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1997

Organic petrology and geochemistry of Bukit

Asam coal, South Sumatra, Indonesia
Agus Pujobroto
University of Wollongong

Recommended Citation
Pujobroto, Agus, Organic petrology and geochemistry of Bukit Asam coal, South Sumatra, Indonesia, Doctor of Philosophy thesis,
School of Geosciences, University of Wollongong, 1997. http://ro.uow.edu.au/theses/1975

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ORGANIC PETROLOGY AND GEOCHEMISTRY
OF BUKIT ASAM COAL,
SOUTH SUMATRA
INDONESIA

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment

for the requirements for
the award of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

from

THE UNIVERSITY OF WOLLONGONG

NEW SOUTH WALES, AUSTRALIA

by

AGUS PUJOBROTO
BSc(Hons) [ITB], MSc

SCHOOL OF GEOSCIENCES

1997
 ABSTRACT

This study is a petrographic analysis of the coal in the Bukit A s a m Coalfield which
includes a complex of working coal mines located near the small town of Tanjung Enim,
South Sumatra, Indonesia. The Bukit A s a m coal seams are part of the Muara Enim
Formation which is composed of shale, siltstone, claystone, sandstone and intercalated coal
layers. Within the immediate Bukit A s a m area, the Muara Enim Formation can be divided
into two units - a lower unit, which consists mostly of coal, dark grey to black shale,
brownish-grey claystone, sandy claystone and a few coarse-grained sandstone beds, and
an upper unit which is composed of shale, coal, tuff, claystone and sandstone.
Tectonically, the basin formed in a depression zone in a back-arc basin in the early
Tertiary Sumatra subduction system. The Muara Enim Formation was deposited during a
regressive phase in a transgressive-regressive cycle that controlled sedimentation in the
South Sumatra Basin.

The lower part of the sequence was deposited in a freshwater lagoon with probably sever
marine incursions in the lower part and shallowing as indicated by the deposition of a
prograding delta sequence preceding quieter water conditions, probably a tidal flat. Later
deposition was in a deltaic environment. The Mangus Tuff (A2 Seam to A l Seam interval)
is a series of volcanic packages and represents a large increase in the volume of volcanic
detritus entering the basin.

Bukit Asam coal is dominated by vitrinite with minor liptinite, inertinite and mineral
matter (mostly clay minerals, quartz and rarely pyrite). Vitrinite is predominantly
detrovitrinite with significant amounts of telovitrinite and minor gelinite. The detrovitrinite
contents range from 7.8 to 7 6 . 1 % (an average of 56.6%) whereas telovitrinite contents
range from 3.0 to 6 2 . 6 % with an average 21.1%; gelovitrinite contents range from 1.4 to
27.6% (an average of 9.2%). Liptinite averages 5.3%, but ranges from 0.2 to 25.4%.
Resinite, sporinite, suberinite, cutinite, liptodetrinite are the dominant liptinite with minor
fluorinite and exsudatinite. It is likely that much of the exsudatinite was produced by the
influence of the intrusions. Inertinite constitutes from trace to 11.2% (average of 3.6%).
The most c o m m o n inertinite is semifusinite, followed by inertodetrinite, sclerotinite,
fusinite and sparse macrinite. Samples from A 2 seam have the highest inertinite content
(>5%).
There is no significant interseam difference in maceral composition with all seams havi
high vitrinite contents (88.0 to 90.5%), and low liptinite (4.2 to 5.0%) and inertinite
contents (4.1 to 5.5%). Intraseam variations in maceral composition are also relatively
small.

The rank range from sub-bituminous (I^max ranges from 0.35 to 0.5% with most values
falling in the range of 0.4 to 0.46%) to semi-anthracite (Ryinax 2 % ) . The wide range of
ranks is a result of igneous intrusions, of andesitic composition.

Fourpetrographic components, detrovitrinite content, sporinite-inertodetrinite-liptodet

content, telovitrinite content and mineral matter, were used to determine coal facies. The
model for the formation of Bukit A s a m coal is a raised peat bog, with gradual development
from a topogenous peat at the base to a raised mire for the middle of the seam. The
petrographic composition of Bukit A s a m coal indicates that the mires in which the peat was
 ri

deposited were mostly of a raised high moor type but these did not reach the mature stage
of peat development, except for A l seam, because of a lack of fibric peat at the top each
peat episode. The mires of Bukit A s a m were subjected to basement subsidence with the
rate of subsidence similar to the rate of plant accumulation. A modern analogue is thought
to be the Jambi peat deposit of Sumatra, Indonesia.

In Bukit Asam coal, the major oxide and trace element composition is closely linked to
mineral content of the samples with an increase in quartz and calcite in the heated coal.
Rb, C s and K are most likely derived from detrital clay (K-rich clay or mixed clay) and
have been leached from the claystone (tonstein) layers and redeposited in the coal. Y , Zr,
N b , T h and to a lesser extent Sb, H f and U have also been mobilised from the tonsteins.
Ti, and sometimes Ga, are immobile elements and are found in the tonsteins, and Ba, Sr
and to a lesser extent Z n and Pb, are organically-bound elements.

The best use for Bukit Asam coal is as a steaming coal and as a feedstock for coal
liquefaction. However, the economics of the liquefaction process in an Indonesian
scenario, is still equivocal. S o m e medium-rank coal m a y be suitable as a blending
component with high inertinite coal with the similar rank to produce strong coking coal.

Bukit Asam coal is likely to cause some fouling and slagging but selective mining pro
can improve the performance of the coal.

The significant outcomes of this thesis are:

documentation of the significant influence of volcanic activity,

development of the model for the environment of deposition,
demonstration that facies models for Permian and Carboniferous coals are not
suitable for Indonesian Tertiary coals,
showing that the quart-rich ply at the top of A 2 is a direct result of the overlying
volcanic ash deposit, and
demonstration of the influence of the intrusions on the coal.
 Ill

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
All praises only for Allah, the Almighty God, the God of Universe.

This study has been carried out since 1991 under a bilateral cooperative agreement
between the Australian and Indonesian governments w h o provided a generous scholarship
through the A I D A B / A u s A I D program. I would like to express m y thanks and deep
appreciation to the regional director of A I D A B / A u s A I D in Sydney and his staff, especially
M r . Paul Donnohue, David Engel, and Bruce O'Brien w h o have supported this program.

I would like to express my deep appreciation to my supervisor, Associate Professor Dr

Adrian C. Hutton, for his advice. Associate Professor Hutton has encouraged and patiently
guided this study through his broad knowledge of organic petrography and coal geology.
H e also provided great assistance during the final stages of the thesis.

I would like to thank Dr Bryan Chenhall who introduced the author to XRF and XRD
analysis and for undertaking the X R F analysis of the samples for this study. M y special
thanks go to John Paterson for undertaking major elements analysis, Aivars Depers for
assisting with the use of the M P V 2 and M P V I microscopes, M a x Perkins w h o helped with
the X R D analyses, David Carrie for making difficult thin sections and for instructing on
h o w to make other thin sections, Penny Williamson for helping with the close-up
photography of hand specimens and Ibu Yenny and W a h y a for their help during the ashing
of coils for X R F analysis in the Directorate of Mineral Resources Chemical Laboratory,
Bandung. Dr. B. Daulay and Nining Sudini Ningrum, M S c , providing access to the latest
development in coal conversion research in the M T R D C Chemical Laboratory, Bandung.

I thank Dr. Alan Cook for his time to read the first draft of the organic petrology
I benefited from discussions, suggestions and comments on organic petrology especially
on the aspects on thermal upgrading of coal, utilisation of coal and high inertinite contents
in Gondwana coals. H e also supplied papers, book and theses related to this study. I also
thank E m m y van Houten w h o translated old papers about early exploration in the study
area from the Dutch geologists.

I express my great appreciation to the management and geological staff of PT. Tambang
Batubara Bukit A s a m (PT. Bukit Asam) for providing many facilities during m y two
periods of field work including access to proximate data from Airlaya Mine. Ir. Syahrial
Alam (Chief Geologist), Ir. Hadi Prasetyo (Senior Geologist) and Ir. Taufiq (Computing
Geologist) provided access to invaluable data and reports only available from the company.
Iswandy (Geologist) helped during sampling on the mining face and assisted with his
knowledge of the best outcrops in the concession area of PT. Bukit Asam.

I thank Ir. Kingking A. Margawijaya (Director of the Directorate of Mineral Resources

D M R ) , Ir. Salman Padmanagara (former Director) and Mardanis Madonna M S c . (Chief
of the Coal Basin Study Section, Sub Directorate of Coal and Peat Exploration, D M R )
w h o encouraged the author to undertake this study.

I also thank my fellow postgraduate students in the former Department of Geology, and
n o w School of Geosciences) for fruitful discussions and their suggestions during m y study,
especially Hadiyanto w h o suggested that I take Bukit A s a m as m y study area, Drs C. Nas
 IV

and B. Daulay w h o gave m e valuable hints for the organic petrology study, Soltani and
Moradian w h o helped m e with thin section making and Indra Jaya, Dessy and Prasetya
w h o helped with the photocopying of some figures in the last stages of m y study.

Last but not least, I am proud, thankful and indebted to my wife, Dewi, and my sons
Danu and the late Saksi for their encouragement to finish this study. M y wife also helped
m e with typing and undertaking the corrections of spelling mistakes and valuable
suggestions for some aspects of the inorganic chemistry.
 V

The contents of this thesis are the results of original research by

the author and material contained herein has not been submitted
to any other university or similar institution for a higher
degree.

AGUS PUJOBROTO
 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 Location m a p of the study area 283
Figure 1.2 Coal production from Bukit Asam, compared to 284
Indonesian coal production, 1973-1990
Figure 1.3 Coal seam nomenclature of Bukit A s a m coals 285
Figure 1.4 The coal exploration prospect areas of the 286
South Sumatra Basin

Figure 2.1 Central and South Sumatra Basins 287

Figure 2.2 Schematic section of the Tertiary South Sumatra Basin 288
Figure 2.3 Schematic section of Ombilin Basin 289
Figure 2.4 Stratigraphic column of the Tertiary South Sumatra Basin 290
Figure 2.5 Regional structural pattern resulting from the Plio- 291
Pleistocene Orogeny
Figure 2.6 Geological map of the Tanjung Enim area 292
Figure 2.7 Structural m a p of Airlaya mine 293
Figure 2.8 Rose diagram of fault plane directions in Airlaya mine 294

Figure 3.1 Bore hole and sample locations 297

Figure 4.1 Schematic diagrams of the "Progressive Superposition of 299

the Coal Horizon and Sediments of the Middle Palembang Bed"
Figure 4.2 Comparison between the South Sumatra Basin and the Lower 300
Rhine Basin, Germany
Figure 4.3 A. Distribution of the Telisa Formation 301
B. Distribution of the Muara Enim Formation and the isopach
of the total thickness of the coal seams
Figure 4.4 Global cycles on relative sea level change during Cainozoic 302
Figure 4.5 Measured section Perimeter Ditch Muara Tiga Besar Utara 303
Figure 4.6 Measured section Bench 5 and Northern Wall Airlaya 304
Figure 4.7 Measured section Muara Tiga Selatan 305
Figure 4.8 Outcrop photos from the Bukit Asam Coalfield 306
Figure 4.9 Outcrop photos from the Bukit Asam Coalfield 308
Figure 4.10 Prograding delta lobes, Bench 5 Airlaya 310
Figure 4.11 Close-up of claystone layers in A l and Bl seams 311

Figure 5.1 Variation in P^max for samples, Bukit A s a m Coalfield 319

Figure 5.2 Variation in R v max of each seam, Bukit A s a m Coalfield 320
Figure 5.3 a. R^max vs calorific value; b. ^ m a x vs inherent moisture 321
Figure 5.4 Ryinax vs volatile matter 322
Figure 5.5 Effects of the Bukit Asam dyke in Balong Hijau Quarry 323
Figure 5.6 Effects of the intrusion in Balong Hijau Quarry 324
Figure 5.7 Plot of Ryinax and distance from the intrusion 325
Figure 5.8 Structure contours for the top of the Suban Sill 326
Figure 5.9 The shape of Suban Sill 327
Figure 5.10 Cross-section for the western side of Airlaya pit showing 328
the isorank lines
Figure 5.11 Isopach of A 2 seam 329
Figure 5.12 Variation in vitrinite reflectance in Mangus (Al + A 2 ) 330
Figure 5.13 Variation in vitrinite reflectance in Mangus and 331
Suban seams
Figure 5.14 Lateral variation in ^ m a x for A l seam 332
Figure 5.15 Lateral variation in R v m a x for A 2 seam and Bl seam 333
Figure 5.16 Intraseam variation in Ryinax values for samples 334
from boreholes in nonheated zones
Figure 5.17 Intraseam variation in ^ m a x values for samples from 335
a heated zone
Figure 5.18 Interseam variation in R v m a x values for samples 336
from nonheated zone
Figure 5.19 Interseam variation in Ryinax in a heated zone, ALB-47 337
Figure 5.20 Interseam variation in R v max in a heated zone, RC-10 338
Figure 5.21 Negative trend of vertical variation of ^ m a x in 339
(a) one seam and (b) between seams
Figure 5.22 Maceral composition of the Bukit A s a m coal 340
Figure 5.23 Proportonal distribution of the three submaceral groups of 341
vitrinite
Figure 5.24 Distribution of vitrinite macerals 342
Figure 5.25 Average liptinite content of Bukit Asam coal 343
Figure 5.26 Average of maceral composition of the seams in Bukit Asam 344
Figure 5.27 The D-W-R and T-F-D facies triangles 345
Figure 5.28 Generalised cross section of (A) the Baram peat, 346
Sarawak and (B) Jambi peat, Indonesia
Figure 5.29 TPI versus GI of A l seam, Bukit Asam coal 347
Figure 5.30 G W I versus VI plot of the A l seam, Bukit Asam coal 347
Figure 5.31 Distribution of pyrite in the shaly coal, top of A l seam 348

Figure 6.1 Histogram of major elements in the Bukit Asam Coalfields 370
Figure 6.2 a. Plot of acid oxides versus ash content 371
b. Plot of basic oxides versus ash content
Figure 6.3 a. Correlation between Th contents for X R F and I N A A 372
b. Correlation between Zn contents for X R F and I N A A
Figure 6.4 Dendrogram of X R F data for A l seam 373
Figure 6.5 Vertical profiles of parameters in Groups A and B, R-mode 374
analysis, A l seam
Figure 6.6 Vertical profiles of Group C{ and C 2 , R-mode analysis, 375
A l seam
Figure 6.7 Vertical profiles of parameters in group C 3 and D l t R-mode 376
analysis, Al seam
Figure 6.8 Vertical profiles of parameters in group D 2 , 377
R-mode analysis, Al seam
Figure 6.9 Dendogram of I N A A data, A 2 seam 378
Figure 6.10 Vertical profiles of Ba and Fe, A 2 seam 379
Figure 6.11 R-mode dendrogram of X R F data, A 2 seam 380
Figure 6.12 Vertical profiles of parameters in Group A, 381
X R F data, A 2 seam
Figure 6.13 Vertical profiles of parameters in Group B, 382
X R F data, A 2 seam
Figure 6.14 R-mode dendrogram of I N A A data, Bl seam 383
Figure 6.15 Vertical profiles of parameters in Groups A and B, 384
I N A A data, Bl seam
Figure 6.16 Vertical profiles of parameters in Subgroup D 2 , I N A A data, 385
Bl seam
Figure 6.17 Vertical profiles of parameters in Subgroup D 3 386
and Group E, I N N A data, Bl seam
Figure 6.18 R-mode dendrogram of X R F data, Bl seam 387
Figure 6.19 Vertical profiles of parameters in Group A, X R F data, 388
Bl seam
Figure 6.20 Vertical profiles of parameters in Group C, X R F data, 389
Bl seam
Figure 6.21 R-mode dendrogram of I N A A data, B 2 seam 390
Figure 6.22 Vertical profiles of parameters in Group A, I N A A data, 391
B 2 seam
Figure 6.23 Vertical profiles of parameters in Groups B and C, 392
I N A A data, B 2 seam
Figure 6.24 R-mode dendrogram of X R F data, B2 seam 393
Figure 6.25 Dendogram of Q-mode analysis 394
Figure 6.26 R-mode dendrogram of geochemical and penological data, 396
A l seam
Figure 6.27 Geochemical separation of important elements on the 397
basis of ionic radii

Figure 7.1 Vertical variation in ash content in coal and claystone + 408
shaly coal fractions, Al seam, location A L A 1 2
Figure 7.2 Statistical prediction of slagging and fouling 409
behaviour of solid fuels
Figure 7.3 Comparison of the reflectogram of 5 coal blends with their 410
swelling indices and other properties
Figure 7.4 Distribution of A l seam coal based on potential 411
use as coking coal
 LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.1 Main lithologies of the Muara Enim Formation 313
and adjacent units
Table 4.2 Average ash content of South Sumatra coals 314
Table 4.3 Description of claystone in A l seam 315
Table 4.4 Sulphur content in the Bukit Asam coals 316

Table 5.1 Effect of heat on Australian high volatile bituminous coal 340
Table 5.2 R v max and distance data to the intrusion for Figure 5.7 350
Table 5.3 Range and average maceral content in Bukit Asam coals 351
Table 5.4 Range and average maceral content in Bukit Asam coaly shale 351
Table 5.5 Average maceral composition of seams, Bukit Asam 352
Table 5.6 Characteristics of the coal seams, Bukit Asam 353
Table 5.7 Summary of the relationship between coal facies 354
indices and condition of coal formation
Table 5.8 Tropical peat classification 355

Table 6.1 Major element content in coal (< 15% ash) 398
Table 6.2 Major element content in shaly coal and claystone 399
(>15%ash)
Table 6.3 Average major element content in seams 400
Table 6.4 Comparison of elemental contents resulted from X R F and I N A A 400
Table 6.5 Trace element content in coal (results from X R F analysis) 401
Table 6.6 Trace element content in shaly coal and claystone 402
(> 1 5 % ash, results from X R F analysis)
Table 6.7 Average trace element content in seams 403
Table 6.8 Elemental content in coal - I N A A ( < 1 5 % ash), P^max < 0 . 5 % 404
Table 6.9 Elemental content in shaly coal and claystone (> 1 5 % ash), 404
R v max < 0 . 5 %
Table 6.10 Elemental content in slightly heated coal - 405
I N A A ( < 1 5 % ash), ^ m a x 0.5 to 0.8%
Table 6.11 Elemental content in claystone (> 1 5 % ash), 405
R v max 0.5 to 0.8%
Table 6.12 Elemental content of coal - I N A A (< 1 5 % ash), heated coal, 406
Rvmax > 1 %
Table 6.13 Elemental content of shaly coal and claystone (> 1 5 % ash), 406
heated shaly coal, R v max > 1 %
Table 6.14 Average seam elemental contents; I N A A methods 407

Table 7.1 Proximate analysis data, unhealed Bukit Asam coals 412
- VM >45%
Table 7.2 Weighted average of proximate analysis and 412
sulphur contents of the Bukit Asam coal
Table 7.3 Ultimate analysis of the Bukit Asam coals 413
Table 7.4 Weighted average of potentially hazardous trace elements, 414
Bukit Asam
Table 7.5 Summary of c o m m o n slagging and fouling indices 415
Table 7.6 Slagging and fouling parameters, Bukit Asam coal 416
Table 7.7 Slagging and fouling parameters using the Altmann method 417
Table 7.8 Emission standards for new coal-fired power plant, 418
300 M W in industrial countries
Table 7.9 Specifications of selected Indonesian coals 419
Table 7.10 Capital expenditure for fuels 420
 LIST OF PLATES

Plate 2.1 Thin Sections of Igneous Rocks 295

Plate 4.1 Thin Sections of Interseam Rocks 317

Plate 5.1 Vitrinite 356

Plate 5.2 Liptinite 358
Plate 5.3 Exsudatinite 360
Plate 5.4 Inertinite 362
Plate 5.5 Mineral matter 364
Plate 5.6 Calcite 366
Plate 5.7 Quartz 368
 LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix 5.1 Maceral Composition

Appendix 5.2 Reflectance Data
Appendix 5.3 Reflectance Data from Daulay (1988) and Kinhill-Ottogold Joint
Venture (1986)
Appendix 5.4 Vertical Variation Diagrams of Maceral Groups and Mineral Matter
Appendix 5.5 Vertical Variation Diagrams of Macerals and Mineral Matter
Appendix 5.6 Proximate Analysis Data

Appendix 6.1 Major Element Data

Appendix 6.2A Trace Element Data (XRF Analyses)
Appendix 6.2B Trace Element Data (INAA Analyses)
Appendix 6.3 Vertical Profiles of Some Major Oxides and Trace Elements
 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION

1.1 LOCATION

The study area covers a complex of working coal mines in the Bukit Asam Coalfield wh

is located near the small town of Tanjung Enim, South Sumatra, Indonesia (Fig. 1.1).

study area is 4 km wide and 6 km long and is part of the concession area of PT. Tamb

Batubara Bukit Asam (abbreviated to PT. Bukit Asam) which is the operator of the min

The nearest major city, which is the commercial centre of the area and has the neare

airport capable of landing F28 jet aircraft (the aircraft commonly used in commercia

aviation for travel to the less remote areas of Indonesia, such as central South Sum

is Palembang which is about 165 km northeast of the study area. From Palembang, the

study area can be reached by car or train.

The terrain covering the study area is moderately undulating, especially across the

area. Elevations generally range from -40 m in the base of one working pit to 280 m

above sea level at Bukit Asam, a prominent hill (+282 m) close to the mine area.

Bukit Asam coal' mining lease comprises five coal mines - Airlaya (the biggest), Mua

Tiga Selatan, Suban Klawas Tengah, Klawas Barat and one abandoned mine, Klawas

Timur, which has been worked out and now has no economic reserves. Rank variations

are caused by igneous intrusions that locally heated some of coal-bearing areas in t

area, and as a consequence, reduced the volatile matter and increased the fixed carb
 2
content of the coals. The rank of the mined coal ranges from semi-anthracite to sub-

bituminous rank. The igneous rocks causing the rank variations are exposed on Bukit

A s a m Hill and Bukit Tapuan Hill which are prominent hills in the area.

1.2 BACKGROUND
The South Sumatra Basin, in which Bukit A s a m Coalfield is located, is believed to be the

most prospective coal resource in Indonesia. It contains approximately 18.8 billion tonnes

of coal reserves which account for 5 8 . 4 % of Indonesia's total coal reserves. With the

increasing popularity of coal as an energy resource in Indonesia on the one hand, and an

increasing concern about the environmental impact of coal utilisation (as in western

countries) on the other hand, a study of the organic composition and mineralogical content

of Bukit A s a m coal would be very beneficial both in relation to future exploration and coal

utilisation studies of South Sumatran coals.

Until fairly recently, mining of the Bukit Asam coals has followed traditional practic

with modern technologies not being a major component in formulating mining strategies.

This is quite different to some of the newer mines in Kalimantan where, for example,

computer technology is a major tool in both exploration and mining. South Sumatran coal

is almost wholly utilised in domestic electricity generation and thus traditional mining

strategies are used and these rely on cheap labour and low productivity costs rather than

more efficient and cost efficient mechanisation as is needed for coal production in

Kalimantan where export markets are the main focus.

Coal production from Bukit Asam in 1990 was 4.023 million tonnes which was 39.5% of

total Indonesian production. Since then the percentage has decreased due to the rapid
 3

increase in production from mines in Kalimantan. Bukit A s a m coal is used in the Suralaya

power station, which in 1992, had a generating capacity of 800 M W of electricity1 from

two 400 M W plants, and Bukit A s a m power station which has two 65 M W plants and an

additional four 400 M W plants due to come on stream by the year 2000.

Mining started at Bukit Asam in 1919 with a small surface pit but went underground in

the Suban and Airlaya areas in 1923. Underground mining continued until 1940-41 with

a m a x i m u m annual output of 800,000 tonnes. The very low oil prices in the 1963 to 1973

period caused a dramatic decrease in production with only 75,000 tonnes produced in

1973. Since then, production has increased, associated with increased mechanisation of the

mines, with production for selected years in the 1980s shown in Figure 1.2.

Daulay (1994) and Daulay and Hutton (1994) gave figures that showed that total

Indonesian coal production is predicted to increase from 36.7 million tonnes in 1995 to 50

million tonnes in the year 2000. Of this amount, Sumatran coal comprised 11.4 million

tonnes in 1995 and was estimated to increase to 13.8 million tonnes by 2000. Thus the

large predicted increase in production is likely to be from Kalimantan. Whilst these are the

predictions, the scenario is not fixed and not necessarily the best option.

The population density and distribution in Indonesia is not uniform; the largest prop

of the population is in Java and Sumatra. Thus it would be convenient to have large

established reserves of energy, both coal and electricity, near these population centres as

these areas are where the energy will be needed and where the bulk of the expected coal

consumption is likely to occur. For example, Daulay (1994) stated that the total predicted

coal consumption in Indonesia would increase from 15 million (low estimate) or 19 million
 4
(high estimate) to 28 million (low) or 41 million (high) in the year 2000. T h e proportion

for electricity, cement manufacture and other domestic uses for the year 2000 were given

as 15 million (low) to 29 million (high), 5.3 million (low and high estimate) and 7.4

million (low and high estimate) respectively.

Estimates of coal-fired electricity generation capacity for Indonesia is predicted to

12,890 M W in the year 2000 with Java and Sumatra capacity accounting for 12,600 M W ,

indicating the influence of population growth centres on power station location. Because

of transport costs and other distance cost factors, the bulk of the coal will be from the

Sumatran coalfields with the Bukit A s a m area becoming an increasingly important

producer by the year 2000.

1.3 PREVIOUS STUDIES

The geology of Bukit A s a m area was reported by a number of early frontier Dutch

geologists. S o m e important publications related to Indonesia geology, and the Sumatra

region especially, were Tobler (1906), Hirschi (1916), Hartman (1918), Mannhardt (1918,

a copy is still available) and Ziegler (1918); unfortunately, these publications are not

available any more and all references to these publications by modern researchers has to

be by way of referring to citations in later works such Musper (1937). The following

information relating the these reports is taken from Musper's paper.

Tobler (1906) reported on the petroleum areas around Muara Enim and was the first

geologist to give a stratigraphic subdivision of the young Tertiary sedimentary sequence

called the Telisa beds; Tobler's terminology introduced the terms Lower, Middle and

Upper Palembang beds. This terminology remained unchanged until the 1970s.
 5

Hirschi was one of the first to discover and report on the Tertiary coals. H e discussed the

effects of contact metamorphism on the coal, especially in the Muara Enim area which

includes Bukit Asam. Hartman (1918) reported the coal occurrences in Sukamerinda and

Bunian areas, west of Bukit Asam, and Mannhardt (1918) reported on the geology and

coal occurrences in the Tanjung/Bukit A s a m Coalfield. Ziegler (1918) reported on the

geology and coal occurrence in the Bukit Kendi area.

One of the earliest publications still available is that of Musper (1937) who made a

comprehensive geological evaluation of the Lahat Quadrangle (including the areas covered

in the above-mentioned reports). H e recorded and critically evaluated the important points

in the above reports although not a lot of new data was given. In a later preliminary report

on Bukit A s a m coals, Tarring (1951) stated that igneous intrusions had domed the coal

measures, effecting local changes in coal composition by heat. The greatest influence by

the intrusions was at the top of the Airlaya dome; the influence was stated to decrease

radially outwards. Badroom (1964) reported additional new data for this area after

completion of an exploration program designed to find new reserves for development.

Shell Mijnbouw N.V. (1978) carried out a major drilling program of 590 boreholes in th

South Sumatra Coal Province as a part of a Tambang Arang Bukit A s a m ( T A B A , later

changed to P T . Bukit A s a m ) coal resource and feasibility program. Thirty one cored holes

were drilled in the study area and geophysical logging was carried out on these test holes.

The results of this program were reported in several thematic reports, the most important

being:

- a geological m a p of South Sumatra Coal Province (that is still valid and remains one of

the most commonly used publications for this area),

 6

- a report on the stratigraphy and structure of the coal deposits in the then T A B A

concession, written by Haan (1976),

- a review of the depositional environments of the South Sumatra Basin written by Stalder

(1976).

Nursarya and Latief (1979) studied the depositional environments of the coal-bearing

strata. They concluded that the coal measures sequence was deposited in a deltaic system

with an optimal subsidence rate that enabled the formation of widespread, relatively thick

coal deposits.

In 1978, after an extensive core drilling program, the Geological Survey of Indonesia

completed a comprehensive report on the coal geology of Bukit A s a m Coalfield and this

provided a better understanding of the coalfield.

In 1980, Montreal Engineering, Canadian Pacific Railways and Swan Wooster Canada

Consultants ( M C S Consultants, 1960) provided another evaluation of Bukit A s a m

Coalfield, reporting additional exploration data; also provided were the data for analyses

of the available coal including organic petrography, elemental analyses and proximate

analyses. However, all data were based on composite samples from each of the seams in

the coalfield. Distribution patterns of volatile matter, ash and fixed carbon were given. The

distribution trends for volatile matter indicated decreasing values towards the south and

towards a region west of the Airlaya pit. This was interpreted as showing that the influence

of the igneous activity had altered volatile content by varying amounts. T h e report also

mentioned that the centre of igneous activities was below an area on the western side of

Airlaya pit. Ash trends showed irregular patterns over the entire coalfield.
 7

T h e trends in carbon content appeared to be similar to volatile matter trends indicating that

carbon content increases towards a high on the western side of Airlaya pit. A s h data

showed slightly higher sodium and potassium oxides in the central and northern sectors of

the coalfields. Trace element analyses was carried out only on one sample from Airlaya

pit and hence no trends could be given.

Kinhill-Ottogold Joint Venture (1986) reported on an exploration project in the Muara Tiga

Besar and Banko areas. T h e report included a coal quality study and also reported on a

facies study of the clastic sediments and coal that had developed in the study area.

