for general overview of spill.
Has this spill been previously Is containment provided for the spill ?
reported?:

Is the spill confined to the site ? Depth to Metres

Groundwater:

Crude oil Produced Tank Refined Fuel Chemic Sump

al
Contaminant : Water Bottoms Oil Fluids

Spill Source : Tank Tank Pipeline Drum Pit Wellhe

ad
AST UST

Spill Cause : Rupture Overflow Leak Dump Human Servicing/Workov

Error er

Spill Source Exposed Buried At Below Above Bermed

Exposure: Grade Grade Grade

Visual
Appearance :

Estimated Spill Area ( m2 Depth ( Vol ( m3 Comment

Size : ) m) ) s:

106 JUNE 2006

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Estimated Spill In Progress Recent Old Comment
Age : s:

Sample Identificati From ( To ( cm Type Evidence of Contamination

Summary : on cm ) )

Surface Vegetated Barren Comment

Appearance : s:

Soil Profile
Description:

Other :

107 JUNE 06
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General Site Characterisation
Field Name

Site :

Spill Characterisation See additional comments adjacent spill number on previous

data sheets.
Note : Use one spill characterisation sheet for each
separate spill
Spill Number and Location : Number 3 Location :
:
See attached sketch for general overview of spill.
Has this spill been previously Is containment provided for the spill ?
reported?:

Is the spill confined to the site ? Depth to Metres

Groundwater:

Crude oil Produce Tank Refined Fuel Chemic Sump

d al
Contaminant : Water Bottoms Oil Fluids

Spill Source : Tank Tank Pipeline Drum Pit Wellhe

ad
AST UST

Spill Cause : Rupture Overflo Leak Dump Error Servicing/Workov

w er

Spill Source Exposed Buried At Below Above Bermed

Exposure:
Grade Grade Grade

Visual
Appearance :

Estimated Spill Area ( m2 Depth ( Vol ( m3 Comment

Size : ) m) ) s:

108 JUNE 2006

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Estimated Spill In Recent Old Comment
Age : Progress s:

Sample Summary Identificat From ( To ( cm Type Evidence of Contamination

: ion cm ) )

Surface Vegetated Barren Comment

Appearance : s:

Soil Profile
Description:

Other :

Photographs Date Taken: 0

Roll 0
Photo 0
Roll 0
Photo 0

109 JUNE 06
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APPENDIX D SAMPLING AND ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES

1.0 SAMPLING PROCEDURES

Design and implementation of a sampling program can be a substantial exercise.

This appendix provides a brief description of sampling procedures for soils,
sludges, surface waters and groundwater. Further information on sampling
protocols can be obtained from (U.S. EPA 43, 44), (Department of the
Environment 45) and (CCME 5, 46).

1.1 DEFINING OBJECTIVES

The first step in planning site sampling is to define objectives. Sampling during the
general site characterization is designed to provide preliminary information about
the site. That is, to identify the source of contamination and determine the types
and concentration of contamination. Sampling during the detailed site
characterization is usually intended to provide information on the variation of
specific analyte concentrations within a particular geographic area and to provide
sufficient data for risk assessment and remediation planning if necessary.

1.2 SAMPLING APPROACHES

There are three basic sampling approaches: random, systematic and judgemental.
The judgemental approach is often the most commonly used method where sources
of contamination (well head leaks, sumps, etc.) and factors likely to influence the
distribution of contamination (spill history, site gradient, geology, hydrogeology)
are known from previous experience and the site information assessment. A list of
potential contaminant sources for the facilities is provided in Table D-1. Sample
locations should be selected to characterize these target areas at a density sufficient
to preclude missing significant contaminant hot spots. In addition to the target
areas, consideration should be given to sampling non-target areas to identify other
contaminated areas on the site.

On sites where little historical information is available, a herringbone sampling

pattern (which is a form of systematic sampling) has been recommended 47.
Multistage sampling such as sampling during a general site assessment
(exploratory sampling) followed by sampling during a detailed site assessment
(assessment sampling) results in a better spacial definition of contaminants for a
given total number of samples 45.