Daulay (1985), as part of his study on the petrology of some Indonesian coals, stated that

as for other Indonesian coals, the coal from Bukit A s a m is characterised petrographically

by high vitrinite, relatively high liptinite and low inertinite and mineral contents. H e also

stated that detrovitrinite is the main constituent of vitrinite and occurs as a matrix material

for isolated thin layers of telovitrinite. In heated coals, the vitrinite was found to be

dominated by structureless vitrinite described as telovitrinite. Daulay mentioned that heat

alteration m a d e the distinction between telovitrinite and detrovitrinite more difficult. This

resulted in an apparent increase in the telovitrinite:detrovitrinite ratio for the heated

samples compared to the same ratio for unaltered coals. Daulay also discussed the

palaeoclimate interpretations of Indonesian Tertiary coals at the time of deposition, the

potential for utilisation of Indonesian coals and coal rank trends. H e did not discuss in

detail the mineral content of the coals.

From the brief summary of the previous studies given above, it is clear that there has not

been any study that focused on the vertical and horizontal elemental distribution in the coal
 8
seams nor variations in the composition of the coals, either organic or inorganic. A s

Indonesia increases its use of coal and, consequently, the Sumatra coalfields are required

to produce additional coal, a larger and better data base will be required. Also, as

environmental concerns become more relevant and important, a study of the mineral matter

and trace elements will be very useful.

1.4 GENERAL GEOLOGY OF BUKIT ASAM AREA

Geologically, the study area comprises three major rock units: the coal measures sequence,

the igneous intrusions and the recent Old River deposits. The coal measures sequence is

a sequence of sedimentary rocks which mainly consists of an alternation of tuffaceous shale

and sandstone which contains at least 18 coal layers. The unit is formally part of the

Muara Enim Formation. The coal seams vary in thickness from several centimetres to 15

metres and are distributed almost rhythmically throughout the sequence.

The Muara Enim Formation was conformably deposited over a sequence of shallow marine

sediments, with abundant foraminifers, known as the Air Benakat Formation. Above the

Muara Enim Formation are tuffaceous terrestrial sediments of the Kasai Formation. The

Maura Enim Formation, which is gently folded with fold axes generally trending N W W -

S E E , occupies a moderately undulating terrain.

Rocks of the second rock unit, volcanic rocks and plutonic rocks associated with the

igneous intrusions, are andesitic in composition. Several bodies intrude the coal-bearing

sequence in either of two styles - vertical prism-like structures such Bukit A s a m and Bukit

Tapuan Hills, or "half ball" structures such as Bukit M u n g g u Hill. Intrusions of the second

type intrude horizontally and are parallel to the bedding planes at the base; an example is
 9

the sill between B 2 and C seams (see terminology explanation below) under Airlaya and

Suban mines. It is these intrusions that are responsible for increasing rank of the adjacent

coals.

The Old River deposits, the third rock unit, comprises Quaternary river deposits whi

cover parts of the study area. These sediments generally show a horizontal stratification

and occasional channel structures. The Old River sediments are unconformably deposited

on the coal measures sequence and were reported from several drill holes in Airlaya mine

area.

1.5 COAL SEAM NOMENCLATURE

In the Muara Enim Formation at least 18 coal layers are found but not all are important

enough to have been given seam names. S o m e of the coals are thin discontinuous lenses

which have little or no economic potential whereas others are thick seams. Several of the

significant coal units have been given seam status. The deepest seam is Kladi seam which

is also the base of the Muara Enim Formation. The shallowest seam is Niru seam which

is the top boundary of the Muara Enim Formation. The intermediate coal seams are, from

the bottom, Merapi, Petai, Suban, Mangus, Burung, Benuang, Kebon, Babat/Benakat and

Enim seams. In the Muara Enim area, Lematang and Niru seams did not develop.

Mangus, Suban and Petai seams split into two seams, namely, the Upper (Al) and Lower

(A2) Mangus seams, Upper (Bl) and Lower (B2) Suban seams and Upper (CI) and Lower

(C2) Petai seams (Fig. 1.3). The more recent publications commonly use the A l , A 2 , Bl,

B2, C I and C 2 nomenclature. In this thesis, the terms Mangus or A , Suban or B and Petai

or C are used where referring to the interval comprising the lower and upper splits with

the intervening clastic sedimentary rocks and the A l , A 2 , Bl, B2, C I and C 2 are used for
 10

the individual seam splits.

With present mining operations (Fig. 1.4), PT. Bukit Asam exploits the coals from th

and A2 (Mangus) seams and Bl and B2 (Suban) seams as these seams are more readily

exposed for open pit mining. The upper seams (Enim seam and above) are not considere

economic at this stage as they have high total moisture values.

1.6 AIMS OF THIS STUDY

Most previous studies of Bukit Asam were made for mine development and they generall

discussed general coal geology and coal quality. In such studies aspects of the depo

environments that probably controlled many aspects of Bukit Asam coal were not of gr

concern. MCS Consultants (1960) mentioned the spatial variations in volatile matter,

carbon and calorific values but these were interpreted as effects of thermal alterat

also mentioned sodium and potassium variations but did not discuss why such variatio

occurred. Daulay (1985) discussed the petrology of Indonesian coal including Bukit A

coals, the coal types and rank variations (and the relationship to sedimentary and te

settings), and palaeoclimate but this was very much a preliminary study; aspects rela

to the Bukit Asam area was only a very small part of his study. He did not discuss s

and temporal variations in coal type.

Also, most previous studies did not discuss the elemental variation or mineral varia

Bukit Asam coals. These matters will be addressed in detail in this thesis.

The general aims this thesis are:

1. To undertake a detailed petrographic study of coals from Bukit Asam to determine

 11

lateral and vertical variations in maceral composition, and to determine the

influence of the igneous intrusions on the petrography and elemental composition

of the coal.

2. T o reinterpret the environments of deposition of the interseam sediments and to

determine any influence on the coal by these units.

3. T o provide a revised model for the formation of the coals based on a review of

published interpretations of the sedimentary patterns and environments of

deposition of the clastic units in the Bukit A s a m Coalfield, and additional measured

sections taken during field work for this project.

4. T o undertake a study of the major oxides and trace elements in the coal and

claystone layers in the coal, by analysing the composition of the ash.

5. T o use coal quality data to determine the best use of Bukit A s a m coals.

With this study, a model incorporating palaeodepositional environment, elemental

distribution and the influence of igneous intrusions on the coal will be formulated. This

study will be of value for future researchers, the mining operations in the Bukit A s a m area

and electricity generation authorities as it will have an impact on mine planning, coal

utilisation, environmental studies and models relating to the environments of deposition of

coal in southern Sumatra and probably elsewhere in Indonesia.

12
 13

CHAPTER TWO
GEOLOGY OF THE BUKIT ASAM AREA

2.1 INTRODUCTION

An understanding of the geology of Bukit Asam area requires an understanding of t

evolution of the South Sumatra Basin because the coal measures unit at Bukit Asam

of the sedimentary sequence in the basin and the deposition of the sediments was

by the climate, topography, structure and dynamic change within the basin once th

had been deposited. In this chapter, the geology of South Sumatra Basin will be d

with emphasis on the study area, that is, the local geology of Bukit Asam area. C

characteristics and nomenclature that are required as a framework for the petrogr

chemical study will be given in following chapters.

The formation of the South Sumatra Basin has been discussed by many authors inclu

de Coster (1974), Sudarmono (1974), Koesoemadinata (1978), Koesoemadinata et al.

(1978) and Daly et al. (1987). De Coster (1974) had access to a large data base d

from oil exploration programs and gave an excellent explanation of the geology of

the Central Sumatra Basin and the South Sumatra Basin as they were understood at

time. However, not a lot was written about the coal and its formation. Only the p

written by Koesoemadinata and Harjono (1977) and Koesoemadinata (1978) provided a

acceptable concept for the sedimentary framework of the basin in relation to the

of coal in the South Sumatra Basin.

The South Sumatra Basin is a very important fossil fuel-producing area in Indones
 14
oil traps and economic coal deposits have been found, and exploited, in this basin. T h e

basin contains Tertiary sedimentary rocks resting unconformably on a basement of pre-

Tertiary metamorphic and igneous rocks. The basin is bounded by faults and uplifted

exposures of preTertiary rocks (which form the core of the Barisan Mountains) along the

southwestern margin, by the Lampung High along the southeastern margin, by the Sunda

Shelf along the northeastern margin and by the Tigapuluh Mountains along the northern

and northwestern margins (Fig. 2.1).

The South Sumatra Basin was formed as a result of plate collision and interaction betw

the Sunda cratonic mass, commonly called the Sunda Shelf and the Indo-Australian Plate

in the Early Tertiary. Plate collision during the Early Tertiary resulted in complex block

faulting and subsidence at the margin of the land mass (Fig. 2.2). T h e different rates of

subsidence between the blocks resulted in the development of Tertiary basins which are

characterised by terrestrial sedimentation followed by a large-scale marine transgression

which covered most of the cratonic periphery with the exception of a few high areas acting

as basin barriers. In Indonesia, this style of basin is called an intramontane basins. Coal

formed in these intramontane basins. Ombilin Basin, in which coal formed in a lacustrine

environment (Fig. 2.3), is one of the better-known examples of this type of basin.

During the Middle Tertiary, subduction of the oceanic plate against the continental c

continued but was accompanied by a reversal of the block movement and a general uplift

of the immediate continental crust. At the same time, d o w n warping occurred in the

backdeep areas and new sedimentary basins formed. The uplift of the blocks continued,

followed by volcanism and the development of a regressive phase in the backdeep areas.

Sedimentation in deltaic or paralic environments at this time resulted in peat deposition in

 15

these backdeep areas and thus the coals formed in a tectonically-active region and in

backdeep areas during a regional regression phase. However, Stalder (1976) stated that

during the period when the Muara Enim Formation was formed, that is, during the time

the precursor peats for the coals were being deposited, there was no tectonic activity

except for the uplift of the Barisan Range and axial subsidence of the basin. Thus,

although the basin experienced tectonic activity, this activity m a y not have been uniform

throughout the life of the basin, but fluctuated from time to time.

Stach et al. (1982) stated that most economic laterally-extensive coal seams are formed

active forearc basins. In these basins, the sediments commonly are very thick and coal

layers are relatively thin but of great lateral extent. Stach et al also stated that in backdeep

areas, the number of coal seams is usually less than in the forearc areas. In the South

Sumatra Basin, the coals formed in a backdeep basin but are both widespread and

relatively numerous in number and this is apparently contradictory to the model or

presumption of Stach et al..

2.2 STRATIGRAPHY OF THE SOUTH SUMATRA BASIN

The basal Tertiary unit, which unconformably overlies the preTertiary rock basement in

the South Sumatra Basin (Fig 2.4), is the Lahat Formation (called the Lemat Formation

by some authors, for example, Sudarmono, 1974; de Coster, 1974). This unit consists of

coarse clastic, continental sedimentary rocks such as conglomerate, breccia, shale with thin

coals intercalations and tuff. W h e r e the basin was deeper and where the sequence is n o w

thicker, the Benakat Shale M e m b e r also was deposited. This unit consists of shale,

tuffaceous shale, thinly-bedded limestone and thin sandstone intercalations. Towards

marginal areas of the basin, the Benakat Shale M e m b e r gradually becomes coarser grained
 16
and is known as an undifferentiated, coarse member of the Lahat Formation. The thickness

of the Lahat Formation is highly variable; it attains a thickness of more than 760 m in the

centre of the basin (de Coster, 1974; Sumuyut and Sarjito, 1989).

The age of the Lahat Formation is given as Late Eocene-Early Oligocene. This age is

based on spore and pollen dating of the clastic sedimentary rocks and K-Ar dating of tuff

and shale (de Coster, 1974).

The Talang Akar Formation generally was deposited unconformably over the Lahat

Formation although in the marginal areas of the basin it was deposited directly on the pre-

Tertiary basement. This unit consists of delta plain sandstone, siltstone and shale (with

intercalations of coal) that grade basinward into shallow marine sandstone and shale.

Towards the margin, coarser-grained clastic rocks are commonly found. The thickness of

the Talang Akar Formation varies; it is very thin along the margins of the basin but in the

central regions of the basin, such as near Bukit Asam, the thickness varies from 460 to

610 m (de Coster, 1974). In a report on the petroleum potential of the area to the

northwest of Bukit Asam, Sumuyut and Sarjito (1989) stated that two facies of the Talang

Akar Formation could be recognised; the basal facies is a coarse-grained facies up to 550

m thick and the upper facies is a finer grained unit (informally called the transitional

member) up to 300 m thick; the unit has a combined thickness of up to 850 m .

The age of Talang Akar Formation is given as Late Oligocene-Early Miocene and this is

based on the foraminifer assemblage N.3-N.5 as defined in Berner and Blow's planktonic

foraminifer zonation scheme (de Coster, 1974).

 17
Conformably overlying the Talang Akar Formation is the Telisa Formation which

comprises the Basal Telisa Limestone M e m b e r (de Coster, 1974; Sudarmono, 1974) which

is defined on the basis of intercalations of calcareous sandstone in the lower part and

calcareous shale with abundant foraminifers and thin limestone layers in the middle and

upper parts of the unit. The unit changes laterally; in the middle of the basin there is

limestone whereas towards the margins of the basin, the limestone changes to calcareous

shale which in turn gradually changes to calcareous glauconitic sandstone on the extreme

marginal areas. Later authors (Hutapea, 1981; Koesoemadinata, 1978) regarded the basal

Telisa Limestone M e m b e r as a separate unit and it was given the name Baturaja

Formation; the remainder of the Telisa Formation was called the Gumai Formation. The

oil companies prefer to use the de Coster terminology but surface geologists, not associated

with oil companies, prefer to use the Koesoemadinata terminology because the two units

of the Telisa Formation are quite distinctive in outcrop.

The thickness of the Telisa Formation varies greatly depending on the position in the

basin; in the main depocentre of the basin, near Bukit Asam, it has a m a x i m u m thickness

of 2,700 m . The age of the unit ranges from N.6 (based on the planktonic foraminifer

assemblages of Berner and Blow) at the base of the unit to N . 11 at the top of the unit.

The Telisa Formation was deposited when the marine transgression reached its maximum

stage and the whole basin was dominated by a marine environment. Gradually the sea level

fell and the Air Benakat Formation (previously called the Lower Palembang Formation)

was deposited conformably on top of the Telisa Formation.

The Air Benakat Formation consists of calcareous shale with abundant foraminifers,
 18
glauconitic sandstone and limestone intercalations in the lower part. At the top of the

formation, the proportion of sandstone is higher and thin coal is intercalated with the

latter; plant remains are c o m m o n in the clastic layers, indicating a shallowing environment.

This unit was deposited in a neritic environment at the base grading to a shallow marine

environment and then a paralic environment at the top.

The thickness of the Air Benakat Formation ranges from 1000 m to 1500 m although

Sumuyut and Sarjito (1989) stated that in the Limau area, northwest of Bukit Asam, the

unit is only 600 m thick. The unit has been assigned a Late Miocene age (de Coster,

1974).

Conformably overlying the Air Benakat Formation is the Muara Enim Formation (formerly

called the Middle Palembang Formation) which is characterised by the occurrence of

several coal seams. The Muara Enim Formation is defined as the interval extending from

the top of the Air Benekat Formation which is taken as the base of the lowest thick, wide-

spread coal layer (such as the Kladi seam) to the top of the stratigraphically highest wide-

spread coal layer, the Niru seam.

Lithologically, the Muara Enim Formation comprises shale at the base and sandstone and

coal at the top; this indicates deposition in a shallow marine environment changing to a

paludal, deltaic and non-marine environment at the top (de Coster, 1974). In the middle

and top parts of this formation, tuff or tuffaceous claystone intercalations are also

common. This is consistent with the work of Shell Minjbouw N.V. (1978) w h o stated that

the lower part of the Muara Enim Formation was influenced by a prominent set of marine

influences which resulted in a succession of alternating freshwater and marine sediments

 19
(with mollusc and foraminifers assemblages) at the base of the unit, informally called the

lower Muara Enim Formation, and an increased terrestrial influence at the top, resulting

in deltaic sediments and a greater influx of tuffaceous material, informally called the upper

Muara Enim Formation.

The age of the unit is given as Early Miocene-Pliocene based on its stratigraphic pos

no fossil has been shown to be useful for age dating. The thickness of the unit ranges from

450 m , in the northern part of the basin, to 750 m in the Bukit A s a m area.

The Kasai Formation (earlier called the Upper Palembang Formation (de Coster, 1974))

was deposited conformably on top of the Muara Enim Formation. This formation was

deposited during the Plio-Pleistocene orogeny and is composed mostly of erosional detritus

derived from the Barisan Mountain and from folded units that had been uplifted during the

orogeny. T h e dominant lithologies are tuffaceous claystone, sandstone, tuff and occasional

thin lenses of coal; all were deposited in a terrestrial environment.

Quaternary deposits comprise river deposits such as clays, tuff, gravels and sands wit

high volcanic component in most.

2.3 STRUCTURE OF SOUTH SUMATRA BASIN

The structural patterns of the South Sumatra Basin, according to de Coster (1974), are the

result of three separate episodes of orogenic activities - the mid-Mesozoic orogeny, the

Late Cretaceous tectonism and the Plio-Pleistocene orogeny.

During the mid-Mesozoic orogeny, the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic strata were
 20
metamorphosed, faulted and folded into large structural blocks that formed belts which

were intruded by granite batholiths. These belts of metamorphic rock are composed of

various lithologies showing different degrees of metamorphism and deformation and are

exposed in the Barisan Mountains. The rocks are considered to extend into the basin sub-

surface.

The second orogeny was probably in the Late Cretaceous to Early Tertiary and was

responsible for the formation of the major tensional structures including grabens and fault

blocks in many of the basins of Sumatra. These grabens and fault blocks generally trend

N-S and N N W - S S E and are tensional structures, which, together with the remnant

structures of the mid-Mesozoic orogeny, controlled the depositional pattern of the Lahat

(Lemat) Formation.

The configuration of the sediment thicknesses in South Sumatra Basin suggests that at

edge of the basin, immediately adjacent to the Barisan Mountains, the fault which formed

the graben had ceased moving but when the sediments were deposited, the fault was

activated and the thickness of sediment increased; hence the sedimentary units are

considerably thicker at the basin depocentre as a consequence. The fault was probably still

active at the time the Muara Enim Formation was deposited. T h e shape of the basin

supports this hypothesis in that the long axis of the basin parallels the Barisan Mountain

and the deepest part of the basin coincides with the graben-fault zone.

The last orogeny occurred in the Plio-Pleistocene and produced the most prominent and

recognisable structures in the South Sumatra Basin and elsewhere in southeastern Sumatra

(Fig 2.5). These structures include faults and folds which have a northwest trend. The
 21

convergence of the Indo-Australian Plate against the Asian Plate resulted in the final uplift

phase of Barisan Mountain and also right lateral wrenching along the length of the

mountain, forming the Semangko Fault Zone which is still active today.

2.4 GEOLOGY OF STUDY AREA

In the Bukit A s a m area only two Tertiary sedimentary units are exposed, the Muara Enim

Formation and the Kasai Formation (Fig. 2.6). Also exposed are Quaternary deposits and

igneous rocks. The Bukit A s a m area was only deformed during the Plio-Pleistocene and

later during the time of the intrusions when the deformation was at its maximum.

2.4.1 Local Stratigraphy

M u a r a E n i m Formation

The Muara Enim Formation, the oldest unit, consists of shale, siltstone, claystone,

sandstone and intercalated coal layers. This unit comprises most of the outcrop in the study

area. At the lower boundary between the Muara Enim Formation and the marine Air

Benakat Formation, is a coal bed named the Kladi seam which is widespread. The upper

boundary of Muara Enim Formation has been placed at the top of the stratigraphically

highest coal seam, the Niru seam, which has been traced laterally for a considerable

distance. Overlying this seam is a tuffaceous bed which belongs to the Kasai Formation.

Within the immediate Bukit Asam area, the Muara Enim Formation can be divided into

two units.

1. Lower unit. This unit consists mostly of coal, dark grey to black shale, brownish-

grey claystone, sandy claystone and a few coarse-grained sandstone beds. The most
 22
economic coal in the Bukit A s a m area, comprising the A (Mangus), B (Suban) and C

(Petai) seams, is found in this unit. At Bukit A s a m the unit has been brought close to the

surface because of the deformation.

The coal seams were deposited almost rhythmical in the lower part of the Muara Enim

Formation. There is a gradual decrease, upwards, in interseam sediment, from

approximately 60 m between the Kladi and C seam to 30 m between C and B seams and

15 m between the Suban and Mangus seams.

The coals in the lower unit are mostly bright banded coals which vary in thickness fr

a few centimetres up to 15 m ; some seams contain tuffaceous claystone partings

(tonsteins). The shale is brown to black in colour and contains abundant detrital organic

matter; it is bioturbated and contains, at several locations, pyrite. Currentripplesare found

on the surface of several siltstone laminae.

Approaching the top of the lower unit and also between Bl and A2 seams is a tuffaceou

siltstone and a shale unit. The shale contains sideritic laminae and elongate nodules or

lenses which are locally called ironstone. This ironstone, which is dominantly silty rather

than shaly, is very hard, reddish-brown in colour; in many of the lenses and nodules;

bedding is discernible.

Pyrite is found in some layers which occur rhythmically throughout the unit but is mo

c o m m o n between the Suban and Petai seams. Very fine- to coarse-grained, bioturbated,

brownish-yellow sandstone is commonly present as independent beds; these sandstone beds

commonly show parallel lamination, graded bedding and cross bedding, the latter two
 23
especially in a few beds below the Bl (upper Suban) seam and above the A 2 (lower

Mangus) seam.

Below the Al (upper Mangus) seam is a very coarse-grained to medium-grained tuffaceous

sandstone bed with some coal or organic fragments, and quartz grains. This bed also has

graded bedding and crossbedding (southern part of Airlaya mine).

2. Upper Unit. This unit comprises shale, coal, tuff, claystone and sandstone. The

boundary between the upper and lower units is the top of the A l (upper Mangus seam).

The upper unit has at least seven recognisable seams, one of which, traditionally, is called

the Hanging seam (because it was thought it have only limited lateral distribution, ranging

thickness from several centimetres to tens of metres). The shale is brownish-black in

colour and tuffaceous, and is interlaminated with claystone, siltstone and fine-grained

sandstone. It coarsens upward, contains abundant detrital plant material and is in part,

bioturbated. T h e shale commonly also contains sideritic siltstone intercalations. These

sideritic siltstone intercalations have variable geometries ranging from layers (four layers

are prominent) to lenticular beds and dish-like lenses. Coarse-grained sandstone is found

a few metres below the Enim seam (the first coal layer above the A (Mangus) seam.

The Muara Enim Formation is approximately 400 m thick, and varies in thickness

throughout the basin.

Kasai Formation

The Kasai Formation can be traced in outcrop only in the southern part of the study area.

The unit is dominantly a tuff with a variable grain size and is rather unconsolidated. It is
 24
white in colour, shows crossbedding and parallel lamination and conformably overlies the

Niru seam of the Muara Enim Formation.

2.4.2 Local Structural Geology

Matasak and Kendarsi (1978; 1980) classified the dominant structures in the study area

into three groups:

The largest structural elements (Fig. 2.6) in the local area surrounding the PT Bukit

concession are generally folds which are thought to have formed during the Plio-

Pleistocene orogeny and before emplacement of the igneous intrusions. These folds

generally trend approximately E-W.

Some structures formed at the same time as the intrusions, for example, the anticlinal

dome, in Airlaya mine, which has a long axis orientated N N E - S S W axis. The d o m e is

interpreted to have formed as a result of the igneous activity, even though drilling did not

penetrate the postulated intrusions in Airlaya area. O n the flanks of the Airlaya D o m e are

numerous small faults (Fig. 2.7) which have various orientations, with one population

having a distinctive N N E - S S W trend (Fig. 2.8); many of the faults are oblique normal

faults.

The faults can be classified into two categories - faults that are parallel to the ax

Airlaya d o m e and are located near the axis of the d o m e and secondly, faults that have fault

planes generally perpendicular to the d o m e axis; the latter are dominant on both flanks of

the dome.
 25
The parallel faults are characterised by greater lateral than the perpendicular faults and

more intense movement as indicated by slickensides on the fault plane surfaces. The

parallel faults are much more c o m m o n than the perpendicular faults which are generally

terminated by other faults.

The heat flow was probably much higher in the more deformed area, possibly due to the

circulation of igneous-derived brines, and influenced the coal quality. This hypothesis

places the intrusion under the Airlaya dome. Unfortunately there is no data either from

outcrop or drilling, to support this hypothesis.

2.4.3 Igneous intrusions

The andesite intrusive bodies in the study area are well exposed in outcrop at Bukit Tapuan

and Bukit Penyabungan (both of which have been or are n o w quarried for fill and

dimension stone) and Bukit Asam. Bukit M u n g g u and Bukit Lengkuas, two other nearby

hills, also have been confirmed to be andesite (Mannhardt, 1918). Bukit A s a m (242 m

high) is a hill which has aridge-liketopographic profile trending north south. At the

northern end of thisridge,Bukit Tapuan and Bukit Penyabungan are located.

Mannhardt (1918) suggested that intrusive bodies in the Bukit Asam complex are parts

one very large intrusion with Bukit A s a m and Bukit Lengkuas as the centres of the

intrusion. A sheet-like wing or sill spread away from the centres and penetrated the weaker

zones along bedding planes to the north to form the Airlaya dome, and to the south, to

form the Air Hangau anticlinal complex.

Several drill holes in Suban mine, such as NSB 03, NSB 05, NSB 07, TA 65 and TA 64
 26
penetrated these sheets of igneous rock between B and C seams, hence the interpretation

of these as sills. M a n y authors, such as Mannhardt (1918), Musper (1937), Shell

Minjbouw N.V. (1978) and Geological Survey Indonesia (1978), reported on these

intrusions.

It is widely accepted that the intrusions are andesitic in composition and contain

phenocrysts of pyroxene, hornblende and plagioclase in a matrix of microcrystalline

feldspar, pyroxene and glass. Several thin sections from Bukit Tapuan and Bukit A s a m

were examined for this study. The results confirm that most of the samples are andesites

(Plate 2.1); each generally has a similar composition and texture as the others.

Petrographically, the andesites are hypocrystalline, inequigranular and have a porphyritic

texture with phenocrysts of plagioclase, hornblende, augite and olivine; biotite phenocrysts

occur in a small number of sections. The matrix comprises plagioclase and glass.

The main challenges regarding the intrusions are the origin of the intrusions, the shape

the intrusive bodies and is there any connection between them.

Musper (1937) suggested that the Bukit Asam andesite ascended near the eastern end of

the Sira Pulau Tabu anticline (Fig. 2.6), after which the intrusion separated into a number

of small domes. Musper also suggested that this intrusion probably has a close connection

with folding based on the fact andesitefillsthe fissures in the anticlines in the Bukit Sorelo

area, a location some distance from Bukit A s a m but one which is considered to be of

similar origin. The andesite intruded the weak zones after the deformation process

occurred, or alternatively, at least during the deformation associated with the rise of the

magma.
 27

According to Shell Minjbouw N.V. (1978) the composition of the andesite is notably

variable, although all samples appear to have abundant amphibole. The andesites are

brecciated in part and contain fragments of sedimentary rocks.

The Geological Survey of Indonesia (1978) interpreted the Bukit Tapuan mass as a dy

and that Bukit A s a m was a laccolith, assuming the attitude of sedimentary beds adjacent

to the intrusions reflect the shape of the intrusions.

2.5 COAL SEAMS

In the Bukit Asam and surrounding areas, six major coal seams are found in the Muara

Enim Formation and these are at such shallow depths that shallow open pit mining is

feasible.

After deposition, the coal seams experienced at least one tectonic event in Plio-Pl

time in the form of gentle folding and faulting. Soon after that, the plug-like igneous

intrusion intruded the coal measures. The total thickness of the coal seams in the Muara

Enim Formation mirror the whole thickness of sediments in the Muara Enim Formation

with the thickest intersections in the Bukit Asam area. A brief description of each major

seam is given in the following section.

Kladi Seam:

The Kladi seam occurs at the base of the Muara Enim Formation and is known to be

distributed over most of the South Sumatra Basin. However, it is only well developed in

the Bukit Sorelo area where it reaches a thickness of 9 m . The coal is a black banded coal

without any obvious clay layer. The Kladi coal overlies the fossiliferous (mostly
 28
foraminifers) marine silty claystone sequence of the upper part of the Air Benakat

Formation.

Petai Seam (C seam)

The Petai or C seam comprises essentially one major seam which contains four tonstein

partings (confirmed at several locations, for example, the measured section at the

Perimeter Ditch (Chapter 4) west of the concession area. The seam splits in some areas,

such as in the Banko area. The net thickest coal section is found in the Suban Jeriji and

Central Banko areas where 13 m has been recorded. In the study area, the average

thickness is 7.1 m , with a m a x i m u m thickness of over 9 m both east and west of Airlaya

mine. The seam thins towards the southern part of the study area. A tonstein which occurs

in this seam in the Muara Tiga area, has symmetrical wave-formed ripples.

The coal is a black, bright banded coal that is brittle due to intense clearing. At sev

localities pyrite is found near the tonstein layer.

The Petai seam overlies an alternation of silty claystone, siltstone and claystone whi

been considered by some authors (Musper, 1937; de Coster, 1974; Stalder, 1976) to have

formed during a marine incursion. Above the Petai seam are silty claystone and sandstone

lenses which contain sideritic nodules, pyrite, abundant organic matter and trace fossils

(burrows).

Suban Seam (B Seam)

In the Bukit Asam area, the Suban seam comprises two distinct layers called the Bl and

B 2 seams; these are separated by grey claystone with siltstone lenses. The m a x i m u m net
 29

thickness of Suban seam is 19 m . At leastfivetonstein layers are recognised within the

two seams, Bl and B2. In the study area, two, rarely three, tonsteins are found in the Bl

(Upper Suban) seam (approximately 10 m thick) and only one tonstein can be recognised

in the B 2 (Lower Suban) seam (9 m thick). The coal is black and bright banded. However,

in the Suban area, Bl seam is only 4 m thick. Between the Bl and B 2 seams, a 3 to 5 m

thick claystone occurs.

Mangus Seam

This seam typically consist of two seams, the A l (Upper Mangus) and A 2 (Lower

Mangus) seams. The two seams are separated by medium- to coarse-grained tuffaceous

sandstone beds. The Lower Mangus seam typically includes a thin (0.4 m ) silicified coal

at the top and a thin tonstein approximately in the middle of the seam. Seams vary in

thickness from 2.2 to 12.5 m with the m a x i m u m thicknesses in the northeastern and

northwestern sectors of the area.

The Al seam averages 7 m in thickness with a maximum thickness of more than 12 m in

an area immediately east of the Airlaya mine. Three distinctive partings are present in the

seam and these have been referred to as tonsteins or pelletoidal clay bands (Haan, 1976).

A thin bed of hard siliceous coal has been noted in places at the base of the seam and

scattered occurrences of fossilised resin are also present.

Enim Seam

The Enim seam has a m a x i m u m thickness in the North Suban Jeriji area where it has a net

thickness of approximately 25 m . Enim seam is considered to be equivalent to the Meraksa

seam which is found in the Gunung Meraksa area and equivalent to the Benakat seam
 30
found on the northern side of South Sumatra Basin.

Enim seams overlies a thick, predominantly sandy sequence which has been interpreted a

delta front deposits (Haan, 1976) and is overlain by an alternating sequence of thin and

laterally persistent silty claystone, sandstone and coal which are considered to be a deposits

from a marine transgressive sequence (Haan, 1976).

Jelawatan Seam

This coal seam exhibits c o m m o n splitting and is only of economic interest in the northern

part of the Suban Jeriji area. The Jelawatan seam is overlain by an alternating sequence

of claystone, siltstone and coal which indicates a long period of alternating shallow marine

and brackish to fresh water conditions during deposition (Haan, 1976). However, in the

southern and eastern parts of the area, conditions were not suitable for peat formation,

suggesting a shallow marine environment (Haan, 1976).

 31

CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 DATA ACQUISITION

Data used in this thesis is of two types:

i. data measured directly during fieldwork or from analyses undertaken in a

laboratory by the author, and

ii. data obtained from consultants' reports, unpublished reports and data collected b

the mine employees and other researchers; the latter are acknowledged where used.

3.1.1 Original Data

The sedimentology of the sequence in the Bukit Asam mine concession, including Airlay

mine, was undertaken to permit evaluation of the interpretations of aspects of the

previously published work such as environments of deposition as given by other author

Fieldwork included measuring several vertical sections across mine faces, measuring

parameters of various sedimentary structures and measuring palaeocurrent directions.

During the field work samples of the various sedimentary rocks, coals and igneous roc

were collected. Coal sampling was carried out in several ways. To study the temporal

vertical variation in the coal seams, samples were taken vertically after dividing th

into plies or lithotypes. Additional samples were taken 10 cm below each claystone,

especially in Al seam from which samples were needed to determine the influence of th

tonsteins on the elemental composition of the coal needed. For studying the influence
 32

intrusions, composite samples from one seam (Al seam) were taken at varying distances

away from the intrusions. In all, a total of approximately 300 coal and claystone samples

were collected during thefieldwork and all were analysed.

Samples were crushed to approximately 1 cm grain size and split with a riffle until

sufficient material was available to make a polished block for organic petrography (100

g) and ash determination (maximum of 600 g, depending on the ash content of samples).

The sample locations are given in Figure 3.1.

Splitting was carried out in the field at Bukit Asam whereas preparation of polished

organic petrography was undertaken in the Wollongong University laboratory; preparation

of the samples and the ashing of samples for X-ray fluorescence ( X R F ) analysis was

carried out in the Directorate of Mineral Resources laboratory, Bandung, Indonesia.

3.1.2 Data from Reports

Proximate analysis and elemental analysis data were supplied from several sources

including PT. Bukit Asam, the Mineral Technology Research and Development Centre and

the Directorate of Mineral Resources, Bandung, Indonesia. Data for several composite coal

samples from bore holes were obtained from the PT. Bukit A s a m coal mine leases. P T

Bukit A s a m also provided proximate analysis data for samples from the Airlaya area, a

structural geology map, geological base m a p and several core samples.

Proximate data was also obtained from a report by the Indonesian Government to the

world bank; the report was written by a joint committee from the Geological Survey of

Indonesia, the Mining Technology and Research Development Centre and P T . Bukit
 33
Asam. Proximate analysis data for samples from the Muara Tiga area (HD borehole series)

were provided by the Directorate of Mineral Resources.

3.2 SAMPLE PREPARATION

3.2.1 Sample Preparation for Organic Petrology

The preparation of samples for organic petrology were carried out in accordance with

Australian Standard A S 2061: C O D E A N D PRACTICE FOR T H E PREPARATION O F H A R D

C O A L S A M P L E S F O R M I C R O S C O P I C A L E X A M I N A T I O N B Y R E F L E C T E D L I G H T . Particulate

blocks were made and then polished manually although during the latter stages of the

project, some samples were polished using a Leco automatic polisher.

3.2.2 Sample Preparation for X-ray Diffraction/X-ray Fluorescence Analysis

Samples were crushed and split to give a maximum of 600 g of clean coal or 25 to 100

g for shaly coal and claystone where the latter samples were analysed. The samples were

ashed in accordance with U.S. Geological Survey Circular 735: GUIDELINES FOR SAMPLE

C O L L E C T I N G A N D A N A L Y T I C A L M E T H O D S U S E D IN T H E U S G E O L O G I C A L S U R V E Y F O R

DETERMINING C H E M I C A L COMPOSITION OF COAL. Each crushed sample (25 to 600 g)

was placed in a silica dish and placed into a cold muffle furnace with the door partly open.

The temperature was gradually elevated to 450°C to allow the moisture to evaporate and

the volatile matter to burn. After the emission of smoke had ceased at this temperature,

the temperature was gradually increased to 600°C to complete the ashing process.

Occasional mixing was undertaken to assure there is no organic matter was left unburned.

To determine the ash content, 1 g of each sample is placed into a ceramic d

weight and weighed. Each sample was then mixed with a polyvinyl binder and pressed at
 34

330 kg/cm2 to form a button suitable for XRF analysis.

3.3 ANALYTICAL METHODS

This project used several methods to analyse the samples.

3.3.1 Organic Petrology

Organic petrography was employed to determine the rank and the maceral composition o

coal. Coal rank and coal type are two essentially independent concepts that should b

considered as part of any petrographic characterisation of coal. Coal rank is the st

coalification that has been reached by the organic matter and is a function of the n

and degree of alteration, by physico-chemical reactions, that occurs to the parent pe

hence the term coalification. In this study, the rank is expressed as the vitrinite

with increasing rank directly related to reflectance.

Coal type essentially correlates with the type and relative abundances of the variou

constituents that were deposited as peat and the changes that occur during early sta

diagenesis. Coal type is expressed as the maceral composition of the coal.

Samples were prepared as polished particulate coal mounts and analysed using inciden

white light and fluorescence mode microscopy. In this study, the coal petrographic t

used follow the Australian Standard AS 2856 (Standards Association of Australia, 1986

The classification is based on the maceral nomenclature described by the Internation

Committee for Coal Petrology Handbook (1963; 1971; 1975) and modified by Smith

(1981). This system provides a better method for discriminating vitrinite macerals in

from Bukit Asam than other system as it avoids using the rank-sensitive terms of hum
 35
for coals that have a vitrinite reflectance of less than 0.5% and vitrinite for mac

similar origin but with a reflectance greater than 0.5%. As will be discussed later,

of samples from Bukit Asam area ranges from approximately soft brown coal to anthra

coal and hence spans parts of both the huminite and vitrinite ranges. Thus the Austr

nomenclature is a better system to use.

Normally, point-counts of approximately 500 points, "on coal", for each block were t

Traverses were made perpendicular to the gravitational settling direction during set

Step distance and traverse spacing were altered in relation to the grain size of th

in order to obtain representative counts with at least 90 to 95% of the area of eac

covered during the point count; counts were only completed after a full traverse.

In general discussions, where specific maceral percentages are not required, the fol

maceral abundance categories used for macerals and microlithotypes are:

dominant - >40.0%
major - > 10.0 to 4 0 . 0 %
abundant - >2.0tol0.0%
common - >0.5to2.0%
sparse - 0.1 to 0.5%
rare - <0.1%
absent - 0%.

Vitrinite reflectance measurements were taken using a Leitz Ortholux microscope fit

with a Leitz MPV-I microphotometer. All measurements were carried out using plane

polarised light of 546 nm wavelength in oil immersion with a refractive index of 1.

at a temperature of 23 ± 1°C. The microphotometer was calibrated against synthetic

garnet standards (YAG 0.917% and GGG 1.726% reflectance) and a synthetic spinel

standard (0.413% reflectance).

 36
The measurement of m a x i m u m reflectance of vitrinite follows the Australian Standard A S

2486 (Standards Association of Australia, 1989). The stage of the microscope was rotated

to obtain thefirstm a x i m u m reading and then rotated through approximately 180° to obtain

the second m a x i m u m reading. Each pair of readings was s u m m e d and the mean calculated

to give mean m a x i m u m vitrinite reflectance in oil immersion (^max). The output from

the galvanometer was scaled to give one half the reflectance hence the need to sum the two

readings. Readings were rejected if the pair of readings obtained were not within 5 %

relative of each other.

The International Committee for Coal Petrology (ICCP 1971; 1975) and Stach et al

(1982) recommended that one hundred measurements should be taken to obtain the mean

value. Determination of P^max standard deviations for a number of coals, obtained by

varying the number of data points from 10 to 100, showed that the standard error of the

mean approaches the precision and accuracy as required by the Australian Standard where

as few as twenty readings were taken. Therefore, using this as a guideline, mostly thirty

reflectance readings were taken on the Bukit A s a m coal samples to obtain the mean

m a x i m u m reflectance.

Vitrinite reflectance measurements were made on telovitrinite, detrovitrinite and

gelovitrinite maceral subgroups with the number of measurements on each vitrinite

subgroup based on the proportion of each subgroup in the sample as determined by point

counting. This method ensures that the readings accurately represent the various

populations of the vitrinite being measured if vitrinite reflectance differences between

vitrinite sub-macerals are not significant.

 37
3.3.2 Geochemistry and Mineralogy

Geochemical analysis was needed to study the elemental composition of the ash and the

mineral composition of the corresponding rock to determine the influence of the intrusions

on elemental composition of the coals. X-ray diffraction analysis ( X R D ) was used for the

determination of the clay composition of some interseam and tonstein samples.

XRF analysis was used to determine the major element composition of selected samples

both X R F analysis and Instrument Neutron Activation Analysis (INAA) were used to

determine trace element contents. X R F samples were analysed at the University of

Wollongong using an energy dispersive instrument employing a method similar to that

used by Potts et al (1984). Instrument settings varied depending on the element being

analysed. For example, settings used for Pb and Rb, were an A g side-window

bremsstrahling tube operating at 27 k V and 0.22 m A with a 0.127 m m A gfilterinserted

between the sample and the X-ray beam; for C u and Zn, the settings were 19 k V and 0.14

m A with a 0.05 m m Alfilter.Lead was analysed on the L p i line and Cu, Zn and R b were

analysed on the K a line. Counting times were 250 seconds, lifetime. Matrix effect

corrections were applied using the intensity of the Compton scatter from the sample as a

measure of their mass attenuation coefficients. Instrument drift was monitored through the

use of standards not included in the calibration. This technique has a 2 % relative error for

metal concentrations of greater than 40 jig/g with a 5 % relative error for detection levels

below 40 ng/g .

INAA analysis of 50 ashed samples from A2, Bl and B2 seams was contracted to

Becquerel Laboratories of Lucas Heights, N e w South Wales. This technique was used for

these samples because it gave a wider range of trace elements than the X R F equipment at
 38
the University. The basic principle of I N A A is a powdered sample is irradiated with

nuclear particles in a reactor and some of the atoms interact with the bombarding particles,

converting the nuclei to isotopes of higher mass number. The isotopes are unstable and

decay relatively quickly, releasing g a m m a rays of various wave lengths. The emitted rays

are identified by their respective wavelengths using a spectrometer as the detector. The

concentration of an element is determined from a comparison of intensity of g a m m a peaks

above background.

XRD analyses were undertaken at the University of Wollongong using a Philips XRD

PW1130/90 generator set at 30 k V voltage and 40 m A current using a copper target tube

(Ka - 1.542 x 10"10 m ) . The samples were scanned from 4°29 to 65°26 at a scanning

speed of 2°26. The scan were recorded on microcomputerfileand presented in accordance

with the J C P D S data base standard. A u P D S M (micro-powder Diffraction Search)

program was used to determine the mineral constituents.

3.3.3 Thin Sections

Thin sections were prepared according to standard methods given by Hutchison (1974).

Thin sections were needed to determine the nature of the intrusions and some sedimentary

rocks from the coal measures sequence.

 39

CHAPTER FOUR
SEDIMENTOLOGY OF THE BUKIT ASAM SEQUENCE

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Two of the aims of this study are to determine the environments of deposition of the c

seams and discuss potential uses of the coal. To properly achieve these aims, an

understanding of the clastic units between the coal seams is needed as the mineralogy

coal, especially those plies adjacent to the clastic units, may be influenced by the c

units. Thus aspects of coal formation require an understanding of the clastic units ab

and below the coal seam. For example, there are numerous references in the literature

high pyrite contents in coal being associated with marine incursions after deposition

precursor peats. Also, mineral matter in coal greatly influences the coal quality and

therefore an evaluation of coal utilisation for each deposit requires an understanding

types and abundances of minerals in the coal.

Several workers have discussed the sedimentology of the Bukit Asam area of the Souther

Sumatra Basin but not all agree on the interpretations of the environments of depositi

Because of the lack of agreement as to the environments of deposition of the coals and

clastic interseam sediments, and the fact that much of the earlier work is probably no

outdated, some additional sedimentology of the Bukit Asam deposit was thought necessar

Thus a review of the sedimentology of the Bukit Asam Coalfield was incorporated as one

of the aims of this study. Mining activities in the Bukit Asam concession area opened

surface mines with good exposures of several of the seams and interseam units in the h
 40
walls. Access to the high walls is relatively easy and thus it was possible to measure three

sections, one in each of the three mines, to provide additional data for this study.

4.2 REVIEW OF PREVIOUS WORK

The Muara Enim Formation is a relatively monotonous succession containing a repetition

of coal, shale and tuffaceous siltstone. Surprisingly, interpretations of the

palaeoenvironment of this sequence of rocks have never been in good agreement.

Mannhardt (1918) was one thefirstto interpret the palaeoenvironment of the Middle

Palembang bed, now called the Muara Enim Formation. Long after that and with much

more information, several authors, such as Musper (1937), Stalder (1976), Nursarya and

Latief (1979), Shell Minjbouw N.V. (1978) and Kinhill-Ottogold Joint Venture (1986),

revised interpretations. The following section is a review of the more recent

interpretations.

1. Mannhardt (1918)

Based on his fieldwork in Bukit Asam and the surrounding areas, Mannhardt suggested

that the repetition of the coal measure sequence in the Bukit A s a m area resulted from a

continuous transgression of the sea. H e also stated that the coals were deposited on coastal

plains, and were deposited as in situ or autochthonous coals with the thickest net coal

layers and sediments in the centre of the depression (Fig. 4.1). H e noted that the

differences in thicknesses of both coal and clastic sediments in the different areas of the

basin were mainly controlled by irregularities on the transgressive plain. His conclusion

was based on the fact that the sedimentary rocks between the coal seams always showed

a marine influence in the form of glauconitic siltstone and sandstone; mollusc fossils were

also considered to indicate a marine fauna.

 41
His interpretation was supposedly supported by the presence of trace fossils in the unit

between the B 2 and C seams in Airlaya pit (and other areas). These fossils were though

to be evidence of a marine environment. Sedimentary structures in the form of wave

ripples, with consistent orientation (transitional to flaser bedding), and lenticular bedding

(starvedripples)indicate that the unit developed in the area where the tidal current was

too weak to transport coarse material to mudflats that were dominated by low energy

environment, probably because of a protected shorelines. Volcanic detritus in the interseam

claystone and siltstone was thought to indicate that the interseam sediments came from one

or more volcanic eruptions.

2. Musper (1937)

Musper carried out extensivefieldwork in the area of the Lahat quadrangle which includes

the Muara Enim area. With more data available than for the compilation by Mannhardt,

he was able to produce a more accurate and reliable interpretation. However as he

mentioned, his interpretation was based only on surface data.

Musper stated that glauconitic beds, which are prominent in the Middle Palembang bed

(or the Muara Enim Formation), were effusive or of volcanic origin and were not

necessarily deposited in a well-aerated, shallow marine environment. H e also found, in

some areas, a rich fossil zone approximately 175 m above the bottom of the Middle

Palembang bed. This bed contains lamellibranches, gastropods, scaphopods, echinoids and

even shark teeth. H e also cited the discovery, by the management of the mines at that

time, of Area (Sapharca) inaequivalvis (Brug.) at the top of the A (Mangus) seam in Bukit

A s a m mines. F r o m the abundance of the fossils, even though this might be a local

occurrence, he concluded that at least some parts of the Middle Palembang beds were of
 42

marine origin. He also noted the abundance of plant drift wood in all beds in all are

identified the species of plant fossil, either from wood trunk or leaves. Based on th

fossil assemblages, Musper concluded that the plant remains originated from the flora

which is locally called the Middle Palembang period, and were only slightly different

that which now occurs on the mainland of Sumatra. He stated that the flora could not

assigned to plant associations of the sea and brackish water areas. Putting all these

together he suggested that there was a lagoon which was, at the beginning, open to th

sea; marine organisms may have inhabited the lagoon temporarily. Subsequently, as the

freshwater supply become more dominant from rivers, brackish water and limnic deposit

were formed. Eruptive materials were supplied by the rivers as well as from ash fall;

ash came from a westerly direction. Subsidence was continuous but with varying rates

the various parts of the basin. The subsidence rate was lowest in the Isau Isau and G

ranges and less coal developed in these areas. The volcanic eruptions increased in th

intensity and acidity increased from the bottom to the top of the formation. In the p

of quiet volcanic activity, extensive swamps flourished. Ash falls occurred several t

during deposition of the C (Petai) seam to the A (Mangus) seam interval, with the

occurrence of many tuffaceous dirt-bands in the coal seams and interseam sediments al

indicate volcanic eruptions.

3. Stalder (1976)

Shell Minjbouw N.V. conducted a drilling program in the mid 1970s but did not publish

a report on the program until 1978. However, in 1976, some of the data were made

available through a report by Stalder. Based on the data from that drilling program o

Shell Minjbouw N.V. in the South Sumatra Basin, Stalder gave the most widely-accepted

explanation for the depositional environment of the coal measure.

 43
H e recognised several facts that influenced the deposition of the coal measures:

- the total coal thickness closely follows the trend of the total isopach m a p of the coal

measures (Muara Enim Formation).

- the m a x i m u m thicknesses of the A (Mangus) seam and B (Suban) seam are located in the

area of Tanjung Enim and lie on the axis of the South Sumatra Basin.

- the lateral extension of B (Suban) seam is much less than that of the A (Mangus) seam

which was deposited throughout the basin; in the northern part of the basin, the total

thickness of the Mangus seam shows a similar net thickness to that in the south but the

seam is heavily split by clastic layers.

- the m a x i m u m coal deposition shifted to the north during deposition of the Benakat seam

(M3).

- stratigraphically, the ash content of a coal is usually proportional to the thickness of the

seam. The ash content decreases from the Petai seam (C seam) to Mangus seam (A seam)

and then increases steadily towards the Lematang seam (Table 4.2).

- 7 5 % of the coal measures lithologies is clayey sediments with sandstone developed

locally; the clay-rich layers extend laterally up to 30 k m ; crossbeds and burrows are

sometimes observed.

- the widespread extent of the claystone layers suggests that large scale marine currents

were involved in the deposition of the claystone; the occurrence of foraminifers and

molluscs in several places also indicate a marine environment.

- the volcanic influence is noticeable over the entire Upper Muara Enim Formation (MPb)

interval from A l seam (Upper Mangus) to the top of the Muara Enim Formation; the

presence of euhedral quartz and the green clay mineral corrensite are indicative of a

volcanic input.

- at the same time as the Middle Palembang bed was deposited, the Eburna Marls were
 44
deposited in the Bengkulu area, west coast of Sumatra.

- the marine facies is dominant in the southwest. South of Banko was under the influence

of marine conditions as also was the Arahan area where abundant pyrite is found in the

coal (Haan, 1976). The regional trend indicates that the Eburna Marls in Bengkulu area

(western coast of South Sumatra, Southwest of Bukit A s a m ) is a marine facies.

From these facts Stalder concluded that:

1. The basin developed by regular subsidence between the topographic highs, presumably

the Barisan Mountains to the west and the Malayan Shield to the east, with the subsidence

increasing gradually from the basin edges toward its centre.

2. The m a x i m u m coal thickness occurs along the basin axis and this is interpreted as

indicating optimum balance between plant accumulation (that is peat formation) and the

rate of subsidence. Degradation of the plant material was only restricted by the high water

table which was caused by subsidence; plant preservation was highest in the middle of the

basin. Lower subsidence rates at the edge of the basin caused more severe degradation and

this resulted in thinner coal seams along the margins of the basin.

3. The thinning of the coal seams from Suban Jeriji (northeast centre of the basin) towards

the south western part of the basin was caused by a more marine environment with more

volcanic detritus being deposited.

4. The obvious marine influence, at least at the time the lower Muara Enim Formation was

being deposited, suggests that the basin was connected to the Indian Ocean.

5. The regular pattern in the ash content in the coal seams indicates that conditions were

stable until the deposition of Mangus seam after which tectonic quiescence occurred;

activity then progressively increased until the Lematang diastrophism which took the form

of uplift of the Barisan Mountain and this was coupled with volcanic activity which
 45
gradually increased.

6. A s the basin subsidence slowed approaching the time the A (Mangus) seam was

deposited, the surrounding landscape become more mature, thus causing a decrease in the

volume of clastic detritus supplied to the basin; this produced thick seams without splits.

Stalder believed that the South Sumatra coal basin has an analog in the Oligocene to

Miocene Lower Rhine coal basin of Germany (Fig. 4.2).

4. Shell Minjbouw N.V. (1978)

After drilling over the entire South Sumatra Basin, Shell Minjbouw N.V. reported several

facts that were very useful for interpreting depositional systems even though Shell did not

specifically interpret the depositional environments themselves. Importantfindingfrom this

study were:

- the coal seams can be correlated over a distance of 40 k m with confidence.

- the middle and lower divisions (Ml and M 2 ) are shallow and marine-influenced units that

are thinner and more widespread than previously thought.

- the coal units above the Mangus seam ( M 3 and M 4 ) vary in thickness rapidly over short

distances.

- coal is less well developed in the northern part of the South Sumatra Basin.

- fossils such as molluscs and lamellibranches were found in the lower part of the coal

measures but are very limited in area of distribution and thus regional correlation using

these is poor. Haan (1976), w h o produced a report on the Shell Minjbouw N.V. data,

noted that numerous marine fossils were recognised above the Kladi seam in borehole A R -

33 drilled in the Arahan Area (3 k m west of Airlaya).

- the M a n g u s tuff is a marker horizon that can be traced over most of the area.
 46
Shell Minjbouw N.V. (1978) then summarised the results of drilling program as expressed

in Table 4.1.

5. Nursarya and Latief (1979)

Nursarya and Latief (1979) disagreed with Mannhardt 1 s interpretation that the depositional

environment of the coal measures was a coastal plain and based this on the absence of

several parameters that should be present in such environments of deposition. The

arguments of Nursarya and Latief were based on the coastal plain model of W e i m e r in

which a coastal plain is divided into four facies: fluviatile coastal plain, lagoon and tidal

zone, barrier island and offshore marine shelf. In the Bukit A s a m area they could not find

barrier sands that would protect the coal basin from the open sea. They interpreted the

tuffaceous sandstone between A l seam and A 2 seam as a channel deposit. They also did

not find any fossils in the sequence except plant fragments in the interseam sediments.

Referring to the variation in thickness of the Middle Palembang bed, as mentioned by

Mannhardt (1918), they argued that if marine invasions had occurred, these should be

recognisable over wide areas at the same stratigraphic position, rather than over limited

areas in different stratigraphic position. Thefirstargument was answered later by the

drilling program of Shell Minjbouw N.V. which showed that the claystone in the lower

part of the Muara Enim Formation (Ml and M 2 ) was deposited over a wider area than

was interpreted by Stalder (1976). They interpreted the origin of the claystone units to be

through marine currents as indicated by the occurrence of molluscs, foraminifers and low

resistivity formation waters.

Nursarya and Latief then proposed that the depositional environment of the coal measu

in the Bukit A s a m area was deltaic environment. The cyclicity of the coal layers was
 47
mainly caused by the deposition of interdistributary bay sediments, and the switching of

the delta lobes, consistently from the bottom to the top. They quoted Westol (1968) w h o

stated that cyclic deposition of coal layers was only possible in a deltaic environment.

They also stated that the fluvial influence was high at the time of depositional. They

interpreted interseam shale, siltstone andfine-grainedsandstone as interdistributary levee

deposits and channel deposits respectively.

The consideration that the cyclicity in the coal measures at Bukit Asam was mainly caus

by delta switching is arguable. Most of the interseam sediments in the coal measures is

fine-grained sediments, 7 5 % of the total sequence being claystone and siltstone as

mentioned by Stalder (1976). Channel deposits or other coarse-grained sediments are not

dominant in the sequence below the Enim seam so that, it is not likely that the coal

measures is a fluvial-dominated delta.

The interseam sediments between Al and A2 seams probably are not channel deposits as

they formed from volcanic detritus deposited during a short period of volcanic activity

(Shell Minjbouw N.V., 1978). This interval was deposited over a wide area, according

to Shell Minjbouw N . V . (1978) and is a reliable time marker. The volcanic debris had

been transported and redeposited and therefore has sedimentary structures such as graded

bedding, crossbedding and also minor organic matter. T h e high influence of fluvial

processes m a y have enabled switching of a delta fan elsewhere in the margin of the basin,

but not in the study area. Sedimentation was controlled by the availability of volcanic

material produced by volcanism at that time. T h e volcanic material is only dominant in

periods of active volcanism which probably happened several times between longer,

quieter periods during which the deposition of thick, wide-spread peat occurred. T h e coal
 48
deposition needed a longer time of accumulation than volcanic detritus sediments.

In the tropical areas, where the rainfall is much higher than evaporation, the suspende

sediments in an estuary can be very low. A study of modern peat in Jambi by Cecil et al.

(1993) showed that the suspended load in the Siak and Kampar Rivers is low. They stated

that the dense rainforest in the tropical area prohibited or minimised erosion, although the

terrain in the catchment area is steep in parts and the runoff also high. Under these

conditions, an autocyclic mechanism, such as delta switching, is not likely to happen.

4.3 THE COAL MEASURES SYSTEM

The study of coal facies is best accompanied by a facies study of the interseam sediments

surrounding the coal layers (McCabe, 1984; Diessel 1992). A careful study of both coal

facies and clastic sediments m a y produce more precise interpretations of the

palaeodepositional environment. Coal, as well as the interseam rock, is a sedimentary rock

with the only difference being in the source material which, in the case of coal, mostly

consists of organic material; the process of sedimentation requires that the organic matter

has to be preserved. A n understanding of interseam rocks provides a framework for the

coal depositional system; interseam rocks also influence coal quality. The coal and

interseam rocks do not necessarily have the same environment of deposition even if they

are stratigraphically adjacent to one another.

4.3.1 Sites of Coal Deposition

Peat can be deposited in many terrestrial sites although M c C a b e (1984) noted that the

depositional environment of coal or peat is mostly in association with the deposition of

meandering river, deltas and shore lines. Coal is deposited as allochthonous or

 49
autochthonous organic matter which is then transformed into peat.

An allochthonous coal is a coal that was deposited after transportation of organic mat

which was redeposited away from the sites of growth. In South East Asia, the classic

example is the recent peat deposit along the shoreline of the M a h a k a m Delta, Kalimantan,

which has been studied thoroughly by Allen et al. (1976) and Allen and Pizon (1986). The

detrital peat accumulated as a ridge between the tidal flat and the high tide beach zone.

The reworked plant detritus accumulated in the interdistributary lower delta plain tidal flats

and has a m a x i m u m thickness of 2.5 m . The lateral extension of the deposit subparallel

to the delta, is 7 k m ; the peat is recognised inland for a distance of approximately 3 k m .

If this organic matter were to be preserved as a coal deposit, the coal would be thin lenses

with limited lateral extent within delta front deposits. The peat bodies are composed of a

fragmented canopy of detritus developed from various sources but mainly from

dicotyledonous angiosperms. Plant segments readily identifiable include leaves, cuticles,

wood fragments, petiole fragments, resin bodies, fruits and seeds. Economic allochthonous

deposit are very rare and do not correlate with the deposition of the Bukit A s a m coal.

Autochthonous coal is deposited at the same location as where the plants grew (that is

coal is an in situ coals). Stagnant water acts as airlock and protects the organic matter

from oxidation and bacterial attacks. A waterlogged area in any physiographic setting is

a potential site for the deposition of coal. Diessel (1984) alluded to two settings that

commonly act as the depositional sites of autochthonous coal: marginal marine settings and

freshwater s w a m p s and lakes.

 50
1. Marginal Marine Settings

Included in this group are the peats of coastal marsh deposits, delta-associated swamps and

lagoons.