110 JUNE 2006

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Table D-1 - Potential Contaminant Sources for E&P Facilities

Issue Activity
Seismic Operations Access Roads Drill
Sites
Well Sites
Oil Batteries Sweet Gas Plants
Sour Gas Plants
Garbage pits
Fuel storage areas
Shot holes, craters
Drainage ways
Septic systems
Waste oil
Borrow pits,
quarries
Reserve (mud) pits
Flare pits
Treated wastes
Aboveground
storage tanks
Underground
storage tanks
Flowlines
Wellheads
Herbicides/sterilants
Pipelines
Process vessels
(slop tanks, amine
surge tanks,
knockout vessels)
Process area runoff
impoundments
Process and
compressor building
sumps
Lagoons and ponds
Sulphur blocks
Chemical storage
areas
Maintenance shops
Land farms
Landfills
Transformers,
capacitors
Pipe insulation
Waste water
treatment sludges

111 JUNE 06
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Gas sweetening
sludges
Cooling tower basin
sludges
Fresh water
treatment sludges
Glycol sludges
Separator sludge

112 JUNE 2006

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1.3 CONTROL SAMPLES

Samples should be collected from undisturbed areas or areas unaffected by

contamination to characterize background values. Selection of sites for control
samples should be based on the following:

- they should be upgradient, upwind and upstream from the sampling site;

- control site samples should be taken first to avoid contamination from the
sampling sites; and

- travel between control sites and sampling areas should be minimized to avoid
cross-contamination.

1.4 DECONTAMINATION PROCEDURES

Sampling equipment should either be used only once or thoroughly cleaned after
obtaining each sample to minimize potentials for cross-contamination. The method
of cleaning will be dependant upon the medium and contaminant sampled. The
information in (U.S. EPA 44) can be referenced for further details.

1.5 SOIL SAMPLING

Soils are naturally variable so it is best to select as large a test sample for analysis
as is practical. Where the soil is relatively non-uniform, composite soil samples
can be collected to provide a more representative assessment for a given analytical
budget. Soil sampling devices should be chosen after considering the depth of the
sample to be taken, the soil characteristics and the nature of the analyte of interest.
Further information on soil sampling devices and techniques can be obtained from
(U.S. EPA 43).

1.6 SLUDGE SAMPLING

Sludge sampling equipment and methods are dependent upon the depth and
consistency of the sludge, and the size and accessibility of the pond (or pit).
Samples from small ponds (<5 m in diameter) can usually be obtained from the
shore. Samples from larger ponds can be obtained from a floating platform. The
pond should first be separated on a grid basis and then a sub sample (stored in an
individual container) obtained from each grid point for subsequent combination
with other sub samples into a composite. For larger ponds, more than one
composite may be required.

1.7 SURFACE WATER SAMPLING

Water samples can be collected upstream and downstream of effluent discharge

points and among streams influenced by oil and gas production activities. A
surface water sampling program should consider seasonal changes inherent in
surface water quality. In temperate regions, water quality in the spring season tends
to be more highly contaminated near a problem site as it contains the flush of
spring runoff.

113 JUNE 06
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 Waters are usually very heterogeneous making it difficult to obtain representative
samples. The following are general guidelines for collection of water samples:

- do not include large non-homogenous particles such as leaves and detritus in

the sample;

- in flowing waters, place the sampling apparatus upstream to avoid accidental

contamination during sample collection;

- collect a sufficient volume to permit replicate analysis and quality control

testing; and

- use laboratory approved sample containers, provided by the laboratory if

possible.

Further details on surface water sampling protocols are given in (CCME 46).

1.8 GROUNDWATER SAMPLING

Groundwater samples can be collected from existing water wells, from springs and
seeps, and from monitoring wells installed in boreholes. In remote settings,
groundwater samples can also be collected from test pits and from hand auger
borings using disposable bailers. The following are general guidelines for the
collection of groundwater samples:

- use sampling devices made of relatively inert material (e.g., stainless steel,
PVC);

- place plastic sheeting around the monitoring wellhead to prevent contact

between soil and any sampling materials (bailer rope, tubing);

- measure and record the water level;

- do not sample water for dissolved constituent analyses from wells containing
free product;

- purge the well by bailing or pumping before sampling; and

- sample well when enough water has re-entered the well to provide a sample.

Techniques for the design and installation of monitoring wells and groundwater
sampling protocols are provided in (API 47) and (U.S. EPA 44).

1.9 LABORATORY ANALYSIS

Discussions should be held with the analytical laboratory prior to undertaking the
field program to confirm their capabilities and to reach an agreement on analytical
protocols. Selection of a preliminary list of analytical parameters of interest is also
required in consultation with the laboratory to determine the following

114 JUNE 2006

PTS 60.3401
 requirements:
- sample volumes;

- type of sample container (e.g., glass, plastic);

- sample preservation protocols; and

- sample storage and transportation (chain-of-custody) protocols.