Coastal marshes are low-lying plains which are periodically inundated and which suppor

grasses, reed and rushes which tolerate brackish conditions. The marsh surface is the mean

high tide level and it is separated from the sea either by a barrier beach which forms by

surf action or salt marshes which are commonly formed because of the low energy

conditions along the coast and off shore. Peat accumulation is only possible if the tidal

fluctuation is low or a tidal inlet, which prevents the erosion of plant material and thus

aids plant accumulation, is established. Mangroves commonly line the tidal inlets and

muddy coastlines behind which grass and reed s w a m p expand. T h e roots of mangroves

form an interlocking network. This network is an efficient trap for sediments carried by

the flood tide, and protect the back swamp peat from being flushed by ebb tides or floods.

Lower delta plain marshes and swamps are located in interdistributary positions on the

delta plain up to the high water mark. The plants occupy the raised levee and

interdistributary troughs. A consistent high water table assures preservation of the dead

plants. Organic sedimentation m a y be accompanied by frequent inorganic sediment influxes

both from flooding or tidal effect and in some cases volcanic activity. This influx of fine-

grained clastic material raises the proportion of inorganic impurities in the peat and also

provides nutrients for the plant, thus enabling the plants to flourish. T h e effects of tidal

influences on the peat is commonly in the form of relatively high pyrite contents. The sea

water which isrichin salt and sulphate, enters the reducing environment of the s w a m p and

sulphate is reduced by bacteria; hydrogen sulphate and/or iron sulphide is/are formed.
 51
Lagoon and bay environments form through the build up of barrier beaches as a result of

strong surf action or the formation of spits and bars, by long shore drift. These m a y

protect the coastal plain from the open sea. Eventually the lagoon becomes shallower

through sedimentation and becomes a coastal marsh. The restricted environment

encourages algae to flourish and as a result algae m a y be the main contributor to the

accumulating organic m u d in some situations, for example, in the formation of torbanite

deposits. The m u d s m a y be covered and laterally replaced by peat formed in the coastal

swamp.

2. Freshwater Swamps and Lakes

The inland portion of a marine swamp m a y gradually become a freshwater swamp.

Hydrologically, it m a y still have a connection to the sea water. The term paralic is used

for these deposits but the term also refers to deposits that have a facies connection and a

lateral coexistence with marine facies (Diessel, 1982). Belonging to this group of coal-

forming environments are the upper delta plains, lower delta plains, coastal plains and

alluvial plains. All are affected by marine processes, such as marine transgression and

regression. In contrast, there are many inland swamps that never have any connection with

sea water. The deposits formed in this environment are called limnic deposits.

Freshwater swamps occur in the upper delta plain zones, alluvial plain and lakes. Uppe

delta plain and alluvial plain swamps occur on flood plains between the distributary

channels in the delta system or adjacent toriverson the alluvial plains. In the latter case,

the swamps are separated from theriverby levees which are occasionally breached, during

which time silt and m u d are distributed over the peat surface and later m a y become

claystone layers (or dirt bands/partings) in the coal.

 52

Limnic environments have no direct hydrological connection to the sea. The lakes occur

in inland areas or, if close to the sea, are separated from the sea by impermeable and

elevated barriers. Lakes also occur in higher altitudes such as in intermontane and

intramontane basins. These lakes m a y contain algae and sometimes high salt contents. In

humid climates, organic m u d accumulates on the lake bottom during the commencement

of the silting-up process and this leads into the formation of peat bogs. The lakes deposit

spreads over a relatively small area but it may become very thick such as the coal deposit

in the Latrobe valley where the brown coals are approximately 300 m thick (Gloe and

Holgate, 1991).

4.3.2 Cyclic Sedimentation

A s the Air Benakat Formation was deposited, the South Sumatra Basin was a shallow

marine basin, with abundant foraminifers fossil as the main fauna. The sediments consisted

of glauconitic sand, blue-grey and grey-brown clay and sandy clays commonly with

carbonate (Shell Minjbouw N.V., 1978). In contrast, the Muara Enim Formation (the unit

above the Air Benakat Formation) lacks fossils, except some patchy marine fossils in the

lower part of the unit. However the sequence contains abundant trace fossils. The sequence

is dominated by low energy sediment lihologies, such as claystone and siltstone (Stalder,

1976). Medium-grained sandstone is present, but is not significant. Basin-wide coal seams

are characteristic of the formation. Volcanic detritus is also abundant in this formation.

Only in the lower part of the Muara Enim Formation (Ml and M2) is the marine influenc

recognised. The lack of foraminifers fossil throughout most of the Muara Enim Formation

indicates that the basin was not favourable for this fauna, because the basin had a

freshwater input and was mostly not connected to the open sea. The penecontemporaneous
 53
volcanic activity and associated uplift of the Barisan Mountain produced a barrier to the

open sea.

The Muara Enim Formation consists of numerous coal seams within silty claystone and

locally deposited sandstone lenses. The coal measures sequence has long been discussed

as an example of cyclic sedimentation with two modes of origin.

- Transgressive-regressive Origin. Since the work of Udden (1912), which described the

Pennsylvanian rocks in the Illinois Basin, cyclic sedimentation has been a popular model,

although it commonly invites controversy. Udden described a sequence comprising seat-

earth rocks or underclays and coal overlain by marine limestone and/or shale as well as

siltstone and sandstone which, in turn, are overlain by another seat-earth/coal succession.

Udden interpreted this pattern as cyclic sedimentation beginning with the deposition of the

seat-earth and peat and succeeded by the deposition of marine limestone and shales, as

marine encroachment occurred. The continued deposition of silt and sand raised the

surface of the basin to a level where a s w a m p formed and soil, producing a seat-earth

again; the peat subsequently formed. However the recognition of an erosional event, or

unconformity, at the base of the sandstone above the limestone by Weller (1930) led to

controversy regarding sea levelriseand fall.

- Delta switching bv lateral avulsion of a distributary channel. Initiated by the work

Ferm and H o m e (1979) and Wanless (1964) in the northern Appalachian Basin and Illinois

Basin respectively, a postcyclothem era began. Both authors suggested that the regressive

and transgressive sequences in these basins were mostly influenced by deltaic processes

comparable to the modern Mississippi Delta. Although Wanless (1964) claimed that the
 54
deltaic processes are the most important factors in coal accumulation in the Illinois Basin,

they nevertheless retained the classical transgressive cycle as the origin of the mid-

continent cyclothem.

The delta autocyclic model has problems if it is applied on a basin-wide scale (Diess

1992) particularly coal measures such as the Bukit A s a m coal measures where the coal can

be traced as far as 40 k m without interruption (Shell Minjbouw N.V., 1978). The

autocyclicity of a delta is possible if the fluvial process is dominant or, in other words, the

sediment supply is high so that delta switching commonly occurs as the sediment in the

mouth bar reaches the point where the suspended sediment can not be deposited any more.

The sequence then would be dominated by coarse channel and interdistributary splay

sediments, and probably coal seams. The coarse channel facies, according to Ferm and

H o m e (1978) cited in W a r d (1982), can be 15 to 25 m thick and 1.5 to 11 k m wide. The

Muara Enim Formation does not have all the above criteria; it is dominated by claystone

and siltstone deposits that indicate low energy sedimentation and lacks any significant

coarse-grained sandstone such as channel deposits. The tuffaceous sandstone between Al

and A 2 seams is the best candidate to be a channel facies unit. It has graded bedding and

is also coarse grained, has been regarded as a channel deposit up until recently. The lateral

extent of this layer is reported by Shell Minjbouw N.V. (1978) to be as widespread as the

basin itself and the interval is thought to be composed mostly of detrital volcanic products

which were deposited over a short period of volcanism, with perhaps some reworking of

the volcanic detritus. It is therefore unlikely to be a coarse channel facies.

 55

4.4 P A R A M E T E R S INFLUENCING DEPOSITION O F T H E M U A R A E N I M

FORMATION

1. Palaeogeography

The shallowing the South Sumatra Basin after the Air Benakat was deposited, was

followed by volcanism in the western part of the basin (located in the present-day position

of the Barisan Mountain). The abundant volcanic products and the formation of volcanic

islands formed a barrier along the western side of the basin and protected the interior from

the open sea. The basin become a large shallow lagoon. D e Coster (1974) suggested that

at that time the basin was a shallow basin of inner neritic to continental sea character, with

a few islands stranded along the west coast (Fig. 4.3). The basin decreased in size as a

result of a global sea level drop, probably in the Mid Seravalian, 13 M a . A s a result of

another sea level drop in the Messian, the South Sumatra Basin became a widespread area

of swampland and coastal marsh. The advancing vegetation occupied the swamp site (de

Coster, 1974) and the Kladi seam was deposited. The Kladi seam is thefirstsignificant

coaly interval and marks the lower boundary of the Muara Enim Formation. The

morphology of the basin probably was a vast low-lying plain which was entirely occupied

by mires. A n analogue for this vast low-lying mire would be the area along the east coast

of Sumatra in modern times.

Flat-lying topography is vulnerable to sea level fluctuations and this would have bee

case for the South Sumatra Basin at that time. A rise in sea level obviously would have

encroached upon the swamp, perhaps far inland. T o the west, n o w marked by the Barisan

Mountains, was an arc of highlands with at least one of active volcano which erupted

significant amounts of volcanic products on the surrounding areas (de Coster, 1974;

Hutchison, 1989).
 56

2. Tectonism

The deposition of the Muara Enim Formation occurred soon after the subduction of Indian

Ocean Plate under the Sunda Shield. The back-arc basin of South Sumatra formed on a

dissected basement of graben and horst structures that have been active several times. With

the massive volcanic arc in the west and the Sunda shield in the east, the graben structure

became a zone of weakness. A n y movement caused by tectonic activity in the subduction

zone would have rejuvenated the horst and graben structure. Sediment accumulated in this

weak area and caused local subsidence. Stalder (1976) recognised that the coal thickness

isopach follows the trend of the total isopach of the Muara E n i m Formation. H e also

recognised that the thickest coal measures succession is along the basin axis, suggesting

that higher rates of subsidence accommodated the preservation of the plant material rather

than oxidation and bacterial degradation more along the axis of the basin than along the

marginal area. D e Coster (1974) suggested that the basin isostatically subsided,

topographic highs were eroded and the deposition in the basin resulted in relative uplift

in the source area and subsidence in the basin area. The graben structures were probably

simultaneously rejuvenated with the influx of sediment,

3. Eustatic Change in Sea Level

Fluctuations in sea level change the environment along a coastline dramatically. However,

eustatic sea level changes probably are never the sole factor influencing deposition along

a coastline; eustatic changes are commonly superimposed on local changes. Distinguishing

eustatic control from the other controls is very difficult since there are no significant

distinguishing features.

Global cycles of sea level change were described by Vail and Mitchum (1979; Fig. 4.4).
 57
The transgressive and regressive sequence in the South Sumatra Basin was probably

strongly influenced by global cycles after the Late Oligocene. Authors, such as Hutchison

(1989), recognised that global sea level changes had an effect on the sedimentation history

in the South East Asia region. Middle and Late Miocene regressions, as shown on the

chart of the classic global cycles of sea level changes of Vail and Mitchum (Fig. 4.4), are

clearly seen in all South East Asian basins as unconformities and general regressive cycles

which contain several subcycles. The Middle Miocene sea level drop is shown by the

deposition of the shallower Air Benakat Formation, above the Telisa Formation, in the

South Sumatra Basin. The Late Miocene sea level drop, which reached 200 m below

present sea level, is indicated by the deposition of the Muara Enim Formation the base of

which is marked by the deposition of the Kladi coal (Fig. 4.4).

4. Volcanism

Volcanism in Sumatra has been recognised as early as the time of deposition of the

tuffaceous facies in the sandstone-dominated Talang Akar Formation on the western side

of the Sumatra Basin (de Coster, 1974). Since that time, tuffaceous detritus was a major

component in formations, such as the Basal Telisa Limestone M e m b e r and the Telisa

Formation, on the western side of the basin. The source of the volcanic detritus is

presumed to be a volcanic island arc along the western side of the basin, probably where

the Barisan Mountains are located n o w (de Coster, 1974).

During deposition of the Muara Enim Formation, volcanic detritus was brought in sever

times, such as when the tonstein in C seam was deposited. At the Perimeter Ditch location,

the tonstein is 40 c m thick. Tonsteins in Bl and B 2 seams, A 2 seam, interseam sediments

between A l and A 2 seams (Mangus Tuff) and three tonsteins in A l seam all are evidence
 58
of increasing volcanic activity. The well-known Mangus Tuff and the three layers of

tonsteins in the A l seam are widespread throughout the basin (Shell Minjbouw N.V.,

1978). The increase in volcanic activity, as indicated by the above tuffaceous layers in the

upper part of the Muara Enim Formation and also tuffaceous layers in the overlaying

Kasai Formation, was also reported by de Coster (1974) and Shell Minjbouw N.V. (1978).

Volcanism provided detritus which added to the total sediment flux and influenced the

sedimentary evolution of the basin. The high intensity of volcanism provided more

suspended sediment in the streams and therefore more significant progradation and lateral

avulsion of streams into the estuaries.

5. Tropical Climate

Tropical climates have long been recognised as important factors in peat formation. The

high humidity and rainfall enables plants to grow rapidly. However, the hot humid climate

also promotes bacterial and animal activity which degrades dead plant material. The work

of Anderson (1964), showed that rain-fed mires tend to have convex morphologies and this

type of peat mire is known as a raised bog. The high rainfall also influences the water

salinity of the receiving basin. The abundant freshwater influx reduces the alkaline ion

concentration in the water and therefore the salinity is reduced.

A study of modern tropical peats in Jambi and Riau by Cecil et al. (1993) showed that

dense rainforest is the main factor controlling the volume of the suspended load in the

stream waters near the estuary. Under these conditions, sedimentation in the receiving

basin is minimised and stream avulsion rarely happens. They also found that the water in

rivers and estuaries has a low p H and low dissolved solid concentrations. A s a result there
 59

is no carbonate deposition except for a minor amount of siderite in the Malacca Strait.

In the Bukit Asam area, sideritic zones occur in the form of nodules, clusters of nod

lenses or layers within the softer and darker claystone and siltstone (section 4.4.2). For

calcite, precipitation occurs when the pore waters become oversaturated as a result of an

increase in the concentration of calcium and bicarbonate ions, an increase in temperature

or a decrease in total C 0 2 . The precipitation of iron-rich calcium carbonate or siderite

occurs only in sediments that are found in bi-carbonaterich,freshwater environments with

low sulphate content and available F e 2 + (Boggs, 1992). Formation of siderite under a low

sulphate condition is possible if there is microbial reduction of the ions in the organic-rich

sediments (Baker and Kastner, 1981).

4.5 SEDIMENTOLOGY OF THE MUARA ENIM FORMATION, BUKIT ASAM

The Muara Enim Formation was deposited during a regressive period of a transgressive-

regressive cycle which controlled sedimentation in the South Sumatra Basin (see Chapter

2). Co-incidental with the initiation of the regressive phase was deposition of the Air

Benakat Formation which consists mainly of foraminiferal, shallow marine sediments (de

Coster, 1974). The deposition of the Muara Enim Formation commenced with deposition

of the Kladi coal and this was thefirstevidence of nonmarine deposition. Continued

freshwater conditions resulted in the deposition of abundant coal in the sequence which is

n o w called the Muara Enim Formation.

Shell Minjbouw N.V. (1978) divided the Muara Enim Formation into four units, from the

base to the top:

i. M l which represent the sequence from the Kladi coal to the base of the C seam
 60

(Petai seam);

M2 which is the sequence from C seam to the Al seam (Upper Mangus seam);

M3 which is the sequence above Al to below the Kebon seam; and

M4 which is the sequence from Kebon seam to the topmost Niru seam (Table 4.1).

This subdivision was based on a basin-wide study. However, in the concession area

Bukit Asam coal mines, only the upper part of Ml, the complete M2 and the lower p

of M3 are exposed and there was need to establish whether the features of the loc

sequence are the same as those of the corresponding sequence given by Shell for e

in the basin. In order to do this, sections were measured in the western wall in A

pit, the southern mining face in Muara Tiga Selatan and the Perimeter Ditch expos

Muara Tiga Besar Utara . The three measured sections are given as Figures 4.5 to

4.5.1 Location of Measured Sections

1. The Perimeter Ditch. Muara Tiga Besar Utara

The Perimeter Ditch section was located in the new Muara Tiga Besar Utara mine an

represents the lower part of Muara Enim Formation (Ml and M2). Exposed is the

sequence from the Merapi seam to the Al seam (Upper Mangus), which is the boundary

between M2 and M3 in the Shell stratigraphic nomenclature; this is also the bound

between Lower Muara Enim Formation (MPa) and Upper Muara Enim Formation (MPb).

2. Airlava Pit.

The Airlaya pit section was taken on bench 5 of the mine, northern wall, close to

conveyor belt line, CE 53 (as it was located in 1994). The section covers the sequ

from above C seam, which was not exposed, to Al seam.

 61
3. Muara Tiga Selatan

This section was measured on the mining bench of Muara Tiga Selatan. The sequence is

147 m thick here and covers the interval from above A l seam to the Enim seam (or the

first Hanging seam according the stratigraphic column of Haan (1976)).

4.5.2 Details of Measured Sections

1. Merapi S e a m and Older Units

The Merapi seam is the lowest unit of the coal measures. It is not exposed in any of the

measured sections. Also, it was not possible to examine the Kladi seam or the interval

between the Kladi seam and the Merapi seam as these are not exposed in any of the mines.

However, according to Shell Minjbouw N.V. (1978), the interval above the Kladi coal is

a sequence of brown and grey sandstone, siltstone and claystone with minor glauconitic

sandstones. Shell Minjbouw N.V. found marine gastropods and lamellibranches in the

sequence between the Kladi and Merapi seams but freshwater fossils (molluscs and

lamellibranches) were also found near the Merapi seam. The latter finding is significant

because it was thefirstevidence to indicate that by the time the precursor peat for the

Merapi seam was being deposited, conditions had changed to freshwater. Earlier, it had

been noted that the Kladi seam may have been influenced by marine conditions.

The Merapi seam was only found in the Perimeter Ditch section (Fig. 4.5) where it is

composed of bright banded coal; the seam is only 0.5 m thick. This conforms with the

findings of Shell Minjbouw N.V. (1978) w h o found the seam is not widespread, being

only found in the Enim area and the northern part of the basin.

Given the lack of data for the Merapi seam and the underlying units, it is not possib
 62
ascertain what influences the underlying and overlying environments of deposition had on

the formation of the Merapi seam.

1. Merapi Seam-C Seam (Petai Seam) Interval

This section, which also was only exposed in the Perimeter Ditch section and comprises

two units: a siltstone-claystone unit (collectively referred to as the claystone unit) and a

sandstone unit (Fig. 4.5).

(a) Claystone-Siltstone Unit (40 m thick)

This unit extends from the top of the Merapi coal to thefirstsignificant sandstone bed (Fig

4.5). The contact with top of the Merapi coal is not erosional. T h e unit is composed of

blackish-grey laminated claystone which is interlaminated with hard well-bedded, yellow

sideritic silty claystone, locally referred to as ironstone. These ironstone layers occur 9 m

above the base of the unit (a 4 m interval) and again 30 m above the base (a 3.5 m

interval). Within each of these intervals, the ironstone occurs as two groups of four layers.

In other sections of the unit, ironstone nodules are c o m m o n . M a n y nodules and some of

the layers are distinctively red indicating oxidation of the siderite to iron oxides as

weathering takes place.

At the top of the claystone unit, is a 4.5 m thick interval which is composed of coarse

siltstone and fine-grained sandstone interbedded with four thin layers of harder siltstone

with a slightly higher siderite content than the adjacent siltstone but a content not as high

as the siderite layers lower down. This part of the sequence represents deposition in a

higher energy environment, perhaps a shallowing of the basin; this represents the first

pulse of a major coarser grained clastic influx.

 63
Environment of Deposition.

The siltstone unit is interpreted as a freshwater lagoon sediment with the coarsening-

upwards top of the unit indicating a progradation basin filling mechanism. The abundance

of siderite suggests that the basin may have been under the influence of marine conditions

at this time. Siderite commonly forms in shallow marine conditions where either the

concentration of F e 2 + or sulphate ion (which is reduced to the sulphide ion) are limited.

The marine influence m a y have been the movement of pore waters from the marine

environment to the lake or m a y have been as a result of two major marine incursions

reflectingrisesin the sea level and corresponding to the two sets of siderite layers. Shell

Minjbouw N . V . (1978) found marine fossils in this unit elsewhere in the basin and were

thought to indicate that in some areas of the basin, at least, the environment was still very

much a marine environment.

However, siderite also forms in brackish and freshwater lakes. Krumbein and Garrels

(1952), with his fence diagram, showed that siderite m a y be formed in an environment

with a p H between 7 and 7.8 (neutral to slightly alkaline) and E h slightly below 0 (slightly

reducing). These conditions can also be found in freshwater or slightly brackish water

environments such as a lake. In the case of the South Sumatra Basin at Bukit Asam, a

brackish environment would have contained large amounts of bicarbonate and F e 2 + ions,

possibly derived from river water or from the volcanic products that contain high Fe

content.

No features diagnostic of either a marine environment or a lacustrine environment were

observed in the Perimeter Ditch section and thus no definitive environment of deposition

could be defined for this lower part of the sequence. However, given the equivocal
 64
environments in which siderite m a y be formed, the data from the Shell Minjbouw N . V .

drilling program a lacustrine environment is favoured. This does not exclude the possibility

of more marine conditions in the Banko and Arahan areas as postulated by Stalder (1976).

(b) Sandstone Unit (25 m thick)

This unit comprises a group of 4 to 5 metres thick layers of sandstone and siltstone,

immediately below the C seam. The unit also has fining-upward silty claystone with

ironstone layers. The sandstone is yellow,fine-to medium-grained, friable, well sorted

and, in the upper part, is dominated by finer-grained sandstone with abundant organic

matter and siderite. Scour marks at the base of the lowest sandstone layer shows

palaeocurrents towards 336°.

The polished blocks of this sandstone shows that in the finer grained sections, the roc

contains sparse lamalginite, with yellow to orange fluorescence, and sparse yellow to

orange fluorescing liptodetrinite. The siltstone also contains glauconite grains. X R D

analyses shows the rock contains quartz, kaolinite, muscovite mica with the finer grained

samples consisting of quartz, kaolinite, siderite and muscovite.

The grey, laminated siltstone and very fine-grained sandstone, contains abundant organi

matter especially at the top of the section. Bioturbation, flaser bedding and, in the

siltstone, occasional ironstone layers are present.

The fine- to medium-grained sandstone that contains quartz, muscovite and mica with

scour marks at the base indicates that this sandstone is a channel product deposited away

from the main channel. T h e presence of glauconite m a y indicate shallow, well aerated
 65
marine environment but it might also have been a volcanic products (Musper, 1937) or

perhaps derived from older units during the immediately past weathering-erosional cycle.

The presence of organic matter in the sandstone indicates a terrestrial input for some or

all of the detritus.

The flaser bedding and ripple marks are associated with lenticular beds of the underlyin

siltstone strata, suggesting that this unit is in the high flow regime of a flat-lying tidal flat,

probably close to tidal channel or in the middle portion of the intertidal flat where currents

are swift and m u d is swept from the sand flats (Diessel, 1992). Bioturbation in the siltstone

indicates that the conditions were favourable for animal colonisation with plenty of food,

light and oxygen. T h e bioturbation also indicates a slowly deposited unit.

Environment of Deposition

The sandstone unit tends to coarsen upwards from the bioturbated siltstone to a fine- to

medium-grained sandstone indicating that the sequence was formed as one or more

prograding delta lobes. T h e sandstone is interpreted as a finer grained or distal part of

either a distributary channel or a tidal flood channel. The palaeocurrents show directions

to the northeast, towards the depocentre. The lamalginite indicates the unit was formed

in a lagoonal environment. At the top of the unit, the grain size approaches that of clay.

The intercalation of siderite with the siltstone indicates a lowering of energy levels

preceding the deposition of the C seam interval.

In summary, the unit between the Merapi seam and the C seam was deposited in a

freshwater lagoon with probably several marine incursions in the lower part and

shallowing as the top of the sequence was deposited as indicated by the deposition of a
 66

prograding delta sequence preceding quieter water conditions, probably a tidal flat,

immediately before the deposition of C seam.

2. C Seam (Petai Seam)

This unit, which includes two thin coal layers, the lower immediately above the sandstone

unit described above, another separated from C seam proper by a claystone layer and C

seam proper, and the tuffaceous claystone between the coals, was only observed in the

Perimeter Ditch section. The two thin coal layers are 0.3 m (lower) and 0.6 m thick. The

claystone intervals contain abundant organic debris and ironstone nodules. T h e top thin

coal, that is the coal nearest to C seam, is a banded dull coal with a thin tuffaceous layer

in the middle.

The claystone is probably derived from fine-grained tuff, except for the upper clays

layer which also has two siltstone layers with waveripplesat the base and a tuffaceous

claystone layer at the top (Fig. 4.8a). The wave ripples have parallel crests and are

oriented towards 233° indicating N W or S E wave movement. Bedding is not always well

defined in the claystone layers.

C seam is 7.5 m thick and contains black, bright banded coal with many resin bodies

which are up to 5 c m in diameter. Three tuffaceous claystone layers, 5 c m to 17 c m thick,

are found in the top half of the seam. C seam extends over the entire South Sumatra Basin

(Shell Minjbouw N.V., 1978) and has a m a x i m u m thickness, in the Suban Jeriji area, of

13 m (Haan, 1976). C seam thus represents the third major phase of coal formation.
 67
Environment of Deposition

The claystone and siltstone immediately beneath C seam are indicative of a low energy

environment before deposition, probably in a tidal flat environment. T h e thin coal layers

below the C seam, which are not continuous across the basin, indicate that plants had

already occupied some higher parts of the vast swampy flat-lying basin before the onset

of the luxuriant plant growth producing the precursor peat for C seam. T h e sometimes

poorly defined bedding suggests that the claystone immediately below C seam is a seat-

earth and that C seam is an in situ autochthonous coal.

Whereas the claystone and siltstone in the Merapi seam to C seam interval were derived

from clastic detritus that originated from the weathering of existing rocks, the claystone

in C seam are indicative of volcanic activity. At leastfiveeruptions occurred, thefirst(a

very large eruption) immediately after the lower coal was deposited, a second eruption,

of lesser magnitude before the precursor peat for C seam was deposited and three smaller

eruptions which gave rise to the ash-derived claystone layers in C seam.

The wave ripples in the tuffaceous siltstone of the upper claystone layer in C seam i

not only an oscillatory current perpendicular to the crest line of the ripple but also a

shallow water body, possibly a lagoon/lake, indicating that the tuff was deposited in water

rather than on dry peat surface. Thus plant growth m a y have started to decline before or

penecontemporaneously with the eruption, probably because of subsidence. The coastline

of the lagoon was oriented subparallel to the crest of theripples,that is, approximately

233°. The wave lengths of theripplesrange between 45 to 60 c m and the amplitudes range

between 5 to 8 cm. The ripples indicate that the depth of the water was about 10 to 40 cm.
 68

The continuous nature of the claystone layers suggests that the volcanic products totally

covered the peat surface. However, each time a tuffaceous layer formed, plants reoccupied

the area after the eruption.

3. C Seam-B2 Seam Interval

A complete section of this interval was exposed in the Perimeter Ditch section and the

upper part of the section was exposed in the Bench 5 section (Fig. 4.6). T h e interval

mainly comprises siltstone and sandstone with intercalations of reddish-yellow sideritic

sandstone. A thin coaly shale is in the siltstone layer, approximately 10 metres above the

C seam (Fig. 4.5).

(a) The Perimeter Ditch section shows four units, a basal siltstone overlain by a seco

siltstone which in turn is overlain by a sandstone; the top unit is a claystone-dominated

succession. The basal sandstone unit above C seam is dominated by a coarsening-upward

sequence of grey soft siltstone with intercalations of hard, reddish-yellow sideritic

sandstone, up to 60 c m thick. The coarsening-upward sequence is capped with a thin (8

c m ) coaly shale.

Above this coarsening-upward sequence, is a 16 m thick blackish-grey, laminated silts

claystone intercalated with yellow sideritic sandstone. This section contains abundant

organic matter. This sequence is overlain by a series of medium-grained sandstone layers

with a total thickness of 4 m . The unit is composed of several thin layers with a maximum

thickness of 1.5 m . The sandstone is grey to green, with some red zones; the rock is fine-

to medium-grained, well-sorted and contains abundant organic matter and burrows. Parallel

laminations and trough crossbedding are found in the thicker sandstone beds whereas wave
 69
ripples are found in the finer grained units. T h e ripple crests are parallel to 339° and

trough crossbeds indicate palaeocurrent directions towards 304°. A thin layer of red

sideritic sandstone occurs at the top of the sandstone unit with concentrations of siderite

manifested as nodules.

Underneath B seam is a massive grey claystone.

Environment of Deposition

The coarsening-upward sandstone unit is interpreted as a prograding flood tidal delta

terminated by the deposition of coaly shale which formed in a marsh on a tidal flat

environment in which clastic detritus was deposited with the organic matter. T h e grain size

of the sandstone indicates a low energy regime and this reflects a distal position from the

source. T h e basin became deeper as indicated by the deposition of laminated silt and clay

deposits in an interdistributary bay or a subtidal environment followed by deposition of

sands by flood tidal channels at the top of the sequence preceding the deposition of B

seam.

(b) In Bench 5, Airlaya pit section (Fig. 4.6), the interval between C seam to B2 seam i

a 40 m thick and consists of interlaminated siltstone and sandstone with intercalations of

sideritic siltstone and coarse-grained sandstone that contains pebble-sized clay intraclasts.

This sequence is strongly bioturbated, with abundant organic matter, pyrite and lenses of

sideritic siltstone up to 0.6 m thick (Figs 4.8c and 4.9b). Whereas in the Perimeter Ditch

section, four distinctive units were easily identified, in the Airlaya pit section the sequence

appears to be lithologically similar to the lower unit of the Perimeter Ditch section and is

characterised by four coarsening-upward sequences overlain by a fining upward unit

 70
immediately beneath B seam. The sideritic siltstone is more prominent in Airlaya than in

Perimeter Ditch. Each coarsening-upward succession ranges from 4 to 8 m thick.

The siltstone is grey to yellowish-grey, with some reddish-brown zones parallel to the

bedding planes and is laminated. Flaser bedding and ripple marks are c o m m o n sedimentary

structures in the sequence. T w o thin (2 c m thick) layers of quartz-rich sandstone with

pebble-sized claystone intraclasts occur near the centre of the unit. Bioturbation is

abundant with prominent trace fossil of the species Monocraterion, Scolithos and

Thalassinoides recognisable (Fig. 4.9a). The bioturbation is commonly concentrated under

or in the coarser grained siltstone or sandstone. Pyrite and sideritic nodules (Fig. 4.8d) are

c o m m o n in the lower part of the sequence, usually above the sideritic siltstone lenses.

Organic matter is abundant throughout the section.

Several samples were taken from the section for thin-section, polished-section and XRD

examination. The flaser bedding contains siltstone and hard brown claystone which, in thin

section, shows that it consists mainly of quartz ( > 9 0 % ) , siderite, organic matter and a

clay-sized matrix (Figs 4.8a and c). The quartz is medium-grained, angular to subangular,

well-sorted and has open packing. X R D analysis shows that the siltstone contains mostly

quartz. A thin section of the hard claystone show that it contains siderite and minor fine-

grained angular quartz grains. X R D examination confirms this.

The medium-grained sandstone with large claystone intraclasts contains subangular quar

in a matrix containing siderite (Fig. 4.8b). The sandstone is yellow, medium-grained with

an open fabric. Grains of quartz and siderite cement visible in hand-specimen. The

sandstone commonly occurs as lenses of restricted lateral extent (Fig. 4.8c). The siderite
 71
content is so high in some samples that the sandstone is better classified as a micritic

carbonate rock. Sample T S 12863 is a typical sample and is a sideritic claystone with

subangular quartz grains scattered throughout the samples. X R D analyses confirms that the

sample contains mostly quartz and siderite but also show pyrite and dickite.

A polished sample of sideritic sandstone (GM 25515) showed that it contains sparse

dispersed organic matter with a vitrinite reflectance in the range 0.8 to 1.07%. There is

no fluorescing liptinite. Foraminifers, probably of the species Orbulina universa, were

observed. X R D analysis gives the composition of the sample as quartz, siderite and

kaolinite.

All petrographic samples from the C seam-B seam interval were taken from Bench 5,

Airlaya pit and have been heated by an intrusion (a parasitic cone under drill hole A L B 4 7 -

RC60). Vitrinite has P^max values of 0.8 to 1.07%.

In the C seam-B seam interval in Airlaya pit, the coarsening-upward units show offsett

as is typical in a prograding delta lobe (Fig. 4.10). The prograding lobes are distinctive

on the western bench of Airlaya pit and in Muara Tiga Selatan. The strike and dip of the

lobes in the western face of Airlaya mine shows that the delta was prograding to the south.

Unfortunately, directional details were not obvious in the Muara Tiga Selatan. The Airlaya

pit is thought to be one of the depocentres of the basin with the water depth in the range

of 10 to 20 m .

Palaeocurrent measurements on the ripples (Fig. 4.8e) in the siltstone gives wave

directions perpendicular to 304°.

 72

Environment of Deposition

Pervasive bioturbation throughout this section indicates colonisation by animals with

considerable food available. These conditions are possible in a prograding delta

environment where rivers supply freshwater which is rich in oxygen and has abundant

organic matter for the nutrients. Given the high organic content of rock, it is sugges

that the delta was confined to a lagoon or lake. The greater abundance of organic matt

in the Airlaya pit section, compared to the Perimeter Ditch section indicates that the

Airlaya area was more proximal to the source of clastic detritus.

Flaser and lenticular bedding in the sandstone with claystone intraclasts indicates i

deposited in an intertidal flat area where the current was relatively strong or, alte

close to a tidal channel.

The scenario envisaged for the C seam-B seam interval is that of a lagoon that was

influenced by marine water; this model is similar to the interpretations of Stalder (1

and Musper (1937). Stalder stated that the lower Muara Enim Formation was formed in

a lagoon that had a connection with the open sea. His conclusion was based on the mar

fossils found in the lower part of the formation and the high water formation conduct

that was shown by the sequence below Mangus seam. Musper (1937) also suggested that

the Muara Enim Formation was formed in a lagoon environment with connection to the

open sea during the early stages of its formation.

Influence on Coal Properties

The ground water in this section probably contained a high concentration of bicarbona

ions which entered the adjacent coal layers. This is shown by higher sulphur contents
 73
B 2 seam (range from 0.26 to 2.39% with average 1.02%) and C seam (range from 0.42

to 2.52% with average 0.98%) compared to the other coal seams where A l , A 2 and Bl

seams have average sulphur contents of 0.65, 0.26 and 0.32% respectively).

4. B Seam-A2 Seam Interval

The interval from the base of the B seam to the base of A 2 seam is exposed in both the

Perimeter Ditch and Bench 5, Airlaya faces. However, the two sections are quite

different.

In the Airlaya section, B seam is split into the Bl and B2 seams by a 4 m thick clast

wedge comprising poorly-bedded, blackish-grey claystone with yellow sideritic zones and

hard lenses of sandstone. The lower B 2 seam is a bright banded coal with a single

tuffaceous claystone near the middle of the seam. The upper Bl seam, is also a bright

banded coal but has at least three tuffaceous claystone layers, one of which is of very

limited lateral extent. Bl seam is up to 7 m thick. The seams are separated by three metres

of claystone which has a thin hard, sideritic siltstone near the middle of the section. The

claystone has abundant organic matter and burrows which occur below the hard sideritic

siltstone layers. B 2 seam has only one tuffaceous claystone with many rounded, 2 to 15

m m (at the base) diameter 'darts' and many organic stringers (Fig. 4. lie, Plate Fig. 4.1.

Graded bedding and parallel laminations are quite obvious in this Airlaya section.

In the Perimeter Ditch section, the upper part of the B seam is not well developed an

only 0.4 m thick; it is uneconomic and the seam nomenclature of Bl for this upper part

is not used extensively. The lower part of B seam is thicker, up to 7 m . This lower B 2

equivalent coal is a black banded bright coal whereas the upper coal is dull banded coal.
 74
B seam is quite variable in other areas adjacent to the mine area, especially in relation to

the tuffaceous claystone layers. In the Suban area, Bl seam contains two claystone layers

and in the Klawas Tengah area ( K T A ) there are four tuffaceous claystone layers. This

indicates that during deposition of Bl seam, volcanic activity was an important process but

perhaps of limited lateral extent during some eruptions and not all eruptions were from the

same vent or of equal areal distribution.

Haan (1976) studied the B seam in the Banko area and recognised a marine influence on

the topmost dirt bands, especially in the South Banko Area. The claystone in the B 2 seam

was found to be 5 m thick. Haan gave two hypotheses regarding the thicker B seam in the

Banko area:

i. the volcanic detritus constituting this claystone was transported by water and the

source was closer to the Banko area with accumulation of the sediment rapid; and,

ii. the volcanic detritus was derived from ash falls and then reworked by water action

with the eruption centres closer to Banko than to Airlaya.

Borehole data show that B seam is not split in the Muara Tiga Selatan area and the

thickness of the coal commonly is less than the total thickness of B l and B 2 in the Airlaya

area. This indicates that the Muara Tiga Selatan area was probably not influenced by

volcanic activity suggesting that the volcanic vents were some distance from this area.

In the Perimeter Ditch section, the interval between the top of B seam and the bottom

A 2 seam is 16 m thick and consists of mostly claystone at the base which is gradational

into siltstone with a thin claystone immediately below A 2 seam. Sideritic siltstone occurs
 75
in the siltstone at the top of the unit and in the 2 m of claystone above B seam.

In the Airlaya section, the interval between Bl seam and A2 seam is 15 m thick and i

dominated by dark brown claystone (with abundant organic matter) that is interlaminated

with hard yellowish-brown sideritic silty sandstone (Figs 4.8b and 4.9c). In the middle of

this subunit is a thin (0.5 m ) laminated dull coal layer known, by site geologists, as the

Suban Marker. The Suban Marker in only found in the Tanjung Enim and northern part

of the basin (Shell Minjbouw N.V., 1978). Immediately above the Suban Marker is a

white claystone.

At Airlaya, the bottom and top of the Suban Marker are dominated by interlaminated

claystone and coal-coaly claystone. The bright banded coal is only 0.1 to 0.3 m thick and

occupies the middle part of the unit. The section above the Suban Marker contains thin

tuffaceous claystone, pyrite, flaser bedding and manyripples.Ripples in the Airlaya and

Klawas areas indicate wave action normal to 275° (Fig. 4.8e). Burrows are c o m m o n but

are not as abundant as in the section between C and B2.

Environment of Deposition

The sequence in Perimeter Ditch comprises mostlyfine-grainedsediments that gradually

coarsen to siltstone at the top. This sequence suggests a prograding delta, distal to the

source. The receiving basin was probably a freshwater lagoon. Progradation of the delta

continued until deposition of the A 2 mire on a tidal flat.

Compared to that in the Perimeter Ditch area, the basin depth in the Airlaya area wa

probably m u c h shallower as indicated by the interlaminated siltstone and claystone with

 76

abundant organic matter; sediment of this size is indicative of a low energy regime.

Deposition in this low energy environment was interrupted by the poor development of a

marsh and low moor representing the lower part of the Suban Marker. For a short period,

the mire was possibly a high moor in some areas, giving rise to the vitrinite-rich bright

coal in the middle of the Suban Marker. However, this was a temporary state as the

sediment influx increased as indicated by the deposition of laminated dull coal layer at the

top of the Suban Marker.

The mire was then completely drowned with later shallowing of the water as indicated

the deposition of sandstone at the top of the sequence. A tuff layer was deposited above

the Suban Marker and represents an ash fall deposit.

Pyrite is not seen in the Suban Marker and this indicates that the marsh or mire was

essentially a freshwater environment. This is also supported by the low sulphur contents

of A 2 seam and Bl seam which are 0.26 and 0.32% respectively.

5. A2 Seam

The A seam comprises two splits called the A l and A 2 seams separated by a claystone

interval. The lower A 2 seam is exposed in both the Perimeter Ditch and Bench 5, Airlaya

measured sections. In both sections, A 2 seam contains black banded bright coal, with

lenses of silicified coal at the top of the seam and resin bodies up to 8 c m diameter

throughout the seam. A 2 seam only contains very thin (1 to 3 c m ) discontinuous claystone

layers. In the Klawas Barat area, approximately 50 c m above the base, a silicified coal

band is recognisable.
 77
The silicified coal at the top of the A 2 seam is approximately 40 c m thick, is very hard

and commonly often causes great problems during mining. W h e n weathered, the lenses

of silicified coals take on a ripple-like structure (Fig. 4.8f).

Petrographically, two forms of silica are found: detrital silica which isfine-grainedquartz

grains, and diagenetic silica that formed as a result of recrystallisation of saturated silica

solution during the early diagenetic coalification stage or even peat development stage. The

most likely explanation for the high silica content of the coal is the result of leaching of

primary silica (syngenetic) from the overlying tuffaceous claystone layer (Chapter 5) and

subsequent recrystallisation from silica-saturated solutions as they pass through the

coalifying plant tissue. Geochemical analyses (Chapter 6) show that the silicified layer

only contains Si02 with no significant amounts of other elements

6. A2 Seam-Al Seam Interval (Mangus Tuff)

This interval is exposed in both the Perimeter Ditch and Bench 5, Airlaya sections and

comprises four units, from bottom to top, Unit 1, Unit 2, Unit 3 and Unit 4.

Unit 1. Unit 1 is a soft, white, medium to coarse-grained, tuffaceous sandstone,

containing grains of quartz and minor organic matter; it is 0.3 m thick. X R D examination

gives the composition of this layer as quartz, albite and siderite.

Unit 2. Unit 2 is a white, medium to coarse-grained, tuffaceous unit with a distinctive

sandy texture, laminated in the lower part, and consisting of fragment of quartz, lithic tuff,

pumice and organic matter. This unit is 5 m thick and contains m a n y rootlets at the top.

In the north west bench of Airlaya pit this layer is extremely hard and causes m a n y

problems for the bucket wheel excavators which are used to remove this interburden prior
 78
to mining the A 2 seam. This behaviour is best explained if it is assumed that the quartz

content of the unit in that area is m u c h higher. Crossbedding and planar bedding can be

recognised in this particular area (Fig. 4.8g). X R D analysis shows that this second unit

mostly contains quartz, siderite, kaolinite and illite.

One explanation for the character and occurrence of this unit is detrital quartz was mi

with the tuffaceous sediments during reworking of the sediment in this area. Another

explanation is some of the quartz m a y be precipitated secondary quartz derived from

leaching of the overlying material. A more plausible explanation is that the layer represents

a slightly coarser eruption that of an acidic quartz-rich ash.

Unit 3. Unit 3 is a tuffaceous coaly claystone with abundant organic matter but at firs

glance from a distance appears to be a thin dull coaly shale layer, 5 c m thick. This unit,

although relatively thin is laterally widespread and is easily recognisable in both sections

and in m a n y drill cores. Immediately beneath the coaly claystone are numerous rootlets.

Unit 4. Unit 4 is a white tuffaceous claystone grading into a brown coaly claystone wit

rootlets at the top. In the Perimeter Ditch area, this layer is a pale claystone. Organic

petrographic examination shows that this layer contains sparse to c o m m o n sporinite (with

orange in fluorescence), sparse lamalginite (yellow) and abundant liptodetrinite (yellow).

Rootlets of vitrinite are abundant with some pyrite replacement.

Environment of Deposition

This interval is interpreted as a series of volcanic packages. T h e first and second layers

represent products of volcanic eruptions and are widespread with s o m e evidence of

 79
reworking by water as indicated by the graded bedding and crossbedding.

After deposition of these two units apparently there was a short period of volcanic

quiescence with widespread colonisation of the tuff surface by plants and an the initial

stages of the formation of a mire. The extensive spread of rootlets immediately below unit

3 are evidence of this. However, before it could develop into a large mire capable of

producing a significant thickness of peat, other volcanic eruptions produced a large volume

of ash which gave rise to the tuffaceous claystone at the top of the interval. Rivers and

streams feeding into the basin m a y have transported some of the volcanic products across

the basin, forming a "fluvial system".

The Al seam-A2 seam interval is very distinctive in the field as it has a distinctive

colour when weathered. The interval is extremely consistent with the four units found over

a large part of the South Sumatra Basin. However, the interval with a long history of

controversy. Nursarya and Latief (1979) considered this layer to be a channel facies in a

fluvial-dominated deltaic system. O n the other hand, Shell Minjbouw N.V. (1978), based

on their comprehensive drilling program, stated that the interval is widespread through out

the basin and derived from volcanic activity although no details were given. After the Shell

Minjbouw N.V. report, this layer was called the Mangus Tuff.

Based on the field evidence gained for this study, the A2 seam-Al seam interval is der

from volcanic ash and should rightly be called the Mangus Tuff.

7. Al Seam

The A l seam is exposed in all three measured sections although only the top half of the
 80
seam was exposed in the Muara Tiga Selatan section (Fig. 4.7). A l seam contains bright

banded coal, 6 to 12 m thick and has three prominent,claystone layers of volcanic origin,

informally called Tl, T 2 and T 3 (bottom to top, Fig. 4.5). T h e base of the bottom coal

layer is commonly a dull shaly.

The top of Al seam is not consistent throughout the basin. In the Klawas Barat area,

the north of the study area, the coal above the upper claystone (that is, the upper part of

A l seam) grades upwards to a carbonaceous claystone. In the Perimeter Ditch section, at

Muara Tiga Besar Utara, the top of A l seam is a coaly shale above thefirstclaystone

layer (T3) whereas in the Airlaya area, the same section is a bright banded coal. This

carbonaceous claystone in the top section of A l seam contains more pyrite (up to 4 % ) than

the other parts of the seam.

The claystone layers are typically tonsteins with thicknesses between 5 to 12 cm. G

texture (pelletic) is c o m m o n in each and all contain abundant quartz and commonly show

sedimentary structures such as parallel bedding, imbrication, graded bedding and

microcrosslamination (Figs 4.8h, 4.1 la to 4.1 Id). Rootlets are c o m m o n in the top part of

the layer. X R D analysis shows that kaolinite is the dominant mineral with minor quartz

and small amounts of natrojarosite (NaFe}(S0 4 ) 2 (OH) 6 ). A full description of the claystone

layers is given in Table 4.3. The prominent sedimentary structures in the claystone layers

indicate that the volcanic detritus was reworked after deposition.

Haan (1976) showed that Mangus seams (Al and A2) deteriorates in quality with a

decrease in seam thickness and more coaly shale in the southern part of the basin such as

in the Airlaway, Arahan and Banko areas. H e also stated pyrite content of the coal
 81
increased and attributed this to a more marine influence. Thus in some areas, a high moor

mire continued to exist whereas in other areas conditions were not as favourable and a

marine influence m a y have present.

Al seam has a slightly higher pyrite content in the top section of the seam which is

interpreted as indicating a slightly marine or brackish water influence. The higher sulphur

content of A l seam compared to those of A 2 and Bl seams (Table 4.4) also supports this

hypothesis. Given Haan's report of the deterioration in the quality of coal in the Airlaway,

Arahan and Banko areas, it seem reasonable that the marine influence was greatest in the

Arahan and Airlaway areas, decreasing towards the Klawas Barat area and the southeastern

areas from Banko to Suban where the pyrite content is also slightly higher in the top of

A l seam. T h e marine influence was least in the Bukit A s a m area, especially Airlaya.

11. Al seam-First Hanging Seam Interval

This interval was only exposed in the Muara Tiga Selatan section (Fig. 4.7) and all

interpretations are based on this limited data base. This interval consists of three distinctive

units:

Unit 1 - a milky brown claystone, with rhythmical intercalations of hard reddish-yello

sideritic siltstone;

Unit 2 - a 9 m interval with three bright banded coals intercalated in the brown clays

in the middle of the interval;

Unit 3 - a series of coarsening-upward sequences of claystone changing to conglomerati

 82

sandstone in the top part of the interval.

The brown claystone of unit 1 is 80 m thick and is moderately laminated, with hard

reddish-yellow sideritic siltstone layers that are 5 to 10 cm thick and are interbedd

the claystone in rhythmical way comprising clusters of four layers or more. Some laye

are lenses of limited lateral extent. A tuffaceous claystone occurs approximately 40

above the top of Al seam. Bioturbation occurs in several layers but is not common in

layer. Spary calcite lenses are enclosed within the sideritic siltstone and also in t

claystone layer.

A polished block of brown claystone above the Al seam (GM 25520) shows that the rock

has dispersed organic matter with liptinite > vitrinite > inertinite. Liptinite compr

cutinite and suberinite, with orange fluorescence, sparse lamalginite (orange fluores

and sparse bitumen. Green fluorescing oil drops also occur. Abundant pyrite is disper

throughout the claystone.

The thin coal layers in unit 2 which contain black bright banded coal except in the l

layer, are 2, 5 and 50 cm thick, bottom to top, respectively.

The upper unit, unit 3, comprises a series of coarsening-upward beds which grade from

claystone to fine-grained sandstone; lenses of hard siltstone, crossbedding and abund

organic matter occur throughout. The coarsening-upward units are 5 to 12 m thick, exc

the top-most bed which is 18 m thick and contains a 6 m polymictic conglomeratic

sandstone which coarsens towards the top. The clasts are quartz, coal and lithic frag

Crossbedding also occurs.

 83
The 12 m interval below the Hanging seam is a claystone with sideritic siltstone layers.

Environment of Deposition

The brown claystone of unit 1 was deposited in a low energy regime and it is interpreted

as a lagoonal deposit. The presence of lamalginite in the claystone supports this

hypothesis. The lower part of the claystone was probably deposited in slightly brackish

water as pyrite was found in sample G M 25520. The water was probably stagnant and was

lacking in oxygen as bioturbation is rare, only occurring in the sideritic siltstone.

Unit 2 is interpreted as having formed in the lagoon but by this time, it had

shallower, allowing vegetation to grow and form a mire. However this mire was very

vulnerable to water fluctuations and eventually drowned with initially claystone and then

coarser sediments deposited over it.

The coarsening-upward beds of unit 3 are interpreted as prograding lobes of a

abundant organic matter also indicates that the basin had considerable vegetation around

it with some of being brought into the basin during flood times. The polymictic

conglomeratic sandstone is interpreted as a main distributary channel or mouth bar.

The lagoon shallowed again and the first Hanging seam, which is composed of bl

bright banded coal, formed.

4.6 SUMMARY

The Muara Enim Formation was deposited during the middle of a regressive phase in a

transgressive-regressive cycle that controlled sedimentation in the South Sumatra Basin.

 84
During the Middle Miocene, the basin was a shallow marine basin with deposition of the

middle/outer neritic sediments of the Baturaja and laterally equivalent G u m a i Formations,

followed by the inner neritic Air Benakat Formation which contains abundant marine

foraminifers. Conditions became much less marine; the M u a r a E n i m Formation was

deposited and then the terrestrial deposits of the Kasai Formation. Thus the Muara Enim

Formation is a transitional unit between the inner neritic Air Benakat Formation and the

terrestrial Kasai Formation at the top of the sequence. The most important feature of the

basin was that regionally, there was an overall shallowing controlled by a regression.

Tectonically, the basin was in a depression zone of a back-arc basin in the Early Tert

Sumatra subduction system. The basement of the basin comprises dissected pre-Tertiary

rocks that were vertically displaced to form a horst and graben structure that was easily

rejuvenated. This depression zone was also vulnerable to subsidence as the young sediment

filled the basin. Higher subsidence rates were experienced in the depocentre which was

located in the Bukit A s a m area as shown by the isopach m a p of coal thickness for the

Muara Enim Formation. The source of the clastic detritus was probably more from the

west or south rather than from the Malayan Shield to the northeast because of the distance

to that provenance.

A tropical climate during the Tertiary, when the Muara Enim Formation was deposited,

suggests a restricted amount of suspended load in the streams and lateral avulsion was

probably rare. The tropical climate with high humidity and high rainfall assured a

freshwater supply to the basin. The dense tropical rain forest restricted erosion and as a

result, the suspended sediment in the water was low.

 85
During the early stages of deposition, the basin was probably still connected to an open

sea but the connection was restricted and eventually closed with the emergence of Bukit

Barisan to the west of the basin.

Sea level fluctuations were significant, as pointed out by Hutchison (1989) and this

the main factor influencing the deposition of the coals in the Muara Enim Formation. The

dominance of fine-grained sediment in the Muara Enim Formation and the widespread

extent of thisfine-grainedsediments suggest that the basin was dominated by a low energy

regime environment during most of its Tertiary history. The basin was very vulnerable to

sea level fluctuations and because of the depth of the basin and the low-lying surrounding

topography, a rise or fall of the sea level would have affected a vast area of the basin.

After deposition of the marine Air Benakat Formation the Kladi seam was deposited on

the vast lowland of the basin. The sea level rose again with deposition of the Kladi seam-

Merapi seam interval. The sediment was dominated byfine-graineddetritus and again a

low energy regime prevailed. However, from this point in time, the environment was

predominantly a terrestrially-dominated environment with the development of a major lake

or lagoonal system into which streams brought clastic detritus that was deposited in

prodelta and delta environments.

A major influence on the development of peat mires and the subsequent coal formation

was volcanic activity. This influence lasted for almost the entire period that the Muara

Enim Formation was being deposited. M a n y small volcanic eruptions produced ash which

accumulated as claystone layers or tonsteins in the coal seams. The biggest eruption, which

may have been a series of closely spaced eruptions produced a vast volume of ash that
 86
accumulated as the interval between A l seam and A 2 seam. Most claystone layers have

sedimentary structures such asripples,crossbedding and graded bedding and these indicate

significant reworking of the ash.

Much of the data produced for this study showed that the generalisations put forward

the Shell Minjbouw N.V. program are applicable in the Bukit A s a m area but some local

but more detail has been added and the important and significant contribution of volcanic

detritus has n o w been documented.

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CHAPTER FIVE
ORGANIC PETROGRAPHY

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Petrographically, the South Sumatra coals have been little studied by researchers, ei

for the determination of coal properties prior to mining development or for purely

scientific study, and not in the detail needed to fully quantify the coals in the var

seams. Among the first published data were those of Kinhill-Ottogold Joint Venture (1

who reported on the organic petrography of the coal in the Banko Barat Coalfield, an

to the southeast of the Bukit Asam Coalfield, and MCS Consultants (1980) who, as part

of the Bukit Asam Development Project, reported on a preliminary petrographic study o

the Bukit Asam coal. Kinhill-Ottogold Joint Venture stated that the Banko Barat coal

mostly consists of huminite, with low inertinite and liptinite contents; resinite was

to be the most abundant liptinite maceral. MCS Consultants reported similar results.

However these studies were very general and relied on a very limited number of sample

Other studies that fit this category were those of:

i. Daulay (1985) and Daulay and Cook (1988) who studied the petrology of several

Indonesian coals including the Bukit Asam coal;

ii. Sarangih (1985) who studied the petrographic character of the Bukit Asam coal

from one drill hole; and,

iii. Waluyo (1992) who studied the petrology of Banko Barat coal.

From these petrographic studies the general character of the Bukit Asam coal, both
 88

composition and rank, were established but details on variations in composition both

vertically and laterally, if any, were not established. The lateral variation in regional rank

was explored by Daulay and Cook (1988) but with a limited number of samples. The

environments of deposition in general terms were mentioned by Daulay and C o o k and

some aspects of coal utilisation were also discussed. However m o r e detailed studies are

needed, especially to determine the spatial variations in relation to the effects of the

intrusions, and any associated alteration to the coal, with respect to maceral composition,

rank and elemental composition.

Thus, despite the above-mentioned studies, much of the coal in the Southern Sumatran

coalfields has yet to be studied in detail. This study was designed tofillpart of this void

in information. The project provides detailed data on the most prospective seam, the A

seam and compares these data with those for the stratigraphically lower seams which will

be discussed but not in as much detail as the A seam.

This petrographic study of the Bukit Asam coal has three main aims:

1. T o study the rank variations by measuring vitrinite reflectance of the samples; this

aspect of the study will determine the influence of the igneous intrusions.

2. T o examine the maceral composition of the coal so as to recommend possible uses

of the coal (utilisation is discussed in Chapter 7).

3. T o examine lateral and vertical variations within the economic A seam to determine

if there are facies changes within the seam and whether these facies can be used to

predict coal quality and palaeodepositional environments.

The raw data collected for this study is given in Appendices 5.1 and 5.2. Previous data
 89

from published papers and consultants' reports are given in Appendix 5.3. Diagrams

showing the vertical variations in macerals, maceral groups and mineral matter are given

in Appendices 5.4 and 5.5. Proximate analysis data are given in Appendix 5.6.

5.2 RANK OF THE BUKIT ASAM COAL

5.2.1 General

The mean m a x i m u m vitrinite reflectance (P^max) of Bukit A s a m coal was reported to

range from 0.3 to 2.6% (Daulay, 1985). This variation was considered to have been

caused mostly by the influence of intrusions ( M C S Consultants, 1980). For the samples

measured in this study, the vitrinite reflectance shows a range from 0.35 to 2.70% (Figs

5. la and 5. lb) with most values falling in the range of 0.4 to 0.46%. This represents the

rank of the samples that have undergone normal coalification, that is, is the regional rank

and the samples on which these values were measured lack a contact alteration overprint.

The values of 0.5 to 2 . 7 % are for coal that has been affected by the igneous intrusions.

The variation in vitrinite reflectance for each seam can be seen in Figures 5. lb, 5.2a, 5.2b

and 5.2c. The differences in distribution of P^max values between the seams, particularly

values above 0.5% are mostly a function of the sampling in that samples that had been

heated were not always collected equal distances from the intrusions nor were the same

number of samples collected for each seam. For all seams, the regional vitrinite reflectance

invariably falls in the 0.4 to 0.5% range and the reflectance for heated samples falls in the

range of 0.6 to 2 . 5 + % .

For Bukit Asam coal, an increase in vitrinite reflectance is accompanied by a decrease

moisture content, a decrease in volatile matter and an increase in fixed carbon. Plots of

vitrinite reflectance against the inherent moisture and calorific values (Figs 5.3a and 5.3b)
 90
show a linear correlation but the linear relationship breaks d o w n at higher ranks ( R ^ a x

> 0.6%). Figures 5.3a and 5.3b show that for a change in ^ m a x from 0.4 to 0.55%, the

inherent moisture decreases from 30 to 7 % , with an increase in the calorific value of 6300

to 7800 kcal/kg (d.a.f.), or a 1500 kcal/kg increase per 0.1% increase in Ryinax. For

reflectance values between 0.6% and 2.7% ^ m a x , the inherent moisture values are within

the range of 1 to 4 % and only a small increase in the calorific value occurs, from 8000

to 8700 kcal/kg (an average of 32 kcal/kg increase for each 0 . 1 % increase in ^ m a x ) .

A decrease in moisture content accompanied by an increase in calorific values is comm

for coal in the early stages of coalification. In the early stages of coalification, peat

changes to brown coal with a fourfold reduction in volume (Ting, 1977a and 1977b). With

further increases in rank, from sub-bituminous C to sub-bituminous B rank, the moisture

content falls as there is a decrease in porosity and a decrease in hydrophilic functional

groups such as the -OH, - C O O H , - O C H 3 and - C = 0 groups; ring structures with oxygen

increase in relative carbon content (Stach et al, 1982; Bustin et al, 1983). During this

early stage of coalification, physico-structural changes are the dominant changes that

occur; these are followed by geochemical gelification of humic substances. Vitrinitisation

is intensified although the volatile matter shows little change; all these changes happen

when the vitrinite reflectance is approximately 0.45%.