2.0 QUALITY ASSURANCE AND QUALITY CONTROL

The following quality assurance samples have been found to be practical and
useful especially for sampling in remote locations:

- trip blanks (water samples only) - these help to determine if contamination of

sample containers has occurred between the laboratory and the field;

- laboratory blanks - these consist of laboratory grade samples that are analysed
in the same way as the field samples;

- field duplicate samples - these are extra field samples for determining the
precision of the results; and

- certified reference materials - these contain a known analyte concentration by a

technically valid procedure. They will give an estimate of the accuracy of the
results 48.

2.1 SAMPLE PRESERVATION AND STORAGE

In general, soil sample containers should be tightly sealed as soon as the samples
are taken. Headspace should be minimized and the samples maintained at about
4ºC until analysis. In the field, wet or blue ice (glycol in plastic bags) can be
packed around samples placed in a cooler to maintain low temperatures until
samples can be placed in a refrigerator.

For water samples, preservation protocols may involve pH adjustments, protection

from light, minimizing headspace, adding preservatives and controlling
temperatures. Sample holding times may vary with the analyte, preservation
technique and analytical method used. Further information on sample preservation
protocols are provided in (U.S. EPA 49) and (APHA 50).

115 JUNE 06
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APPENDIX E REMEDIATION TECHNOLOGIES FOR SOILS AND GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATED WITH
HYDROCARBONS AND SALTS
Table E-1 - Remediation technologies for hydrocarbons
Media Type Technology Description Time a Relative Applicability
cost
Soil In-Situ Passive Allowing the natural processes of Long Low Often considered where
(Natural) dilution, adsorption and degradation contaminant concentrations are
Remediation to mitigate the risks generated by below cleanup criteria values or
hydrocarbon contamination. where remedial action may cause
Normally considered when more negative impacts than "no
contaminant mobility and the action" (e.g., access to remote
associated risks to groundwater are locations). Low cost, minimum
low. surface disturbance. Cleanup
criteria may not be met. May
require long-term monitoring.
Soil In-Situ Bioremediation Involves the use of naturally Short - Low - Soil and groundwater can be treated
occurring micro-organisms to Medium Moderate in one operation. Applies only to
biodegrade the hydrocarbons. This soil contaminated to depth of
process can be enhanced by the aeration. Treatability studies may
addition of water, nutrients and by be required. Not suitable for low
controlling the soil pH to promote permeability soils.
bacterial action.
Soil In-Situ Solidification/ These processes produce dry solids Short Moderate Proven technology, limited to
Stabilisation where contaminants are - High loose, friable soils. High
immobilised by mixing with cement concentrations of hydrocarbons
or pozzolanic agents (e.g., fly ash). and/or salts may interfere with
Metals are rendered insoluble by curing process. May require special
the high pH of the cement mixture. equipment and is labour and
Hydrocarbons are physically rather chemical intensive.
than chemically bound within the
matrix. These approaches use either
deep soil mixing machines or rakes
116 JUNE 2006
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Media Type Technology Description Time a Relative Applicability
cost
and ploughs where shallow wastes
(pit solids) are being treated.
Soil In-Situ Soil Vapour This is used primarily for soils Medium Moderate Not suitable for low permeability
Extraction containing volatile compounds. - Long soils. Effects on local residents are
Light hydrocarbons are stripped possible.
from the soil by creating a negative
pressure in the subsoils via a series
of extraction wells. Off-gases are
then vented to atmosphere or
treated as required.
Soil In-Situ Isolation/Contai Subsurface barriers such as cement Short Moderate Isolates contamination source from
nment bentonite grouting or sheet piling a sensitive receptor; liabilities
can be used to isolate remain on-site; usually requires
contamination from the receiving long-term monitoring.
environment. These barriers are
typically installed in conjunction
with surface covers and drainage
systems designed to control water
flow into and/or around the
structure.
Soil Ex-Situ l The treatment processes involved in Short Low Contaminants can be treated on-
landspreading are similar to those site. End product (soil) can be
in land treatment. However, reused. Can treat a range of
landspreading refers to the one-time hydrocarbons. Treatability studies
application of contaminated soil to may be required. Need to limit
a site at comparatively low runoff. May not be suitable where
contaminant application rates. metal contents are high. Requires
Volatilisation, dilution and large land areas.
biodegradation are processes
limiting hydrocarbon
117 JUNE 2006
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Media Type Technology Description Time a
concentrations in the soil.
Biodegradation may be enhanced
by nutrient addition and periodic
tillage. Care must be taken to limit
application volumes and to
minimise surface runoff.
Soil Ex-Situ Land Treatment Contaminated soils are spread in Medium Low -
layers 20 to 30 cm thick and mixed
into the upper soil zone. Nutrients
and moisture content are optimised
and the soils tilled to provide
mixing and oxygen transfer. Land
treatment usually involves repeated
applications of biodegradable waste
to a site. Therefore soil containing
significant levels of available heavy
metals, persistent toxic compounds
or low specific activity (LSA) scale
may not be suitable. Land treatment
areas may require a liner and/or
groundwater monitoring wells.
Soil Ex-Situ Composting/ Composting is similar to land Medium Moderate
Biopiles treatment in that biodegradation
rates are enhanced by improving
porosity, aeration, moisture content
and operating temperatures.
Contaminated soil is mixed with
bulking agents (e.g., wood chips,
straw, rich hulls or husks). Manure
or agricultural wastes may be added
118
Relative Applicability
cost
Contamination can be treated on-
Moderate site. End product (soil) can be
reused. Can treat a range of
hydrocarbons. Metals, chlorinated
organics, salts cannot be treated.
Need to monitor soil and
groundwater. Can require
substantial land area.
Can affect treatment using less
space and more rapidly than land
treatment. Availability of suitable
bulking agents may be limited.
Metals and chlorinated organics
cannot be treated. Requires special
provisions should salt removal be
necessary. Need to monitor soils
and groundwater.
JUNE 2006
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Media Type Technology Description Time a Relative Applicability
cost
to improve the water holding
capacity. Fertilizer is also added.
Compost piles may be small
enough (less than 1 m deep) to be
tilled, or placed in containers or on
platforms to allow forced aeration
of the pile.
Soil Ex-Situ Solidification/ Contaminated soil is solidified Short Moderate Labour intensive. High
Stabilisation using chemical and physical - High concentrations of hydrocarbons
processes at a central processing and/or salts may interfere with the
facility. Stabilised wastes can be curing process. Requires
used for construction or placed in a treatability testing.
landfill.
Soil Ex-Situ Road Some oily sludges such as tank Short Low Dependant on the availability of
Application bottoms may be spread on gravel acceptable roads. Runoff needs to
road surfaces for road surfacing or be managed.
dust suppression. In general the
sludges should not contain
halogenated hydrocarbons,
hazardous chemicals or deleterious
substances such as filters and
vegetation. Flare pit sludges are
generally not suitable for disposal
in this manner. Some soils can be
used for road base material.
Soil Ex-Situ Asphalt Paving materials produced at hot- Short Moderate Dependent on the availability of
Incorporation mix asphalt plants consist of 95% asphalt plants and acceptable roads.
aggregate (sand, gravel) and Requires monitoring of plant
roughly 5% hot asphalt. Oil operations.
contaminated soil may be added to
119 JUNE 2006
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Media Type Technology Description Time a Relative Applicability
cost
hot-mix asphalt during the
aggregate preparation process.
Because the soil particle size affects
the strength and durability of the
asphalt mix, the clay and silt
content of the soil feed is usually
limited to 20%. In cold-mix asphalt
a surfactant produces an emulsion
of asphalt, cement and water. The
liquid asphalt is then combined
with aggregate. Oil contaminated
soil may be blended into the liquid
asphalt along with the aggregate
feed. Soils with a high clay content
or high capacity for water retention
are not suitable for asphalt
incorporation because they interfere
with adherence of the asphalt to the
aggregate.
Soil Ex-Situ Landfill Engineered landfills may be Short Moderate Fast, effective method of removing