In general, data from the literature, such as Stach et al (1982), suggest that from a

reflectance of approximately 0.5% ^ m a x (sub-bituminous B/A rank) the vitrinitisation

process continues up to the bright brown coal or sub-bituminous A (^max = 0.65%). In

this range (sub-bituminous B/A), the calorific values range from 5500 to 7000 kcal/kg and

the volatile matter ranges from 49 to 4 2 % (Stach et al, 1982).

 91

For Bukit A s a m coal, the increase in calorific value to 7000 kcal/kg (d.a.f.) is

accompanied by a decrease in moisture content of 7 % and this occurs over the vitrinite

reflectance range of 0.4 to 0.55 %. F r o m these data, it appears that the molecular structure

of vitrinite basically is not changed or is only slightly changed even though the moisture

content decreases substantially. Above an Ryinax value of 0.6%, the reflectance increases

rapidly with increasing calorific value and decreasing moisture content. This is mostly

controlled by the release of volatile matter and aromatisation processes (Stach et al., 1982;

Bustin et al, 1983). T w o composite samples, G M 2 5 4 8 7 from A 2 seam and G M 1 9 3 7 6

from B 2 seam show anomalously low calorific values, well below most other samples with

an ^ m a x higher than 0.6%. These samples were taken from near intrusions. Both samples

have higher than normal ash contents ( 1 1 % for G M 2 5 4 9 7 ) and the lower calorific values

can probably be attributed in part to this.

According to Stach et al (1982), during the high volatile bituminous coal stage (where t

volatile content is > 3 0 % ) , the reactions that bring about coalification are similar to those

that occur during the brown coal stage; as before, moisture content and volatile content

decrease, and calorific value increases. In the later bituminous stages ( < 30 to 1 0 % volatile

matter), volatile matter, which is related predominantly of the non-aromatic fraction of the

coal, falls rapidly due to the removal of aliphatic and alicyclic groups and the increasing

aromatisation of the humic complexes. Stach et al. (1982) also stated that in this range of

ranks, the reflectance rises proportionately to the fall in volatile matter because both

parameters are related to the degree of aromatisation of the vitrinite structural units.

For Bukit Asam coal, the volatile matter starts to decrease rapidly when the ^max reache

0.55% (volatile content is 4 4 % at this reflectance); at a reflectance of 2 % , the volatile

 92
matter is 1 4 % . A plot of volatile matter vs ^ m a x (Fig. 5.4) shows a negative correlation.

A s coalification takes place, aromatisation and the removal of alicyclic and aliphatic groups

are steadily removed and this is associated with a corresponding increase in vitrinite

reflectance. Below ^ m a x 0.5%, the aromatisation and the removal of non-aromatic

compounds (aliphatic and alicyclic) does not occur even though the moisture content

decrease markedly. For ^ m a x above 2 % , the volatile matter does not decrease much

below 1 2 % . This is probably due to the strength of bonding of the remaining aliphatic

compounds which is high. Within this higher rank range, the increase in vitrinite

reflectance is due to increased alignment of organic entities parallel to the bedding (Stach

et al, 1982; Bustin et al, 1983).

5.3 INFLUENCE OF THE INTRUSIONS

The effects of igneous intrusions on coal, oil shale and petroleum source rocks have been

the subject of many studies, mostly because heating by an intrusion increases the rank of

the coal or the maturity of the oil shale or source rock. This is useful for studying changes

in maceral structure which are associated with increasing rank. The emplacement of

m a g m a and lava may also be the cause of the circulation of hot hydrothermal fluids

through coal seams and this may cause an anomalously high coalification rate. The lateral

extent of the heat-altered zone depends on a number factors including the thickness of the

intrusion and the rate of cooling (Bustin et al, 1983).

Hutton (1982) studied the effect of a dome-shaped dolerite intrusion in the Rundle and

Stuart oil shale deposits, Australia. For the oil shales, one intrusion had a m a x i m u m zone

of influence of 68 metres from the intrusion. The reflectance of vitrinite in the oil shales

increased from the regional vitrinite reflectance of approximately 0.3 to 6.9% near the
 93

intrusive body.

The effects of the intrusion studied by Hutton had a more restricted zone of influence

is the case for intrusions at Bukit Asam. This was probably a function of comparative size

of the respective intrusions. Also, the change in coalification at the contact between the

intrusion and the heated shale/coal, as measured by vitrinite reflectance, is m u c h higher

for the oil shales than is the case for Bukit A s a m coal.

Frederick et al. (1985) studied the influence of igneous intrusions on the structure of

Australian high volatile bituminous coal; these authors used F T I R spectroscopy and solid
13
state C N M R spectroscopy to analyse the C - H aliphatic structures and aromatic

structures, respectively. In a study on the effect of two dykes that penetrated the Victoria

Tunnel seam in the Newcastle Coalfield, N e w South Wales, they found that towards the

intrusion the aromatic structures increased in abundance, suggesting that thefirstreaction

to have occurred in the heated coal was the loss of oxygen functional groups with

subsequent replacement by hydrogen. Approaching the dyke, the aliphatic groups were lost

as a result of the breaking of the carbon-carbon bonds. In the sintered coal, aromatic

cross-linking was found to have taken place. It was stated that the cross-linking process

is analogous to the process of coalification under normal heat flow conditions but differs

in that the reactions occurred over a much shorter time because of the higher temperatures

involved. T h e study noted that although the dyke was relatively thin, the vitrinite

reflectance increased from 0.9 to 2.13% and the area of influence from the dyke extended

up to 36 metres from the dykes. T h e results of the study are summarised in Table 5.1.

Gentzis and Goodarzi (1990) studied the effect of intrusions on dispersed organic matte
 94
in the sediments near the intrusions on Melville Island, Canada. They compared two deep

drill holes (Panarctic Drake Point D-68 and Panarctic Chads Creeks B-64) which

intersected two sills and one sill, respectively, and measured the reflectance of bitumen as

a measure of the maturity of the sequence. In the Drake Point D-68 drill hole, they found

that the effect of the granodiorite sill could be traced vertically by anomalous reflectance

values up to a distance of eight times the thickness of the sill; the upper sill was 45 m

thick with the aureole above it 330 m thick and the lower sill was 75 m thick; the zone of

influence was 484 m . The bitumen reflectance near the intrusions ranged between 5.8 and

6.8%.

The Chads Creeks B-64 drill hole penetrated a diabase sill with a thickness of 120 m.

effects of the intrusion in this hole could be detected for a distance of approximately 600

m above the intrusion. The reflectance of bitumen reached a m a x i m u m of only 0.6%. The

temperature of the diabase sill at the time of emplacement was estimated to be higher than

that of the granodiorite (1100° compared to 800° respectively). However, the maximum

reflectance was higher near the granodiorite sill. This was attributed to the probable

presence of another sill at slightly greater depth in the Drake Point drill hole.

Wang et al (1990) constructed mathematical models for determining the intrusion time o

sill-like igneous bodies using organic maturation parameters. They suggested that the

ability to infer the temperature of an igneous body, the time of intrusion and the cooling

time of the intrusion in the sedimentary sequence is crucial, especially in relation to the

assessment of hydrocarbon migration and reservoir potential.

The effect of intrusions on maceral structure has been studied by Creaney (1979). He
 95
found that the Kamloops sub-bituminous coal from British Colombia had been thermally

metamorphosed by an igneous intrusion to a rank of semi-anthracite but the coal still

retained cell structures typical of sub-bituminous coal. Bustin et al (1983) also found that

coal from a high heat flow area in Washington State, originally of sub-bituminous rank,

had been altered to anthracite; the anthracite still retained visible cell structure despite the

very strong heating and the elevation of rank.

The present study area, where the igneous intrusions have several forms, provides an

excellent opportunity to study the relationship between shape of aureoles and the different

kinds of intrusive bodies. The study area has three types of intrusive bodies: the large

Bukit A s a m dyke, Suban sill in the Suban area and a vertical parasitic cone to the west of

Airlaya D o m e .

1. Bukit Asam Dyke (Figs 5.5 and 5.6)

The Bukit A s a m dyke is the largest igneous body in the area and m a y have been the source

of m a g m a for all the other intrusions in the area. Field studies show that the Bukit A s a m

dyke penetrated the coal measures with considerable force causing brecciation in some

areas and the chaotic interfingering of sediment and intrusion close to the intrusion (Fig.

5.5). The effects of heating are clearly observable in the Balong Hijau quarry (Fig. 5.6)

which is an exposure in the aureole of Bukit A s a m dyke; here the aureole is 0.5 m to 1.25

k m wide.

In the Curuk Pangkul/Balong Hijau area, the intrusion appears to be associated with a

decrease in thickness of the coal measures sequence. O n the southern side of the intrusion,

the interval between A l and B 2 seams is only 8 m thick; this is m u c h thinner than the
 96
normal thickness (40 m ) . O n the eastern and northern sides, a brecciated claystone zone

was formed. This zone is approximately 30 to 50 m wide. The sedimentary sequence also

was severely baked on the northern side of the intrusion (Fig. 5.6); the baking is now

recognised by black claystone with chaotic blocks of sandstone within the claystone.

The zone of influence of heating by the Bukit Asam dyke is limited to an aureole

approximately 0.5 to 1.25 k m wide. The dyke created an aureole 0.5 k m on the western

side (Muara Tiga Selatan) but 1.25 k m wide on the eastern side (Suban). The Muara Tiga

Selatan area does not appear to have been affected by the Bukit A s a m intrusion and there

is no evidence for elevated vitrinite reflectance at location M S A 12 and in drill holes H D 5 4

and H D 5 5 .

In the Suban area, to the east of Bukit Asam, the aureole appears to be at its wides

reflectance values highest. However this aureole was not solely caused by Bukit Asam

dyke but may also caused by the Suban sill and the Bukit M u n g g u intrusion.

Dow (1977) suggested that the maximum thickness influenced by sill-like intrusion is

approximately twice the thickness of the sill. However, it might be expected that the

thickness of the alteration would be controlled by a number of factors other than the

thickness of the sill that is finally emplaced. These factors will include the temperature of

the m a g m a at the time of intrusion, the amount of m a g m a that flowed though the fissures

where the sill is n o w preserved, the amount of hot gases that were evolved into the

adjacent strata and the temperature of the sedimentary formations at the time of intrusion.

Bostick and Pawlewicz (1984) in an extremely detailed study of an intrusion within t

 97

Pierre Shale in Colorado, were able to show that for that intrusion, the temperature

decreased to about background levels at distances of approximately twice the thickness of

the dyke.

Raymond and Murchison (1988) indicated that, for the Midland Valley of Scotland, the

zones where marked contact effects are seen are much greater for the younger intrusions

than for the older intrusions. They concluded that variation in m a g m a temperatures is

insufficient to be the major cause of variability in the intensity of contact alteration. The

thickness of zones did not correlate with general indications of the amounts of m a g m a

intruded. They also concluded that the degree of sediment compaction, the volume of pore

water in the sediment and the initial maturation level of organic matter at the time of the

m a g m a intrusion are the significant factors that influence the scale of aureoles associated

with intrusions. Similar results have been reported by Pearson (1988) where the width of

metamorphic aureoles near igneous dykes was correlated with formation temperatures at

the time of intrusion of the dykes. Thus many of the above authors provide explanations

for the variability in the width of zones of heat altered zones of coals in a number of

coalfields. S o m e of all of the above factors are likely to have been important at Bukit

A s a m but, in addition, other reasons for the size of the aureole associated with the Bukit

A s a m intrusion are:

i. the immaturity of the Muara Enim Formation at the time of emplacement; and,

ii. the presence of unconsolidated sediments, including lignite, when the m a g m a was

emplaced.

Given that the width of influence for contact alteration effects on organic matter wil
 98

with the formation conditions and water content of the sediments at the time of intrusion,

correlations can vary from province to province. Therefore it is unwise to adopt a simple

formula to indicate the relationship between the thickness of the zone of influence and the

thickness of the igneous intrusion. Plots of reflectance against distance from the igneous

bodies for Bukit A s a m show some variations in the trends (Fig. 5.7).

For Bukit Asam, the period during which igneous rocks were intruded was relatively

restricted to the Quaternary (Gafoer et al., 1986) and the range of depth of cover for the

Muara Enim Formation would also have been restricted (Kasai Formation and/or

Quaternary Deposits). S o m e variations in the water content would occur depending on the

lithologies present but lateral variation in the lithology would be limited (Stalder, 1976).

However, some variations in formation temperatures might occur if intrusions occurred

at sites close to those where heating had already been induced by an earlier phase of

intrusion.

The variations shown in Figure 5.7 could be explained in terms of the thickness of th

but, in most cases, direct measurements of the thickness of the sill are not available to

prove or disprove the conclusions from such a correlation.

2. Suban Sill (Figs 5.8, 5.9)

The geometry of the Suban sill was interpreted using the data from five drill holes that

intersected the sill (TA64, T A 6 5 , N S B 0 7 , N S B 1 0 and N S B 1 1 ) and several others that

penetrated only to the top of the intrusion. The sill has a m a x i m u m thickness in drill holes

T A 6 4 and T A 6 5 (50 m ) . T o the south, towards drill hole N S B 0 7 , the thickness decreases

and the sill splits into two thin sills. The sill thins to the southeast as can be seen from drill
 99
hole data for N S B 1 0 , N S B 1 1 and N S B 0 7 where the sill is 11.67 m , 1.8 m , to 2.38 m

thick, from west to east, respectively. Towards the north, the sill also thins and probably

does not extend north of the grid line 9586000 near drill hole R27A. This assumption is

based on the observation that the rank of the coal decreases, consistently, from the Suban

area toward this line.

Drill hole NSB04 was located close to the Bukit Asam dyke and intersected the top of t

sill at -63 m below sea level, much lower than other adjacent drill holes (for example,

R C 1 0 -17 m ; T A 6 5 - 6 m ) . Given the close spacing of all intrusions and the similar rock

types, it is logical to suggest that Suban sill was sourced from Bukit A s a m dyke as were

the smaller parasitic cones.

The southern and eastern limits of the sill remain unknown due to a lack of drill hol

From the thickness of the sill in drill holes N S B 0 7 , N S B 1 1 and N S B 1 0 , it appears that the

intrusion at Bukit M u n g g u (NSB05) may have had a different m a g m a source.

The influence of the Suban sill on the vitrinite reflectance can be seen in drill hol

which intersected the four coal seams A l , A 2 , A 3 and B 2 as well as the top of the

intrusion. In an interval of approximately 60 m , the vitrinite reflectance increases from 0.7

to 2.1%, that is, it increases at the rate of 0.02% per metre. This is higher than the

increase in drill holes associated with Bukit A s a m dyke and suggests that Suban sill may

have been intruded at a higher temperature than Bukit A s a m dyke or was larger. The latter

is unlikely given the known distribution from drill holes and the size of the respective

aureoles.
 100
Laterally, the influence of the sill appears to be variable. A plot of the R v m a x for samples

from different locations in the Suban area, against the distance from the intrusion, shows

the influence of the intrusion. The data are summarised in Table 5.2. T h e plot, Figure 5.7,

shows the calculated distance from various sample localities to the intrusion and the

vitrinite reflectance of respective samples. The ^ m a x values for the samples from drill

hole R C 1 0 , which have known distances from the intrusion, are represented by Line 1.

Line 2 represents the ^ m a x values of sample from the mining face at locations SBA11,

S B A 2 , S B B 1 , S B A 1 2 , S B A 1 3 and S B A 1 4 . The data suggest some differences.

Explanations for the apparent differences in the data are:

i. the temperature of the intrusion in the area where RC10 is located was lower than

the temperature at the locality from where the samples on the line 2 are located or,

alternatively,

ii. the heat did not flow equally through the rocks from the intrusion.

Despite the apparent differences, the above data show a reasonably good correlation

between vitrinite reflectance and distance from the sill. This finding is important, because

either vitrinite reflectance or distance from a known sill can be used to predict the other.

Correlations such as these are extremely useful in exploration programs, mine feasibility

studies and quality control exercises.

It is widely accepted that Rvmax values are influenced mostly by temperature and time

during which the coal is exposed to given temperatures; the higher the temperature and the

longer the coal is heated at any given temperature, the higher the R^mzx value. Although
 101

D o w (1977), suggested that the m a x i m u m area of influence by sill-like intrusions is twice

the thickness of the intrusion. This clearly does not hold for the Bukit A s a m intrusions

where the relationships are more complicated because of multiple intrusions.

Vitrinite reflectance in Suban area, compared to the other areas near Bukit Asam, is

considerably higher because the coal is heated from several intrusions. Suban sill has

influenced the coal from below, Bukit A s a m dyke has an influence in the west and Bukit

M u n g g u has an influence in the south.

3. Airlaya Parasitic Cone

This intrusion was not intersected in any drill hole but its existence can be predicted from

the circular pattern, around drill holes A L B 4 7 and R C 6 0 , on the reflectance contour map.

A n iso-rank cross-section on the western side of Airlaya Pit (Fig. 5.10) suggests that the

depth to the intrusion in A L B 4 7 is 20 to 60 m below C seam, based on the distance-P^max

relationship found for Suban area and using the assumption that the intrusion had a similar

source of m a g m a and more importantly, a similar temperature at the time of emplacement.

The shape of the intrusion is that of a vertical cylinder or cone with a diameter of 10

150 metres (one half of the radius of the area of influence). Other small intrusions are

predicted from the data given in Figures 5.11 to 5.15. The m a x i m u m extent of the aureole

for the Airlaya parasitic cone can be estimated from the reflectance data. In the west and

east, the influence extends for approximately 500 m as indicated by the background values

for vitrinite reflectance at location A L A 13 in the east and locality H D 6 1 in the west. In

a northeast direction, the aureole is slightly wider as shown by the relatively high vitrinite

reflectance at localities A L A 1 9 and A L A 1 8 . The intrusion does not extend beyond R C 6 3

 102

and A L A 1 6 as shown by normal background reflectance values (0.4%) in these holes. To

the south of A L B 4 7 , in the vicinity of A L A 1 1 4 and A L A 1 3 , the vitrinite reflectance values

are also at background level. However, in an area 200 m to the southwest of A L A 1 3 , drill

holes B H A 1 1 to B H A 1 1 4 show much higher reflectance values (1.2%). This suggests the

Bukit A s a m m a g m a may have extended towards A L B 4 7 and further north under A L A 19.

The interseam vitrinite reflectance data from drill hole BH ALB47, show a progressiv

decrease from 2.16% in C seam to A l seam (1.26%). The nearby boreholes also show

similar vitrinite reflectance trends but with relatively lower reflectance gradients.

Another intrusion to the west of Airlaya Pit is indicated by the reflectance values.

Comparing the variation in vitrinite reflectance in A L B 4 7 and R C 1 0 (which penetrated the

Suban sill approximately 20 m below the lowest seam (B2)), the intrusion to the west of

Airlaya pit must be deeper than 20 m below the C seam in A L B 4 7 as indicated by the

lower vitrinite reflectance gradient in A L B 4 7 .

As stated earlier, the Airlaya Dome was thought to have been caused by an intrusion

which was emplaced under it but which did not crop out (Matasak and Kendarsi, 1980).

However, the iso-reflectance contour m a p compiled for this study indicates the intrusion

that heated the coal in the vicinity of Airlaya D o m e , is not under the Airlaya D o m e but

on the western flank of the dome. Thus, the Airlaya D o m e m a y not have been caused by

an intrusion but is structural feature.

The thickness of the coal seams near the intrusions decreases as the reflectance in

These decreases are quite marked with the seam thicknesses reduced to 8 7 % of the average
 103

thicknesses away from the intrusions. In other coalfields of Indonesia, as well as in areas

of the Bukit A s a m Coalfield except those near intrusions, the thickness variations are not

large. For example, at Sangatta, Kalimantan, Nas (1993; 1994) and Geological Survey of

Indonesia (1978) noted very little variation. At Bukit Asam, A 2 seam is regarded to have

the most constant thickness of any seam in the South Sumatra Basin (Stalder, 1976).

However, near intrusions, the thickness of this seam decreases considerably with

increasing rank (Fig. 5.11). Where ^ m a x values change from 0.4 to 0.5% the decrease

in thickness is most dramatic and accounts for most of the decrease. Where the ^ m a x

changes from 0.5 to 2 . 7 % the decreases is less but still noticeable. N o evidence that

sedimentological features influence the thickness of the seam in this area is apparent.

One hypothesis for this phenomenon is the increasing temperature caused by the intrus

has driven out the volatile matter and moisture, thus decreasing the pore volume in the

coal, that is, the coal was able to be compacted more than if it had not been heated.

Additional studies would be needed to verify this.

5.3.1 Variations in Reflectance

The vitrinite reflectance varies both laterally and vertical mirroring the lateral and vertical

variations in rank in the Bukit A s a m Coalfield. Daulay (1985) showed the regional trends

in vitrinite reflectance for composite samples from the A seam (Al + A 2 seams). O n his

Rvmax contour m a p (Fig. 5.12), the highest reflectance values were in the heated area to

the west of the open pit of PT. Bukit A s a m coal mine. In a mine to the west of study area,

Air Laway, the Rvmax values gradually increased from 0.37 to 0 . 4 % in the vicinity of the

of PT. Bukit A s a m concession area. The values reach a peak value of 2.6% in the vicinity

of the igneous intrusion in the Bukit A s a m and Bukit Tapuan areas (Fig. 5.12). The Ryinax
 104
data obtained in this study, together with the data from previous studies (Daulay, 1985;

Kinhill Ottogold Joint Venture, 1986) is used to construct more detailed maps showing the

lateral variation in vitrinite reflectance for the A l , A 2 and Bl seams in the P T . Bukit

A s a m concession area (Figs 5.13, 5.14 and 5.15).

Data from this study shows that almost all the variation in vitrinite reflectance can

attributed to the intrusions. The main outcrop of the Bukit A s a m intrusion complex appears

to only influence a zone with a m a x i m u m lateral extent of approximately 1.25 k m . Even

in the Muara Tiga Selatan area ( M S A ) , located approximately 500 m west of Bukit Asam,

the vitrinite reflectance values indicate no significant heating; in this area the vitrinite

reflectance values are similar to those on the eastern side of Airlaya which is known to be

in an area that is some distance from the intrusions and where the P^max valuesfitthe

normal regional pattern, for example, the P^max values for H D 5 5 , H D 5 4 , M S A 1 1 and

M S A 12 are within this range.

On the western side of Airlaya pit (AL), near ALB47 and RC60, the effects of the

intrusion are more pronounced compared to the effects in the eastern part of the basin. The

overall area of influence covers an area from localities A L B 4 4 to A L A 1 8 . It is presumed

that a second intrusion, with an interpreted shape of a pipe-like body, perpendicular to the

bedding of the sedimentary strata, contributed to the heating because on other sides of the

Bukit Asam intrusion, close to the outcrop of the intrusion, the Rvmax values are normally

low (0.44%) as shown by samples from localities A L A 1 1 4 , A L A 1 1 5 and R C 2 7 A . These

values are the same as the normal or background reflectance. However, towards Suban sill

(locality SB), the reflectance pattern changes quite rapidly. For example, at localities at

R C 3 9 and A L A 1 1 5 the reflectance values are 0.44%, increasing from 0.8 to 1.25%, near
 105

RC14, finally reaching 2 . 7 % in the southern part of the Suban pit and near the Bukit A s a m

intrusion.

The model that best explains the variations in the vitrinite reflectance values in

between A L A 1 1 5 and R C 1 4 and to the South, is that another intrusion exists and this

heated the coal in Suban area.

5.3.2 Vertical Variations in Reflectance

1. Intraseam Variation in Reflectance

For the coal in the areas not effected by heat, the difference in P^max values, from the top

to the bottom of the seam, is low and with ranges from 0 to 0.07% per 10 m (Figs 5.16

and 5.17). Intraseam variation is easily recognised in samples from some heated zones but

again there is no consistent trend. For example, in Suban area the intraseam variation can

be recognised in S B A 1 2 and S B A 1 1 (Figs 5.16a and 5.16b). At location S B A 1 2 , the

R ^ a x values increase slightly towards the base of the seam, ranging from 0.61 % at the

top to 0.65% at the base. There is an abrupt increase to 1.9% in the 10 c m ply above the

underclay or seat earth. At location SBA11, Rymax is 1.24% at the top of the seam and

gradually increases to 1.28 % approximately one metre before the bottom of the seam, after

which there is a sharp increase to 1.94% in the bottom one metre interval. Less

pronounced intraseam variations also can be recognised in the heated zone in the Airlaya

Pit such as at locations A L A 1 4 (0.39 to 0.44% across 9 metres of seam thickness), A L A 1 9

(0.57 to 0.74% across 0.6 metres of coal above the upper claystone of A l seam), and

A L A 1 7 (0.41 to 0.56% across 0.6 metres of the coal above the upper claystone of the A l

seam).
 106
In some heated zones intraseam variation are not apparent. At several locations, and even

close to the intrusion, the reflectance shows only small variations across the seam. For

example, at location A L A 1 1 , in the Airlaya pit the samples have values of 1.3% across

the full seam thickness. Constant values are also found for the seams at locations SBA21

(2.3%)andSBBll (2.7%).

One reason for the apparent variation in reflectance within coal seams could be the

movement of hot hydrothermalfluidsthrough the more porous parts of the seams.

2. Interseam Variations in Reflectance

The interseam variation in vitrinite reflectance was assessed by comparing composite

samples from the various seams taken from drill hole samples. A total of eleven drill holes

were chosen. Nine of these drill holes were drilled through the complete series of coal

seams, from A l , A 2 (upper and lower Mangus), Bl and B 2 (upper and lower Suban) and

C (Petai seam); two drill holes did not penetrate the lowest seam, C seam. O n e drill hole

penetrated the intrusion in Suban Area (RC10).

In general, the reflectance gradient shows a positive increase downhole with value

from 0.013 to 0.048% per 100 meters in areas where surface mapping or drilling provided

no evidence for intrusions. The lower part of the range is within the normal regional range

for the South Sumatran Basin. However, the upper part of the range is almost three times

higher than the norm. Drill holes with gradients in the high end of the range include

R C 6 2 A , RC63, RC39, R C 5 0 , A L P 1 2 , and ALP13.

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For drill holes R C 6 0 , R C 1 4 , A L B 4 4 , A L B 4 7 , and A L B 4 8 , the reflectance gradient varies

from 0.48 to 3.72% per 100 m . In all cases, the gradient depends on the position of the

holes in relation to the intrusion (Figs 5.18 to 5.21).

One hole, ALB48, shows a negative geothermal gradient with the R^max values decreasi

with increasing depth (Fig. 5.21). The Ryrnax value for vitrinite in A l seam is lower than

that in A 2 seam and the ^ m a x of B 2 is much lower than that of the Bl seam. The highest

Rvmax value is for a sample in the A 2 seam that is overlain by the impermeable cap rock

of A2-B1 interseam sediment. The location of drill hole A L B 4 8 is close to the parasitic

cone underneath ALB47-RC60.

Direct heating by the intrusions is one obvious cause of the increased reflectance

Another hypotheses to explain the variations is the influence of hydrothermalfluids.This

second cause it more likely to explain apparently inconsistent variations. For example, a

parasitic intrusion underneath the drill holes A L B 4 7 and R C 6 0 would be a source of

hydrothermalfluidsinfluencing samples in these holes.

The rapid change in reflectance values is found both on the intraseam scale, for exa

at locality A L B 1 1 , and on the interseam scale, for example in drill hole A L B 4 8 . These

decreases appear to be due to local effects. In A L B 1 1 where the seam is nine metres thick,

the ^ m a x varies from 0.57% at the bottom of the hole, decreasing slightly to the middle

of the seam (0.55%) but then increases steadily towards the top (0.71%). The nearest

locations where the normal Rymax values were found were localities A L A 2 1 and A L A 12

where the reflectances (0.45 to 0.49%) were similar to the regional value in all ply

samples except the dull coal layer at the bottom of A 2 seam in location A L A 2 1 which has
 108
anomalously high vitrinite reflectance (1.94%). This location is distant from the parasitic

cone in the A L B 4 7 - R C 6 0 area (western part of Airlaya Pit), but close to the area of

influence of Suban sill. The interseam rocks between A 2 seam and Bl seam are

interlaminated claystone and siltstone with an organic-rich claystone at the top. The

topmost massive claystone layer may have acted as an impermeable cap rock when the

Suban sill was emplaced and this influenced the flow of associated hydrothermal fluids.

If the fluids were stopped by a less permeable seal they would probably remain in the

interseam rocks for a longer period, thus increasing the reflectance because of the longer

exposure to the higher temperatures. A similar phenomenon might also explain higher

vitrinite reflectances at the top of Bl seam in some locations.

5.4. MACERAL COMPOSITION

5.4.1 Coal

The earliest petrographic data for coal from Bukit A s a m and the surrounding areas were

reported by Kinhill Ottogold Joint Venture (1985), Daulay (1985), Daulay and Cook

(1988) and Waluyo (1992). Kinhill Ottogold Joint Venture carried out maceral analyses

on 22 composite samples from various seams in eight drill holes in the Muara Tiga Besar

area, an area to the west of the Bukit Asam mines. The report stated that the coal

contained mostly huminite (69 to 8 4 % , average 7 9 % ) with a low percentage of inertinite

(2 to 9%, average 5 % ), a small percentage of liptinite (8 to 1 5 % , average 1 2 % ) and a

low mineral content (1 to 1 4 % , average 4 % ) .

Daulay (1985) in a broader study, examined the organic petrography of a wide range of

Indonesian coals and stated that the maceral composition of most Indonesian coals is

vitrinite (72 to 9 7 % , average 8 8 % ) , with liptinite contributing 5 to 2 2 % (but typically 5

 109

to 1 0 % ) and inertinite constituting less than 1 2 % . With respect to samples from Bukit

Asam, Daulay reported that the coal is composed of mostly vitrinite (76 to 9 6 % , average

8 7 % ) with a liptinite content 2 to 1 5 % (average of 7 % ) , an inertinite content of 1 to 8 %

(average 3 % ) and a low mineral content (trace to 5 % , with an average of 2 % ) . H e also

recognised the effect of igneous intrusions on the structure and maceral composition of the

coal. H e suggested that gelification of telovitrinite increased with increasing rank and

found that the proportion of telovitrinite in heated coal was higher than the proportion in

coal not affected by heat.