specially constructed and monitored contamination. Liabilities remain
containment cells designed to and typically require long-term
ensure long-term containment. monitoring. There may be a lack of
They may contain an impermeable suitable sites in remote or
lining to prevent seepage depending developing areas.
on the risk to groundwater. Liners
may be constructed of clay,
synthetic materials and/or multi-
layer lining. Groundwater
monitoring wells or leachate
120 JUNE 2006
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Media Type Technology Description Time a Relative Applicability
cost
collection systems may also be
installed as monitoring/containment
provisions.
Soil Ex-Situ Thermal There are a variety of thermal Short High May permanently reduce the
Treatments treatments available. These include volume, toxicity and mobility of
low temperature and high contaminants. Air emission
temperature thermal desorption equipment and permitting
systems. Thermal desorption is requirements can be substantial.
dependent on volatilisation; light Does not address salts or most
hydrocarbons (BTEX, C1-C6 metals.
alkanes) are easily removed while
PAHs are more difficult to treat.
Desorption typically produces
secondary wastes such as solids,
water condensate, oil condensate
and air emissions. Mobile rotary
kilns or a cement kiln (where
available) can be used for
incineration of oil contaminated
soil. Ash resulting from
incineration needs to be properly
handled and disposed of. Air
pollution controls may also be
required.
Groundw In-Situ Passive Natural dilution, adsorption and Long Low Sites where likely impact is
ater (Natural) biodegradation occurs in aquifers as acceptable may require long-term
Bioremediation microbial populations become monitoring, but need for
acclimated to the contaminant. monitoring could be determined
(by modelling) in advance.
Groundw In-Situ Enhanced Degradation rates can be modified Short - Moderate Applicable to a wide range of
121 JUNE 2006
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Media Type Technology Description Time a Relative Applicability
cost
ater Bioremediation by the use of various withdrawal, Mid hydrocarbon contaminants. Not
injection and recirculation pumping suitable on soils with low
systems to mix the contaminant permeabilities. Requires power and
with nutrients and an oxygen long-term maintenance of
source. equipment.
Groundw In-Situ Air Sparging Involves the injection of air into the Mid Moderate Needs soil vapour extraction
ater aquifer to create a bubbling effect. systems; suitable for volatile
Soil vapour extraction can then be compounds only. Not suitable for
used to reduce subsurface air low permeability soils.
pressure and to remove the
volatilised compounds from the
vadose zone.
Groundw In-Situ LNAPL b Involves a product pump down hole Short - Low - Passive system uses simple
ater Recovery floating on the water table. This can Medium Moderate technology. Product may be
either be a passive system or an recovered to a reusable grade.
active system which employs a Requires monitoring. Recovers free
skimmer pump. Trenches can be product only; does not remediate
used if groundwater is shallow. dissolved phase in groundwater.
Groundw Ex-Situ Oil/Water Oil/water separation is often used in Short - Moderate Oil/water separation is typically
ater Separation conjunction with other technologies Mid applied to heavier hydrocarbon
as a primary remediation technique compounds that cannot be readily
with supplementary technologies volatilised. Often needs
used for polishing. The treatments supplementary technologies to
vary from simple gravity separation complete cleanup. Requires
to the use of coalescing plates and ongoing monitoring, power supply.
filters within the separator units.
Groundw Ex-Situ Air Stripping This process involves pumping Short - Moderate Suitable for volatile compounds
ater contaminated water from the Mid only. Not suitable for low
ground then down a column while a permeability soils. Requires
counter current of air flows from ongoing monitoring, power supply.
122 JUNE 2006
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Media Type Technology Description Time a Relative Applicability
cost
the bottom of the column. This
promotes volatilisation and
contaminants move from the
dissolved phase to the gaseous
phase. Off-gases are then released
to atmosphere or treated as
required. Remediated waters are
then re-injected or disposed of in
another approved manner. Re-
injection has been proven beneficial
for speeding up remediation by
serving to flush contaminants
towards recovery wells and by
injecting oxygen-rich water into the
aquifer.