Daulay and Cook (1988) also published on Indonesian coals and suggested that the increa

in the proportion of telovitrinite in heated Bukit A s a m coal is an artefact caused by

limitations of the optical method. In other words, the telovitrinite could not be

distinguished from other vitrinite after it had been heated unless etching or some other

technique was used in conjunction with microscopy.

Waluyo (1992), as part of his study to assess the Banko Barat coal as a feed stock for

Suralaya electricity plants, studied the organic petrography of coal from Banko Barat, an

areafivekilometres south-east of PT. Bukit A s a m coal mining concession area. The study

showed that Banko Barat coal contains mostly vitrinite (83 to 9 6 % , average 8 6 % ) with a

low liptinite content (2 to 8 % , average 5 % ) , a low inertinite content (1 to 6 % , average

4%) and low mineral content (0.2 to 6%, 2 % average). Waluyo also noted that

detrovitrinite, resinite and semifusinite are the dominant macerals of the vitrinite, liptinite

and inertinite groups respectively.

The present study generally confirms the findings of the previous studies but provides
 110
greater detail because of the increased number of samples, more details on interseam and

intraseam variation (because of the sampling rationale to use ply samples rather than grab

or composite samples collected for previous petrographic studies) and a more in-depth

treatment of the origin of the coal. A total of 220 samples, ranging from claystone to coal

with minimal ash, were examined.

5.4.2 Maceral Descriptions

Maceral analyses for coal samples with ^ m a x values below 0.7%, showed that vitrinite

is the main constituent of the coal and coaly shale in the A l , A 2 , Bl and B 2 seams (Fig.

5.22 and Tables 5.3 and 5.4). Based on ply samples, vitrinite content ranges from 56.6

to 9 8 . 2 % by volume, with an average of 87.1%; liptinite content ranges from 0.2 to

25.4% (average 5.3%) and inertinite content ranges from < 1 to 11.2% (average 3.8%).

Mineral matter in ply samples ranges from < 1 to 2 0 % (average 3.4%). However, the

average full seam mineral content for the four seams, A l , A 2 , Bl and B2, is only 2.3%.

Some of the differences in maceral compositions compared to those published is

understandable and can be explained in terms of the method of sampling. The previous

studies were based on composite seam samples or grab samples from the surface.

Composite samples give the average values for the whole seam and the grab samples are

not necessarily representative of the seam or ply from which the samples for this study

were taken.

1. Vitrinite (Plates 5.1 and 5.2)

Vitrinite in Bukit Asam coal is generally dominated by detrovitrinite with telovitrinite and

gelovitrinite as subordinate maceral subgroups. The detrovitrinite to telovitrinite ratio

 Ill

shows a relatively large variation (Fig. 5.23) indicating some variation in composition

between samples. T h e same trends can be seen more easily in the histograms for each of

maceral subgroup (Fig. 5.24). T h e proportion of telovitrinite ranges from 3.0 to 6 2 . 6 %

with an average of 2 1 . 1 % , detrovitrinite contents range from 7.8 to 7 6 . 1 % (an average

of 56.6%) and gelovitrinite contents range from 1.4 to 2 7 . 6 % (an average of 9.2%).

Telovitrinite (Fig. 5.24) is commonly texto-ulminite or eu-ulminite with textinite in

association with resinite, whichfillsthe cell lumens, in some samples. Texto-ulminite and

eu-ulminite are commonly associated with corpogelinite and phlobaphinite or porigelinite,

and this c o m m o n association explains the high telovitrinite-gelovitrinite ratios in some

samples.

Detrovitrinite comprises densinite in low rank samples and desmocollinite in higher rank

samples (P^max > 0.5 % ) . S o m e detrovitrinite layers are relatively homogenous and occur

as monomaceral layers except for minor sclerotinite (teleutospores). This type of

detrovitrinite is usually well stratified, has a relatively finer grain size than other

fragmented vitrinite and has a bright, clean appearance.

Another association of detrovitrinite is as a matrix to other macerals such as sporinite

resinite, liptodetrinite, suberinite, inertodetrinite, sclerotinite, corpocollinite and mineral

matter. These layers tend to be less well defined and less stratified; the constituents are

commonly poorly sorted, and have a "dirty" grey appearance. In some samples gradations

between the two types of detrovitrinite are observed (Plate 5.1).

Gelovitrinite (Plates 5.1 and 5.2) is commonly corpogelinite, phlobaphinite and porigel
 112
with minor eugelinite. Corpogelinite is associated with telovitrinite whereas porigelinite

is also commonly associated specifically with suberinite derived from bark tissue.

2. Liptinite (Plates 5.2 and 5.3)

Liptinite in Bukit A s a m coal is generally sparse, with an average of 5.3%, but ranging

from 0.2 to 25.4%. Resinite, sporinite, suberinite, cutinite, liptodetrinite are the dominant

liptinite macerals but minor fluorinite and exsudatinite are also present (Fig. 5.25). The

highest liptinite content is in a sample from the Klawas area (GM25469); generally

samples from this area have higher liptinite contents, mostly resinite, than samples from

other areas.

Resinite content is variable, ranging from 0 to 16.2% (1.9% average). It fills cell lum

occurs as discrete globular bodies and as detrital fragments of various sizes in detrovitrinite

layers or mineral-rich layers. Discrete resinite bodies are black to pale grey in reflected

white light with yellow (low rank samples) to brown (high rank samples) fluorescence. The

resinite commonly has higher polishing relief compared with adjacent vitrinite.

The detrital resinite, by contrast, has negative to no relief, internal reflections and

spongy texture. This resinite has a yellow globular core surrounded by a duller/darker

yellow annulus. Samples with abundant resinite generally c o m e from the middle and the

top of the seams and the resinite is mostly detrital. The highest resinite content (16.2%)

was in sample G M 2 5 3 6 0 from the Bl seam at Klawas Tengah.

Sporinite comprises 0 to 4.4% of the coal (average 1.0%). It is mostly present as

miospores and pollen (commonly with a dumbbell shape). Sporinite is black to pale grey
 113

in white light with greenfluorescence,changing to brown fluorescence as the rank of the

coal increases. Sporinite has a significantly higher polishing relief than vitrinite in low rank

coal. However, in heated coal from near the intrusions, it has a lower relief. Sporinite is

commonly closely associated with detrovitrinite. The highest sporinite content (4.4%) is

in a sample ( G M 2 5 3 6 9 ) from the middle ply of A l seam, just below the middle tonstein

(T2) in the Klawas Tengah area.

Cutinite constitutes 0 to 4.8% of the coal (average 0.86) and is associated with

gelovitrinite, sclerotinite (large fungal tissue or disseminated individual teleutospores, Plate

5.4c). Cutinite is black to grey in white light and has yellow (low rank) to brown (high

rank)fluorescence.The highest cutinite content (4.8%) is in a sample from the top ply of

A l seam in the Airlaya pit. Tenuicutinite is c o m m o n in m a n y samples and is almost

always derived from leaf tissue, shown by the almost perfect leaf structures comprising

vitrinite and resinite enclosed in tenuicutinite.

Suberinite is trace to abundant in Bukit Asam coal, ranging from 0 to 4.2% with an

average of 0.86%. Suberinite is associated with gelocollinite, porigelinite and cutinite. The

highest suberinite content (4.2%) is in a sample from immediately below the upper (T3)

tonstein layer in A l seam in the Klawas Tengah area (GM25372).

Liptodetrinite is associated with detrital macerals such as detrovitrinite and inertod

detrital resinite, sporinite and gelovitrinite. Liptodetrinite contents range from 0 to 5 . 0 %

(average 0.4%). The highest liptodetrinite content is in a sample from A l seam in the

Klawas Tengah area (GM25369).

 114
Fluorinite infills cell lumens, has autofluorescence even in white light and has green or

yellowish-green fluorescence in low rank coal. Fluorescence colour changes to yellow in

samples which have been slightly heated. M a x i m u m fluorinite content (2.2%) is in a

sample taken from A l seam, Airlaya pit; in most samples,fluoriniteis absent or present

in trace amounts only and the average fluorinite content is 0.2%.

Exsudatinite (Plate 5.3c and d) infills cleats, wedge-shaped fractures or cell lumens. In

white light, exsudatinite is black in low rank coal and pale brown in slightly-heated coal

(coals in which the P^max is 0.5 to 0.8%). It has bright yellow fluorescence in low rank

coal and dull orange to brown in slightly-heated coal.

In slightly-heated coal, exsudatinite has a plastic, gel-like nature and has higher reli

vitrinite. The reflectance is commonly low, 0.07 to 0.20% in samples where the associated

vitrinite reflectance is 0.42 to 0.53% and higher, 0.14 to 0.44%, in coals where Rvmax

of vitrinite is 0.61 to 0.77%.

The higher-reflecting exsudatinite is commonly associated with vitrinite that has a typi

brecciated appearance where it infills the fractures between the vitrinite grains. This

feature suggests that exsudatinite was originally liquid or at least highly mobile. This

vitrinite-exsudatinite association suggests that the exsudatinite m a y have been forced into

the vitrinite under high pressure and this caused the fracturing. T h e higher-reflecting

exsudatinite commonly is present in the slightly-heated coal, and rarely in lower rank coal

(0.4%). The association of a threshold vitrinite reflectance and the occurrence of

exsudatinite suggests that the formation of exsudatinite in Bukit A s a m coal is either

initiated or greatly increased w h e n the coals are heated. If the latter is the reason, this
 115

implies that if the heat source was not present, exsudatinite would not be produced until

the coals had reached the rank equivalent of 0.5 to 0.8% through normal coalification

processes and during a later stage of coalification.

A similar occurrence for exsudatinite was recognised in heated coal (P^max of 0.6 to

0.7%) from South Sulawesi (Pujobroto, 1991). In those coalsfluorinite,which had green

fluorescence, is associated with exsudatinite with brownfluorescence.This suggests that

the exsudatinite andfluorinitec o m e from different source materials but thatfluoriniteis

composed of shorter chain hydrocarbons, sourced from hydrogen-rich macerals such as

resinite, whereas the exsudatinite is the longer chain hydrocarbons derived from a variety

of macerals as the temperature increases.

Macroscopically, exsudatinite can be easily recognised in the field. It fills fracture

are of hair-size width to 3 c m wide. The fractures are usually wedge shaped and are

normal to bedding. The exsudatinite content in the Bukit A s a m coal is usually less than

1%; the highest percentage is in a sample from A 2 seam, Airlaya ( G M 2 5 2 2 8 ) where it

constituted 3 % .

3. Inertinite (Plate 5.4)

Inertinite (Plates 5.4a to 5.4h) is not abundant in Bukit A s a m coal and constitutes from

trace to 1 1 . 2 % (average 3.6%). The most c o m m o n inertinite maceral is semifusinite,

followed by inertodetrinite, sclerotinite, fusinite and sparse macrinite. Samples from A 2

seam, locality A L A 2 1 , have the highest inertinite content ( > 5 % ) .

Semifusinite is commonly present as layers of oxidised plant tissue that was deformed
 116

varying degrees during compaction. It is abundant in some samples (0 to 5.6%, with an

average 1.0% for all coal samples). The commonly-associated macerals are detrovitrinite

and inertodetrinite. The highest semifusinite content is in sample G M 2 5 1 7 4 from A 2 seam,

Airlaya pit.

Fusinite content is low (average 0.5%) with the highest content of 4.8% being in sample

G M 2 4 8 8 8 from A l seam, Airlaya pit. Fusinite is derived from oxidised plant tissue and

it is postulated that during the peat stage, some of the fusinite m a y have been derived from

parts of the ombrotrophic mire that was burned. Fusinite is associated with a wide variety

of vitrinite macerals and exsudatinite.

Inertodetrinite is always present with the abundance relatively low (average 0.7%). It

mostly associated with detrovitrinite, indicating a detrital origin for both.

Sclerotinite, although not abundant, is always present in the samples. The maximum

content is 2 . 8 % in a sample from the top ply of A l seam, Airlaya pit. Sclerotinite is

derived from teleutospores, fungal hyphae (plectenchyme tissue), stromata and sclerotia.

The teleutospores are commonly associated with detrital vitrinite macerals such as

detrovitrinite and inertodetrinite. The sclerotinite usually occurs in clusters or groups. In

some samples, sclerotinite is associated with layers of resinite bodies and in others it is

commonly associated with cutinite on the surface of leaf tissue and in layers of

detrovitrinite.

Macrinite is rare with most samples having no macrinite. The highest content is 1.6% in

sample G M 2 5 2 2 4 from A 2 seam, Airlaya pit. Micrinite was not found in the Bukit Asam
 117

coal.

4. Mineral Matter

Mineral matter (Plates 5.5, 5.6 and 5.7) is mostly clay minerals (identified by X R D

analysis as kaolinite in the small number of samples analysed) quartz, pyrite and rarely

calcite.

Clay minerals are commonly present as layers, disseminated pods or blebs in detrovitrin

layers or infillings in the cell lumens in telovitrinite. W h e r e the clay minerals occur as

disseminated blebs or pods in detrovitrinite, detrital liptinite macerals such as sporinite are

also abundant. T h e clay minerals are white to yellowish-white or black in white light but

yellow to pale yellow in fluorescence mode.

Quartz grains are colourless and translucent and do not show any significant fluorescen

Chalcedonic quartz is translucent to bright yellowish-white and has yellow fluorescence.

It commonlyfillscavities in radial plectenchyme tissue. The origin of chalcedonic quartz

is still uncertain. It is k n o w n to occur in evaporite sediments and is found in basic igneous

rocks (Folk and Pitman, 1971 cited in Boggs, 1992). However, in coal, chalcedonic quartz

is probably precipitated as opal A (= amorphous silica) according to Boggs (1992).

Pyrite is sparse to common and is usually present as syngenetic pyrite which is

characterised by its occurrence as aggregates parallel to bedding or the characteristic

framboidal structure. Most pyrite occurs at the top of the seams where it occurs with clay

minerals and in the shaly coal. In some samples where it is of secondary origin, pyrite

replaces the cell walls of fusinite or other macerals and is less commonly found as cleat
 118

fillings.

Calcite is present in a few samples but interestingly it is more common in the heated co

where it is a secondary mineral. It has no specific maceral association. In some cases i

replaces the host macerals such as vitrinite and fusinite. Calcite characteristically fo

branching vein-like structures in the less heated coal whereas in strongly-heated coal,

has radial textures. Calcite has strong bireflectance and orange fluorescence.

5.4.3 Changes in Maceral Composition near Intrusions

The higher rank samples commonly are dominated by telovitrinite and as the rank

increases, the liptinite becomes increasingly difficult to recognise. In slightly-heated

(P^max 0.6 to 0.8%), the detrovitrinite grains are more densely packed but the porosity

still exist. The liptinite maceral are generally grey as compared to black in the lower

coals (Ryinax < 0.4%). Some liptodetrinite can still be recognised; cutinite and sporinit

have dark orange fluorescence mode and exsudatinite shows a jelly-like appearance with

yellowish-orange to dull orange fluorescence. Some resinite and fluorinite still show a

bright yellow fluorescence. Secondary calcite also common in the slightly-heated coal.

In the strongly-heated coal, vitrinite reflectance 1.5 to 2.0%, telovitrinite is the only

vitrinite. The liptodetrinite and exsudatinite cannot be recognised; cutinite and sporin

still recognisable but the fluorescence intensity is extremely low. This apparent change

a function of the heating which has caused the samples to be artificially coalified whic

results in lower porosity in the coal and greater gelification, leading to the well-defi

development of layering both in hand specimen and petrographically.

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In samples with a vitrinite reflectance above 2 % , it is difficult to distinguish vitrinite from

liptinite and inertinite; samples of this rank are therefore not suitable for use in organic

facies analysis.

5.4.4 Petrographic Composition of Claystone/Carbonaceous Shale

Carbonaceous shale is blackish-to brownish-yellow in hand specimen. Detrovitrinite,

sclerotinite, sporinite and liptodetrinite are the dominant macerals suggesting that almost

all organic matter in the clay stone/carbonaceous shale is of detrital origin. This is

consistent with the origin of the claystone/carbonaceous shales which were deposited above

or adjacent to, and penecontemporaneous with, the peat. In fluorescence mode, the clay

minerals commonly fluoresce weak yellow to orange depending on the rank. In the higher

rank, heated samples, the clay minerals are dark brown, compact and non fluorescing.

Some claystone has stringers of vitrinite derived from plant tissues such as rootlets.

stringers are generally parallel to bedding but some are oblique or nearly normal to

bedding.

The carbonaceous shale samples with obviously high mineral contents are commonly

samples from the top of the seam, or more rarely, thinly-bedded carbonaceous claystone

partings in the seam.

5.4.5 Interseam Variations

The interseam variation in maceral composition is not very large, and probably not

significant as can be seen in Figure 5.26 and Table 5.3 which show the full seam average

maceral content of the four seams in the study area. All seams from the lowermost B 2
 120
seam to the top A l seam have high vitrinite contents (88.0 to 9 0 . 5 % ) , and low liptinite

(4.2 to 5.0%) and inertinite contents (4.1 to 5.5%). However the proportion of each

maceral group in the respective seams is slightly different. Bl seam has the highest

vitrinite content and the lowest liptinite and inertinite contents. However, the vitrinite

content in the other seams is only slightly less. B 2 seam has highest liptinite and inertinite

contents and the lowest mineral content.

Mineral matter (discounting the claystone partings) progressively increases from the

deepest seam (B2 seam) to the top seam (Al seam). This could be related to an increase

in volcanic activity when the younger coal strata were deposited.

Seam Descriptions

Vertical variation in maceral content occurs between plies in each seam but the differences

are not great (Table 5.6). Vertical profiles of the various maceral groups show this

(Appendix 5.5).

Al Seam

A l seam contains three clay stones layers, informally named (from bottom to top) Tl, T2

and T3. These clay stones are composed mostly of volcanic-derived kaolinite, which

commonly has a lapilli-like appearance but lacks the concentric zoning commonly found

in lapilli, and organic material which is dominantly stringers of coal thought to have been

derived from logs, pieces of branches and rootlets. A description of each claystone was

given in Table 4.3.

Profiles of maceral composition for Al seam show the following features:

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vitrinite content of plies is consistently high from the bottom of the seam to the

top, commonly exceeding 8 0 % by volume except for slightly lower values (50 to

8 0 % ) in the plies immediately below and above the clay stones; the lower vitrinite

content in these plies is partly due to a higher proportion of mineral matter but is

also due to increased proportions of liptinite and inertinite; average seam vitrinite

content is 88.6%.

liptinite content is generally below 1 0 % in all plies except in two samples,

G M 2 5 0 9 7 (10.5%) and G M 2 5 3 6 9 (19.5%); ply samples from above and below the

claystones have slightly higher liptinite contents especially near the middle

claystone (T2); in T 2 claystone, the main liptinite macerals are mostly sporinite and

resinite; this is, however, not always the case as there are variations laterally.

inertinite content decreases from the bottom of the seam to the top although the

differences are small; the ply samples below the claystones tend to have higher

inertinite contents whereas the ply samples above the claystones commonly have

lower inertinite contents than the adjacent plies.

mineral content is highest near the bottom of the seam (where the plies are

commonly clayey coal) and at the top of the seam where the coal is a dull coal;

slightly higher mineral contents were also found in the ply samples immediately

below and above the claystones; pyrite is lowest in the bottom part of the seam

(below thefirstclaystone, Tl) and increases towards the top of the seam, especially

above the upper claystone (T3), a marker interval that is consistently recognised

in all areas of the Bukit A s a m Coalfield; the pyrite content at the top of A l seam

ranges from 0.2 to 4.2%, with the highest content, being in a sample from the

northern part of Airlaya pit (GM25400, 4.2%).

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A2 Seam

Vitrinite is the main component in A2 seam, commonly constituting more than 80% in

each ply sample except for the silicified ply at the top of the seam where the vitrinit

content is lower as a result of the increased silica content. Average seam vitrinite c

is 88.5% (Table 5.5).

In A2 seam, liptinite content is commonly less than 10%, although in one sample the

liptinite content is slightly higher at 12%. In some plies, liptinite content is sligh

than in adjacent plies but no specific trend was recognised.

Inertinite content in A2 seam also shows no definite trend. The upper part of the seam

a slightly a higher inertinite content at some locations but at other locations the re

holds. Because the variation appears to be random, no geological explanation for the

variation is apparent.

The mineral matter content in A2 seam is extremely low. In several samples from a

number of locations, the mineral matter content is much less than 1%. However, at the

top of the A2 seam is a silicified coal ply in which the coal has abundant amorphous or

chalcedonic quartz. Coaly shale from the bottom of the seam also has a high mineral

content (11 to 73%). The higher mineral content in the bottom ply is attributed to mixi

of the underlying, poorly consolidated seat earth and the plant detritus during the ear

stages of peat formation.

Pyrite is present only in trace amounts.

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Bl S e a m

The maceral composition of this seam is dominated by more than 9 0 % vitrinite (Table

5.5). However, in some plies the vitrinite content is as low as 5 6 . 6 % (for example,

G M 2 5 3 6 0 ) because of a higher liptinite content, especially resinite and mineral matter.

Liptinite content is low compared to the other seams with the exception of sample

G M 2 5 3 6 0 where the liptinite constitutes > 25.4%. High liptinite content is c o m m o n in

the claystone samples in Bl seam, for example, sample G M 2 5 2 4 0 .

Inertinite content is low, even though in some samples it constitutes 7.2%. The highes

inertinite content is usually in the claystone layers.

In Bl seam, mineral content shows a more varied pattern compared to the other seams.

Mostly, the mineral content is low in the coal plies except in the plies below the roof and

above the floor of the seam. Again, this is attributed to mixing of organic and mineral

matter in the lower ply and precipitation of silica, and perhaps other minerals, from the

overlying clastic unit in the case of the ply immediately below the roof.

B2 Seam

Vertical maceral profiles of B 2 seam are similar to those of other seams. Vitrinite content

is high in the bright banded coal ( 8 8 % , Table 5.5) which characterises this seam and

slightly lower in dull coal, which also has a higher mineral matter content, at the top and

bottom of the seam. Liptinite content is relatively constant at between 3.2 to 9.4% and

inertinite content also shows little variation. A slightly higher liptinite content is found in

the samples from the bottom dull coal ply. The mineral content is remarkably low except
 124

in the bottom ply and the dull coal ply at the top of the seam.

C and D Seams

These seams are not exposed in the study area and ply samples from drill holes were n

available. Some data for composite samples are available for these seams but no deta

the variation in maceral contents can be determined. The limited data for C seam used

this thesis was taken from Pujobroto (1991).

No samples or data were available for D seam.

5.5 ORIGIN OF MINERAL MATTER

Although the overall mineral content of the Bukit Asam coal is relatively low, there

small but significant increase from the B2 seam to Al seam, indicating an increase in

input of mineral matter through time. Possible explanations for this include:

i. an increase in volcanic activity over time with a consequent increase in ash fall

material to the peat mire;

ii. an increase in wind blown volcanic detritus;

iii. an increase in the amount of volcanic detritus brought into the peat mires by st

activity;

iv. an increase in the amount of dissolved mineral matter brought into the peat mire

through ground water prior to or after coalification; and,

v. changing conditions leading to an increase in the clastic detritus brought into th

mire during each successive peat-forming stage.

Of these hypotheses, increased volcanic activity appears to be the most likely. This is
 125

based on the observations that:

i. the claystone partings in the upper seam are true tonsteins and are of volcanic

origin;

ii. tuffaceous claystone beds are found between A l and A 2 seams;

iii. precipitated amorphous or chalcedonic quartz (opal A ) lenses occur in the upper

ply of A 2 seam and lower ply of A l seam; and

iv. as a general trend, the Kasai Formation and the upper part of the Muara Enim

Formation are dominated by volcanically-derived sedimentary rocks.

An increasing volcanic activity hypothesis implies that during the deposition of the

precursor peats volcanic ash was brought into the peat mires either as airfall detritus,

washed into the mires by streams, or quartz and other minerals were precipitated from

solutions which had dissolved silica and other elements from interseam sediments and

claystone layers. S o m e of the quartz m a y have been derived from devitrifying glass in the

volcanic ash. Typical mineral contents for the various seams are summarised in Table 5.5.

Low mineral contents in coal have been attributed to a number of processes by many

authors but only two of the more c o m m o n hypotheses will be discussed here:

- an ombrotrophic origin for the peat, and

- increased groundwater activity, such as leaching, during peat formation and early

diagenesis of the coal.

Both hypotheses developed over a period of time and both hypotheses have a number of

supporters. Fisk (1960) proposed that an analog for many coal-bearing strata was the
 126
Mississippi Delta in southeastern U S A . Chemical analysis of the peat from the Mississippi

Delta showed that the ash content was at least 55 % with an average of 7 7 % (moisture free

basis). This is a major problem when trying to explain the origin of Indonesian low ash

coals using the Mississippi Delta model. The high ash and sulphur contents in the

Mississippi peats and the presumed coal precursors do notfitwith the low ash-low sulphur

contents of the economic coals in many parts of the world, including Indonesia. Thus the

Mississippi Delta is probably not a good analogue for Bukit A s a m and other Sumatran and

Indonesian coals.

The Mississippi Delta hypothesis became a contentious issue as more detailed studies

as those by Frazier and Osanic (1969), Koster (1983) and Koster and Baley (1983) were

undertaken and its use as a model for low ash coals was abandoned by many. These

authors found that the ash content of peat formed in abandoned delta lobes is very high

with the minimum ash content being only as low as 1 7 % . Peats containing less than 2 5 %

of ash very rarely exceeded 1 m in thickness.

In other studies, McCabe (1984) stated that most peats in deltas, coastal or flood p

environments contain high ash, so that these environments apparently are not always the

site of economic, low ash coal-forming peat accumulations. M c C a b e also noted that the

only exceptions to the high-ash peats were the areas where raised bog and floating mires

developed.

Recent studies of modern tropical peat in Malaysia and Indonesia by many researchers

showed that the raised, rain-fed peat mire that is c o m m o n in tropical areas always has a

low ash yield. Anderson (1964; 1983) based his work on elevated mires in Sarawak
 127

(Malaysia) and noted that the ash content is usually less than 5 % . Coleman et al (1970)

also noted low ash contents (less than 1 or 2 % ) in the tide-dominated Klang Langat Delta

of Malaysia. The studies of tropical peats in the Baram Delta (Sarawak, Malaysia) and

Jambi peat (Sumatra, Indonesia) by Esterle et al (1989) and Esterle and Ferm (1994), and

peat in the Siak Estuary, Riau Province (Kampar, Indonesia) by Supardi et al. (1993)

confirmed this finding. However, low ash peat deposits are not restricted to mires formed

in tropical climates. For example, Styan and Bustin (1983) recorded low ash (0.5 to 1.5%)

in the raised mires of the Fraser River Delta, British Colombia. The c o m m o n aspect of

low ash peat appears to be the raised peat mire.

The Bukit Asam coal has low pyritic sulphur and ash contents and this is consistent

the chemistry of raised peats. L o w ash in coal, such as the 2.3% seam average for Bukit

Asam, is only possible if there was minimum sediment influx when the peat was deposited.

The coal measures sedimentology (Chapter 4) indicates that the peat was mostly deposited

in an environment which was influenced by marine conditions in some parts of the South

Sumatra Basin, early in the coal measures history but that this influence became less with

time and fresh water environments were dominant. However, the marine influence was not

as significant in the Bukit A s a m area as elsewhere. Coal with a strong marine influence

above the seam roof is known to be high in pyritic sulphur especially in the top part of the

seam. A n example was given by Diessel (1992) w h o found that in the Borehole seam of

the Newcastle Coal Measures, Australia, the sulphur content increased from the middle to

the top of the seam from 0.5 to 0.8% because of a marine influence above the coal. In

comparison, The limnic/brackish Dudley seam showed no such demarcation in pyrite

content.
 128
Cassagrande et al (1980) and Cassagrande (1984) also noted that higher pyritic sulphur

values have a close connection with a marine influence during peat deposition. T h e low

pyritic sulphur values for Bukit A s a m coal indicates that the marine incursions recorded

elsewhere in the South Sumatra Basin seldom reached the mires, except perhaps in the

southern part of the basin which was more vulnerable to the marine incursions.

The most likely explanation of the consistently low ash and low sulphur contents of the

Bukit A s a m coal is deposition in a raised mire. The presence of restricted marine units in

the coal-bearing succession can be easily explained in terms of changing sea levels at

crucial times.

The higher proportion of liptinite and inertinite in samples that contain higher minera

content is in accordance with the studies of Esterle et al (1989) and Esterle and Ferm

(1994). Esterle et al studied the Jambi and Baram Delta (Sarawak) peats and showed that

the highest liptinite and inertinite contents are in sapric peat (defined as a dark brown to

black peat) with < 3 3 % fibres and a fine granular texture with a colloidal matrix (Table

5.7), which also contain higher ash and sulphur content. D e h m e r (1993), w h o studied peat

from Palangkaraya, Central Kalimantan, also recognised that the base of the peat is

characterised by the presence of sapric peat which contains abundant humodetrinite and

minor structured huminite and a relatively high liptinite and inertinite content.

When a mire is in its early stage of development, it is characterised by a rheotrophic

condition in which the water tends to flow into the mire and the water table is always

above the peat surface. The high water flow maintains a neutral p H ; the water also carries

nutrients from the underlying claystone and mudstone. Conditions are more likely to be
 129
aerobic and this encourages the degradation of the plant tissues by aerobic bacteria thus

producing fine-grained plant detritus rather than preserving large phyterals. Sporinite,

detrovitrinite and liptodetrinite are c o m m o n constituents and hence they are sometimes

referred to as attrital (detrovitrinite/liptodetrinite) or detrital (sporinite) macerals. The

presence of dominantly attrital/detrital macerals in coal supports the interpretation of

rheotrophic conditions during the early stages of the peat development.