a Short: < 1 year, Medium: 1 - 5 years, Long: > 5 years

b LNAPL: Light non-aqueous phase liquids are hydrocarbons that exist as a separate, immiscible phase when in contact with water.
Sources: (API 51), (The Institute of Petroleum 1), (CIRIA 20).
Supplementary information is available in (CAPP 17, 18), (CPPI 19), (CIRIA 21) and (Petroleum Environmental Research Forum 22, 23, 24).

123 JUNE 2006

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Remediation Technologies for Salts

Table E-2 - Remediation technologies for salts

Media Type Technology Description Time a Relati Applicability
ve cost
Soil In-Situ Passive Allowing the natural processes of Long Low Possible impacts to groundwater
(Natural) dilution and adsorption to mitigate and adjacent soils. Not effective in
Remediation the risks generated by salt arid areas.
contamination. This option may
apply where rainfall and the
permeability of the soil permits
ready leaching of salts to below
plant rooting depths. Leached salts
should not cause degradation of
groundwater quality for local use.
Soil In-Situ Passive This option also relies on passive Long Moder Installation and effectiveness of
Remediation leaching processes to remediate the ate leachate collection system.
with Leachate soil but subsurface drainage is
Collection installed to collect shallow
groundwater for treatment or
disposal.
Soil In-Situ Soil Calcium in the form of gypsum (also Short - Low - Effective and easy to implement.
Amendments limestone, dolomite, calcium nitrate, Mid Moder Slow remediation in arid areas.
calcium chloride) is applied to the ate
soil to promote displacement of
sodium from the soil adsorption
complex. The salt affected soil is
disced to break-up any surface crust
and to improve gypsum penetration.
An organic amendment such as
manure (also hay/stray, rice hulls,
sewage sludge) is added to improve
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water infiltration and leaching.
Fertilizer is added to promote
revegetation.
Soil In-Situ Leaching The area may or may not be Short - Moder Requires source of clean water.
amended as above. Irrigation water Mid ate
is then added (by spraying or
flooding) to leach salts from the soil.
Subsurface drainage for collection of
shallow groundwater may be
installed if needed. The collected
groundwater may be treated or
discharged.
Soil In-Situ Isolation/ This option may be applicable in Short Moder Liabilities remain on-site; may
Containment arid areas where groundwater is not ate require long-term monitoring.
likely to be impacted. The affected
soils may be isolated from the
receiving environment by capping
with soil. Installation of subsurface
barriers such as slurry walls or sheet
pile cut-offs may also be necessary.
Soil Ex-Situ Dilution/Burial Where contaminated soil or drill Short Low May require long-term monitoring.
cuttings contain salt concentrations
only slightly above levels regulated
for disposal then dilution with soil
prior to backfill in drill or production
pits or landfill may be a feasible
option.
Soil Ex-Situ Landspreading Contaminated soil can be Short Low Salts are diluted, not treated or
incorporated into soil horizons using removed. Requires large land
application rates that limit salt areas.
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contents in the mixture to acceptable
levels.
Soil Ex-Situ Landfill Excavated soil is isolated from the Short Moder Fast, effective method of removing
surrounding environment by placing ate - contamination. May be done on-
in an engineered containment cell. High site. Liabilities remain and
This cell includes a clay or synthetic typically require long-term
liner beneath the contaminated soil monitoring.
to prevent downward or lateral
seepage and a cover to minimise
water infiltration.
Soil Ex-Situ Solidification/ Contaminated soil is solidified using Short Moder Labour intensive. High
Stabilisation chemical and physical processes at a ate - concentrations of hydrocarbons
central processing facility. Stabilised High and salts may interfere with curing
wastes can be used for construction processes.
or placed in a landfill.
Soil Ex-Situ Road Base Salt contaminated soils can be used Short Low - Dependent on the availability of
Disposal as subgrade material in road Moder roads.
construction, particularly in arid ate
areas.
Groundw In-Situ Passive Leaching of salts to below the plant Long Low Not effective in arid areas; slow
ater (Natural) rooting depth may occur slowly over process.
Remediation time. Where there is no local
groundwater use, saline leachate
may disperse naturally in
groundwater.
Groundw Ex-Situ Dilution/ Saline groundwater collected from Long Low - Need for suitable water body for
ater Disposal subsurface drainage systems in some Moder discharge.
cases may be disposed by discharge ate
to an estuary or ocean or river body
as regulations permit.
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Groundw Ex-Situ Down hole Saline water may be disposed of by Long Low - Availability of appropriate
ater Injection incorporating with existing facility Moder production facilities, producing
water use. For example ate formations and/or injection wells
incorporation into water flood of may be limited.
producing formations. Injection into
deep wells for disposal is also an
option.
Groundw Ex-Situ Reverse Mobile units incorporating special Long High Availability of equipment is
ater Osmosis membranes can be used to treat limited. Requires long-term
saline water by reverse osmosis. maintenance of sophisticated
Treated water can usually be equipment. Requires power and
discharged to a nearby water body. disposal of filters/residues.

a Short: < 1 year, Medium: 1 - 5 years, Long: > 5 years

Sources: (API 51), (The Institute of Petroleum 1), (CIRIA 20).
Supplementary information is available in (CAPP 17, 18), (CPPI 19), (CIRIA 21) and (Petroleum Environmental Research Forum 22, 23, 24).

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