Rheotrophic conditions during the early stages of most seams at Bukit Asam are clearly

indicated by the dull coal plies at the base of the seams and the increased mineral contents

in those plies.

5.5.1 Influence of Volcanic Claystones (Tonsteins)

Diessel (1992) suggested that the presence of tonsteins in a peat-forming environment

influences the composition of macerals. Volcanic ash is an important source of nutrients

and the implication is, therefore, that penecontemporaneous volcanic activity contributed

to luxuriant plant growth during the peat-forming stage of coal seams. In modern

environments in Indonesia, especially on the islands of Java and Sumatra, a combination

of volcanic activity and a tropical climate, irrespective of geographic position, contributes

to the formation of modern luxuriant plant growth.

Arboreal plants were thought to have been the major constituents of precursor peat

deposited in the tropical, highly volcanically-active areas in Indonesia. A s early as 1938,

Musper stated that, based on the fossil stumps found in the M u a r a Enim Formation, the

precursor peats for Bukit A s a m coal were dominated by plants similar to those that are

prolific in the modern rainforests of Sumatra. H e also noted that the plant communities
 130
were probably not associated in any way with mangrove plant communities.

Volcanic ash also influences the pH of the mire. The hydrolysis of volcanic glass, and

associated silicates, by waters flowing through peat tends to increase the p H and this

favours increasing bacterial activity. The rampant bacterial activity in the mire would result

in a peat dominated by degraded vitrinite and other macerals. This phenomenon has been

recognised by M o h r and van Baren (1954, cited in Diessel (1992)) in modern tropical

peats in Indonesia.

Given the above information, it is to be expected that for the Bukit Asam scenario,

volcanic detritus, the most logical precursor for the tonsteins or volcanic claystones,

deposited over the precursor peats would influence the conditions within the upper layers

of the peat. The waters percolating through the upper layers of the peat would probably

contain higher nutrient levels and higher p H values, due to the decomposition of volcanic

glass and other components. Peat above the volcanic detritus would be less influenced

because the waters would tend to move d o w n under the influence of gravity.

Crowley et al (1989) studied the effects of volcanic ash on the maceral and chemical

composition of the C coal in Emery Coalfield, Utah. They found that coal samples from

directly above the tonsteins were enriched in desmocollinite, telinite and detrocollinite as

a result of poorly-drained s w a m p conditions. The coal samples from directly below

tonsteins were enriched in semifusinite, inertodetrinite and fusinite as result of well-drained

swamp condition.

Their interpretation was mainly based on the work of Raymond et al (1985) who studied
 131

recent peat in Costa Rica where a recent layer of volcanic products had been deposited.

Raymond et al. found that volcanic ash layers had destroyed existing vegetation and

produced a pond above them.

In Bukit Asam seams, the plies immediately below and above the tonsteins show significant

differences in hand specimen characteristics to the adjacent coal layers. T h e plies below

the claystone generally consist of 10 c m of bright banded coal, which petrographically,

have higher liptinite, inertinite and detrovitrinite contents than the coal plies immediately

below. The detrital macerals, such as sporinite, liptodetrinite and inertodetrinite, are also

more abundant. Correspondingly, the telovitrinite content is commonly lower and the

mineral content is commonly below 5 %, but this is slightly higher than the mineral content

of the coal further d o w n in the seam.

The abundant detrital or attrital macerals in the ply beneath a claystone probably repres

the early stages of the drowning of the raised mire where the water influx into the mire

was extensive and the degradation also escalated, resulting in an abundance of degraded

macerals such as detrovitrinite, detrital resinite, inertodetrinite and liptodetrinite. T h e

maceral composition, which is dominated by detrovitrinite, results from greater water

movement into the peat plies below the volcanic layer and thus a greater influx of fresh

water, resulting in more prominent bacterial activity and greater oxidation of plant

material.

The plies above claystone show less convincing trends. These plies comprise

detrital/attrital macerals. In some areas, samples from these plies contain less detrovitrinite

and detrital macerals than the coals immediately above and this indicates that the water
 132

movement to the mire was still prominent in some areas after the plants re-occupied the

mire. O n the other hand, some of the ply samples above the claystone have higher detrital

maceral contents. Inertinite content is mostly lower; sclerotinite is present in all ply

samples but is never a major constituent.

When the mire was covered with volcanic ash, the peat would subside which would be

equivalent to a rise in the water level and the basin would become equivalent to a flat

plain, covered by shallow water and volcanic ash. Initially, plants would probably still

grow with only a small amount of the plant matter preserved together with the tuff

fragments. However, later, most parts of the mires would be subject to oxic waters which

would result in degradation of the plant matter and higher contents of degraded macerals

in the resulting peat. Thus this would have the same effect as that found by Cohen et al

(1987) where volcanic ash layers destroy existing vegetation and produce ponding of water

above. This process also explains the 40 c m layer of silicified coal at the top of A 2 seam

and the occasional patches of silicified coal at the base of the seam; this occurrence is

limited to the Klawas Barat area.

The silicified coal at the top of the A2 seam was thought to have originated as a resul

leaching of tuffaceous sediments between A 2 and A l seams immediately above the coal.

However in thefield,the silicified layer occurs as lenses and there is a suggestion of

cross-beds. However, this is only an apparent feature resulting from weathering which is

relatively rapid in the tropical climate of Bukit Asam.

Microscopically, the silicified coal of A2 seam has six forms:

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i. brown,fine-grainednonfluorescing amorphous/chalcedonic quartz that commonly

replaces cell walls of suberinite and textinite;

ii. white cotton-like claystone associated with organic matter;

iii. quartz-dominated siltstone with vitrinite commonly interstitial to grains;

iv. disseminated syngenetic ash fall in layers parallel to bedding;

v. white or brown, crystalline clay-like material filling fractures; and

vi. crystalline silica with a bladed texture in fractures in vitrinite or other organic

matter.

The deposition of chert and presumably other amorphous/chalcedonic quartz is a process

of solution and reprecipitation. A silica-rich sediment (biogenic or nonbiogenic) firstly

dissolves, producing a high silica solution (Boggs, 1992). This silicaflocculatesto produce

opal C-T (crystobalite-tridymite). T h e opal C-T m a y eventually dissolve again to form a

solution with a low concentration of silica and this slowly precipitates quartz crystals. T h e

process is strongly influenced by temperature.

In the case of the silicified coal in A2 seam, syngenetic Si-rich sediments were mixed wi

the peat water as indicated by observation (iv) above. These waters percolated d o w n into

the top peat layer would have been enriched in dissolved silica due to the decomposition

of volcanic glass and minerals in the ash layer. A s the plant tissue was degraded, m u c h

of it would be replaced by amorphous/chalcedonic quartz if conditions were suitable.

A similar layer of silicified coal in the base of A2 seam in one hole, KBA21, is more

difficult to explain. Given the underlying lithologies and the coal above, dissolved silica

probably c a m e from the siliceous claystone and siltstone and w a s then forced through the
 134

peat under pressure prior to compaction and coalification. The silica flocculated in th

plant tissue. As diagenesis continued the flocculated silica recrystallised and fractur

macerals. Diagrammatically, the formation of quartz/chalcedony is:

Type 1 _
T
Type 2 yPe TyPe T
yPe
Type 3 — > silica-rich solutions — > 6 & 5 — > 5
Type 4

The thickness of the tonstein in the mire should reflect the volume of detritus given o

from the explosion of the volcano, although a single tonstein could represent a single

eruption or multiple eruptions. Studies on modem peats in Indonesia so far, have proven

to be of Utile use for evaluating the origin of tonsteins. Esterle and Ferm (1994) note

there is no evidence for ash fall deposits in any of the peats from Sarawak, Jambi or t

Baram Delta. That the peat in the Baram Delta, Sarawak, does not have ash is

understandable because this region has been far from volcanic activity during the last

years. However, the Jambi deposits are very close to a main centre of volcanic activity

the Barisan Mountains, Sumatra. Koster (1983) and Koster and Baley (1983) suggested tha

the volcanic ash has already largely dissolved and that the leaching had decreased the

content by one third; in addition other dissolved matter would be absorbed by the plant

as nutrients.

Other possible explanations for the apparent lack of ash/ash-derived clay layers in th

are that no volcanic ash reached the area; alternatively, volcanic activity during the

formation of the peats was not intensive enough to produce large ash clouds which would

have had the lateral distribution to allow the formation of tuff layers in the area.

The distinctive volcanically-derived claystones in the Bukit A s a m coal indicates that the
 135
volcanic activity was sufficiently intense during formation of the peat to form widespread

ash falls and consequently claystones. The A l seam claystones can be traced over the

known extent of the seam and can be recognised even where the seam is not developed

(Stalder, 1976).

Calcite is a small but significant secondary component of heated coal. Ca-rich water wa

probably derived from the m a g m a and, as pore water, moved through the interseam

sediments and entered the coal, precipitating calcite in the cell lumens or cleats. The

solubility of calcium carbonate is dependant on the partial pressure of C 0 2 , temperature

and salinity. T h e solubility product increases with rising partial pressure of C 0 2 ,

increasing salinity but decreases with increasing temperature.

5.6 FACIES ANALYSIS

Coal facies analysis is based on assumptions that the composition of coal, represented by

its petrographic composition, is a function of depositional environment w h e n the peat

accumulated and that the composition of peat is a function of two parameters, the plant

materials that survived the decomposition processes and the physico-chemical and

biochemical processes that occurred after plant matter was deposited. Both parameters are

influenced by the ground water level relative to the peat surface. Plant matter has a higher

chance of being preserved if the water table is above the peat surface. In cases where the

water table is lower than the surface of the peat, the plant matter m a y not be preserved but

if it is, it will be more or less oxidised. Additionally, a root system has a strong chance

of being preserved (Esterle and Ferm, 1994). A higher ground water table also increases

the degree of gelification which also influences the petrographic composition of the coal.
 136
Tasch (1960) tried to relate lithotypes to the range of wet and dry conditions which were

thought to reflect the differences in the rate of subsidence. Fusain was thought to form

under dry conditions and this was taken to represent slow subsidence whereas durain was

considered to represent rapid subsidence because it was considered to have formed under

wet conditions. The generalisation that the dullness of the coal is a function of the

heterogeneity of coal composition and does not indicate the relative wetness or dryness of

conditions during deposition is too simple as Diessel (1982) stated. T h e dullness of a coal

may be caused by the content of fusinite, sporinite, alginite or several other macerals. This

problem can only be overcome if the macroscopic description of coal is followed by

microscopic analysis; where this is done facies analysis m a y be useful.

Hacquebard and Donaldson (1969) and Hacquebard (1993) used microlithotypes as the

basis for coal facies analysis. These authors plotted the results on two triangular diagrams

showing the different mire types using the terms described by Osvald (1937) and

Teichmuller (1962). The mires where the peat was deposited were divided into four

categories: relatively dry terrestrial forest moor, wet forest moor, limno-telmatic reed

moor and open moor lakes. The use of microlithotypes as a tool for facies analysis proved

to be popular and variants of this technique have been used widely by m a n y authors.

Of the several workers who applied the microlithotype technique with modification, Smyt

(1984) related the coal petrology of the Cooper Basin coal (Australia) to the depositional

environment. Her study was based on the hypotheses that coal with abundant vitrite +

clarite was deposited in a wet forest environment whereas the inertite-rich coal was derived

from herbaceous plant communities with the plant detritus deposited in a relatively dry

environment, a hypothesisfirstput forward by Smith (1962). Smyth concluded that coal

 137

seams are composed of cycles of vitrinite-rich to vitrinite-poor coal as a result in the

evolution of the depositional environment from a wet environment such as a lower delta

plain to a relatively dry environment such as thefluvialenvironment. O n a broad scale,

coal deposits that formed in the troughs of rapidly subsiding basins contain abundant

vitrinite and the microlithotype associations are generally vitrite plus clarite. Coal deposits

that formed on the shelves of marginal basins, or slowly subsiding cratonic basins, have

low vitrinite contents but high inertinite contents; microlithotypes are generally durite plus

inertite.

Furthermore, Smyth pointed out that the Cooper Basin coals formed in a fluvio-deltaic

environment during the Permian; vitrinite-rich coal formed on an alluvial fan (braided

fluvial system) and in deltaic environments whereas the vitrinite-poor coal were deposited

in a meanderingfluvialenvironment. In the Late Permian, vitrinite-rich coal formed in a

lower delta plain setting whereas vitrinite-poor coal formed on alluvial fans, in meandering

stream environments and on upper delta plains.

Smyth's study relates to coal deposited during a specific time period, the Permian, and i

a specific area, the G o n d w a n a n continent of Australia. Smyth's model is not applicable to

Tertiary Indonesian coals because the Cooper Basin coals are inertinite-rich whereas

Indonesian coal are inertinite-poor.

On a more general basis, although microlithotype analysis has become one of the most

widely-applied tools for interpreting coal depositional facies, the method is unlikely to be

suitable for use with the vitrinite-rich Tertiary coals of Indonesia because in almost all

cases, especially the Bukit A s a m coal, vitrite or clarite are the only microlithotypes, with
 138
the latter not c o m m o n , and therefore changes in maceral composition might reflect changes

in floral composition or other factors as m u c h as environment of deposition. Also, to

achieve better discrimination between coal types, it is necessary to have one, or preferably

more, criterion that has greater discriminatory power.

Diessel (1982) proposed a facies analysis method using conventional maceral analyses as

the data base. His method was based on assumptions that macerals are the products of

depositional conditions in the peat bog and biochemical processes after deposition. In some

cases depositional environments m a y contain specific plants. For example, alginite

indicates limnic or lacustrine conditions because algae need free water to grow.

One basic assumption was biochemical processes that occur after the deposition of plant

material m a y produce diagnostic macerals depending on the conditions prevailing at, and

immediately after, the time of deposition. Most inertinite macerals are influenced by at

least partial oxidation, although they m a y be derived from a wide range of plant tissue,

suggesting relatively dry conditions for peat deposition. Thus, Diessel used simple ratios

of some of the key components because he believed they have significant diagnostic value.

The diagnostic macerals were considered to indicate specific conditions during deposition.

In the vitrinite maceral group, vitrinite A (telinite and telocollinite) was considered to have

a high diagnostic value with the telovitrinite macerals derived from the incomplete

gelification of xylem and cortex tissue under moist conditions. Vitrinite B, which

comprises mostly desmocollinite or detrovitrinite (which represents decomposed gelified

detritus from various sources), was of less diagnostic value. Diessel suggested that soft

tissue (leaves, grasses, shrubs and reed-like plants) might be the dominant source materials

for this maceral subgroup.

 139

The liptinite maceral group was thought to have two indicative macerals: sporinite which

is commonly deposited in subaqueous conditions such as in lakes or ponds, and alginite

that is derived from algae that also grow in lakes or ponds. Other liptinite macerals were

not considered to have very distinctive diagnostic values.

Except for micrinite, all inertinite macerals are considered to have been deposited in o

environments with m u c h of the plant matter derived from terrestrial forests.

Diessel used two diagrams with his facies analysis techniques. The first diagram, then

called the D - W - R triangle (Fig. 5.27), compares the diagnostic macerals and the non-

diagnostic macerals. W is placed on the left-hand side of the triangle and represents wood-

derived macerals such as fusinite, semifusinite and vitrinite A . O n the opposite apex, D

comprises dispersed macerals that are commonly associated with sub-aqueous conditions.

Macerals used here include alginite, sporinite and inertodetrinite. At the top of the triangle,

the R apex, the remaining macerals are represented. In general, coals with a high content

of less diagnostic macerals (detrovitrinite, cutinite, resinite) mostly occupy that portion of

the diagram above the 5 0 % horizontal line, near the R apex.

The second diagram was a T-F-D diagram (Fig. 5.27) in which the lower part of the

triangle was divided into two parts based on the assumption that diagnostic macerals are

more representative of the environment in which they formed. Vitrinite A , which

represents gelified macerals, was indicative of wet forest, and plotted on the T side;

fusinite and semifusinite, representing fusinitised macerals, were indicative of dry forest

moor. Coals of this type plot near the F apex. Both of these contrast with open moor

conditions, the domain near the D apex, which is an equivalent domain to the D domain
 140

in the D-W-R triangle.

To relate the triangle to the facies map, the TFD triangle was sub-divided on the basi

component ratios. The TF/D ratio is called the wood ratio because it is a measure the

amount of wood-derived material in the coal. Conditions relating to the wood ratio are:

- if TF/D < 1, no further sub-division is needed; the coal formed in a limnotelmatic r

moor environment or under limnic conditions.

- if TF/D > 1, the population is subdivided again, based on dry or wet conditions usin

the T/F ratio;

- if the T/F > 1, this represents high moisture conditions.

- if the T/F ratio < 1 this represents drier conditions.

If the TF/D ratio is > 4, wood-derived macerals are so dominant that the T/F ratio can

be considered to be a Gelification Index that ranges from +4, for highly gelified mate

to -4 for highly fusinitised material. Diessel considered that the changes in the T/F

reflect a gradation from wet to dry conditions (Fig. 5.27).

Diessel (1992) modified his previous, rather complicated triangle facies to a more use

friendly diagram. He introduced the Tissue Preservation Index (TPI) which is actually

modification of the wood ratio in his previous scheme. The TPI is a ratio of structure

versus unstructured macerals; it indicates the degree of humification of the plant bef

preservation of the macerals and the proportion of wood preserved into the peat. High

values indicate a balance between plant growth and peat accumulation versus a rise in

ground water table. Low TPI values indicate a predominance of herbaceous material or o

a large scale, the extensive destruction of woody material because of the extensive

humification process or mineralisation.

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TPI = Telinite + Telocollinite + Semifusinite + Fusinite

Desmocollinite + Macrinite + Inertodetrinite

GI = Vitrinite + Macrinite
Semifusinite 4- Fusinite + Inertodetrinite

The Gelification Index (GI) indicates the relative dryness or wetness of the autochthonou

peat-forming conditions. The TPI is plotted against the GI and the facies, or the peat-

forming environments, are defined as regions shown in Table 5.8.

Many researchers have applied Diessel's techniques. For example, Calder et al (1991a,

1991b) applied a maceral-based method for interpreting ancient mire ecosystems and used

criteria from the classification of modern peatlands such as ground water, ionic and

nutrient supply, pH and vegetation type. The method of Calder et al. (1991) uses two

parameters; one is called the Ground Water Influence Index (GWI) and the second is called

the Vegetation Index (VI).

The GWI, which is controlled by the water supply and the pH conditions in a mire, in

essence, compares the strongly gelified macerals and weakly gelified macerals.

GWI = Gelocollinite + Corpocollinite + Mineral Matter

Telinite + Telocollinite + Desmocollinite

The strongly gelified macerals are gelocollinite, corpocollinite, and unlike previous

techniques mineral matter is included; the weakly gelified macerals are telocollinite, t

and desmocollinite. The interpretation that corpocollinite is only the product of extens

gelification processes may not be true because corpocollinite is possibly derived, in pa

from the primary secretions of living plant tissue, especially bark tissue, that becomes
 142
gelified immediately after the death of the plant (Teichmuller, 1989).

For Indonesian coals, that corpocollinite should be part of the numerator of the GWI is

a reasonable assumption because in many coals this maceral is a primary maceral rather

than a secondary maceral derived from gelification processes; it should be placed in th

numerator of the VI, together with telinite and other structured macerals because it al

has a close association with intact tissue.

Desmocollinite is considered to be derived from cellulose-rich plant matter which

commonly is found in low-pH ombrogenous peat bogs. This is in contrast with woody

plants (lignin-rich plants) which commonly occupy the higher pH areas that are also

wetter. The GWI, in some respects, is an analogue for Diessel's Gelification Index. The

main difference is the exclusion of structured inertinite because it is of questionable

The GWI is plotted against VI, where:

VI = Telinite+Semifusinite+Fusinite+suberinite+resinite
Desmocol+alg+spor+inertodet+cutinite+liptodet

VI is analogous to the TPI of Diessel and other ratios of the structured versus

"unstructured" macerals; the latter includes macerals derived from plant matter that ha

affinities to water or very wet conditions such as alginite and sporinite and gelocolli

The inclusion of cutinite as one of the unstructured macerals should be questioned. Cut

is not only deposited in marginal aquatic areas, it may also be deposited in other part

the mire where leaves or stem tissue may be preserved. This association is particularly
 143

c o m m o n for the Indonesian Tertiary coals. In other words, cutinite m a y be plant species

diagnostic as m u c h as it is an environmentally diagnostic criterion.

The major mire types identified by Calder et al. (1991) were limnic areas (open water),

swamp, fen and bog; these were thought to represent a succession from rheotrophic to

ombrotrophic hydrological conditions and from eutrophic to oligotrophic nutrient status.

A G W I between 3 to 5 indicates predominantly limno-telmatic conditions whereas a G W I

> 5 is indicative of a wetland environment; a G W I value of 0.5 is arbitrarily regarded as

the limiting condition for an environment where the ground water table no longer has any

influence and the mire is solely rain fed. L o w values for the V I represent marginal aquatic

conditions or mires dominated by herbaceous plants; a high V I indicates the mire was

dominated by w o o d y or arboreal plants.

Mukhopadhyay (1986) proposed a facies analysis by comparing three maceral associations:

i. maceral associations that are deposited in a forest s w a m p under mildly oxic to

anoxic conditions resulting in good tissue preservation; macerals which indicate this

are humotelinite, corpocollinite, phlobaphinite and terrestrial liptinite;

ii. maceral associations that commonly are deposited in a reed marsh under anoxic

conditions; macerals which indicate this are humodetrinite, gelinite, liptodetrinite

and alginite; and

iii. maceral associations that are deposited under dry, oxic conditions; inertinite

macerals indicate this.

The three associations are plotted on a triangular diagram that shows several domains,

of which represents and specific environment of deposition.

 144

Three other facies analysis techniques are those of:

i. Kalkreuth et al. (1991a, 1991b) who used both a modified version of

Mukhopadhyay's triangular diagram and the TPI-GI diagram to interpret the facies

evolution of Katerine lignite of Miocene age from Greece;

ii. Petersen (1993) who carried out facies analysis on lower and middle Jurassic coal

seams in Denmark; and,

iii. Hacquebard (1993) who presented a facies study of Carboniferous coal from

Mabou, Nova Scotia, Canada.

Crosdale (1993) was one of the first to question the validity of coal maceral ratios a

indicators of environments of deposition in ombrogenous peat bogs, and in particular,

criticised the assumptions used in maceral-based facies analysis. He stated that:

i. unstructured macerals are not always derived from herbaceous plants; angiosperm

wood is mostly decomposed in contrast to gymnosperm wood which is commonly

more resistant to decomposition processes.

ii. the formation of inertinite is not related to the position of the peat surface in

relation to the ground water table; it is related to seasonal changes in the hydrology

of the mires.

iii. detrital and attrital macerals (detrovitrinite) are not indicative of biochemical

gelification.

iv. detrital macerals (detrovitrinite macerals) are not products of transportation

processes; they are derived from allochthonous processes and the organic matter

is attrital; Crosdale cited the common occurrence of the vitrinitic matrix in all

tropical peat types in Sarawak and Jambi as described by Esterle et al (1989).

 145

In summary there are m a n y arguments and some disagreements regarding the use of

maceral analysis for facies studies. The cause of the diversity of thought is the validity,

or not, of the assumptions as to the origin of the macerals. T h e origin of corpocollinite,

desmocollinite and inertinite is still disputed by m a n y researchers and the situation

regarding corpocollinite well illustrates the questionable assumptions.

Diessel (1982) omitted corpocollinite because he assumed that corpocollinite is not an

important maceral for facies studies because it is present only in an insignificant number

of coals. This is probably true for the Australian Gondwanan coals. O n the contrary,

Calder (1993) considered that corpocollinite indicated intensive gelification conditions

within the mires and Teichmuller and Teichmuller (1982) and Teichmuller (1989) stated

that some of corpocollinite forms just after the death of the plant. Esterle et al (1989)

divided the humocollinite in peat into two maceral types - gelinite and corpohuminite.

Gelinite originated from humic colloidal gels and is equivalent to the corpogelinite of

Crosdale (1993). Corpohuminite is equivalent to the corpocollinite of Teichmuller and

Teichmuller (1982 and Teichmuller (1989) and consists of corpotextinite derived from cell

walls with tannin and cellfillings,and corpodetrinite derived from degradation residues

of corpo/textinite and humic gels. Thus, degraded residue corpo/textinite is a detrital or

attrital form whereas the cell wall form is a primary maceral, having been part of the

original plant tissue.

It is obvious that corpocollinite, the homogenous massive vitrinite with mostly a sphero

shape, does not have a single origin but m a y be derived from different precursors or by

different processes either during deposition of the peat or during the coalification that takes

place after the formation of peat. Consequently, the use of corpocollinite in any facies
 146

analysis technique must be a limiting feature of the technique. If other macerals are of

equivocal origin, and this is the case as discussed below, the use of macerals in a facies

technique poses even greater difficulties.

Desmocollinite was considered by Calder et al. (1991) and Calder (1993) to be a

derivative of herbaceous plants and so should be deposited at the top of an ombrogenous

peat bog. Diessel (1982) had a different opinion. H e believed that desmocollinite was

derived from plant detritus, transported and deposited under wet conditions. H e used

structures interpreted as imbrication and graded bedding to indicate deposition of the

precursor plant matter in Australian Gondwana coal.

On the other hand, Crosdale (1993) did not agree that desmocollinite was derived from

transported plant detritus. H e cited the study of Esterle et al. (1989) on Malaysian peats

in which the authors stated peat was dominated by a matrix derived from plant attritus

which was considered to be the precursor of desmocollinite. T h e nature of matrix material

in peat ranges from colloidal material in sapric peat to watery, fibrous material (from

which clear water can be extracted) infibricpeat. With at least two types of peat matrix,

it is possible that the matrix m a y be of two origins, derived in situ or transported prior to

deposition. Distinguishing between the two is difficult and observations of features in the

peat are needed and these are not always made. Esterle et al. (1989) and Esterle and Ferm

(1994) did not discuss the origin of the matrix, she only described the matrix as organic

material that is dominated by plant attritus. Also, the abundance of water in peat,

especially in the matrix of peat, does not assure the preservation of sedimentary structures

that m a y have existed before the auger drill or sampling equipment penetrated the peat.

Thus when examining peat, the physical associations of the components m a y be an artefact
 147
of sampling and/or preparation or m a y be primary features which are significant in

interpretations of environments of depositions. In contrast, especially in brown coal which

has undergone compaction, evidence of sedimentary processes have been recognised

(Diessel, 1982).

The problem of the origin of inertinite is even harder to solve. Diessel (1982) stated

inertinite macerals are the products of at least partial oxidation of a wide range of

vegetable matter and suggested relative dryness was needed during the formation of such

components. H e pointed out that Gondwana coals commonly contain abundant inertinite,

but some are dominated by vitrinite. Even taking the Gondwana coal as a reference, it is

rather problematical because the abundance of inertinite in the Gondwana coal is still the

subject of discussion and disagreement. So far, no reasonable consensus for the origin of

inertinite exists. A widely-accepted hypothesis is that Gondwanan coals were deposited in

sub-arctic to cool climates of the Southern Hemisphere in the Permian with the vegetation

dominated by shrub-like plants with broad leaves (Teichmuller, 1989).

Smyth (1984) recognised that some Triassic coals contain more than 80% inertinite and

she inferred that these coals were deposited in a subarctic climate with tundra and

permafrost. Taylor and C o o k (1961) described a suite of vitrinite-rich coals of Triassic

age; are w e to infer that these coals formed in a w a r m or tropical climate just because they

contain very little inertinite: The inference of a subarctic climate for inertinite-rich coals,

is not based on firm ground because Pleistocene peats deposited in subarctic climates in

the interglacials have very little inertinite; they only contain 0.1 to 2 % (Koch, 1966; 1969;

cited in Teichmuller, 1989). Another well-cited example is that of the peat deposits of the

Fraser Delta in British Colombia, Canada, which consist mostly of vitrinite and liptinite
 148
instead of inertinite and yet these peats formed in a cold climate.

Other evidence as to the equivocal origin of inertinite is available. The tropical peat

Palangkaraya, Kalimantan, contains a m a x i m u m of 15 to 2 0 % inertinite (Moore and Ferm,

1992) yet tropical peats are presumed to have low inertinite contents. According to Styan

and Bustin (1983), high inertinite contents are only found where peat is exposed to

flooding with the p H of the water normal (pH = 7) and/or to desiccation and oxidation.

Shearer (1994) stated that, based on artificial coalification experiments, the coalification

process increases the ratio of nonreactive material relative to reactive material. F r o m these

experiments, it was concluded that the maceral composition of the coal m a y not reflect the

composition of the peat before the coalification process begins. However, it is possible that

artificial coalification m a y not reflect natural conditions either.

Another example of the lack of understanding of the occurrence of inertinite relates to

some of the Carboniferous coals of the Northern Hemisphere which only contain minor

inertinite whereas others contain abundant inertinite, yet the climate for both types of coals

are thought to be similar.

Other factors should be considered in a discussion on the origin of inertinite.

1. It is possible that the Gondwanan plants of Permian to Triassic age may have been mor

susceptible to oxidation. In Tertiary coals, much of the inertinite is derived from fungi or

fungal-like bodies that produce sclerotinite and associated tissue. T h e photograph of

sclerotinite in Bukit A s a m coal (Plate 5.4b) shows that the epidermal tissue that once

protected the sclerotia cluster was converted to semifusinite. This means the fungal tissue
 149
is also susceptible to oxidation. However, this cannot explain the gradation from vitrinite

to semifusinite and fusinite that is commonly found in Gondwanan coal.

2. The atmosphere in the Southern Hemisphere during the Carboniferous to Triassic may

have contained abundant oxygen which favoured oxidation of plant detritus. Alternatively,

forest fires m a y have been c o m m o n thus increasing the proportion of organic material

changing to inertinite or, alternatively, water may have been more saturated with oxygen

and consequently aerobic microbial activity promoted the formation of degradofusinite in

the peats.

Using inertinite as a palaeodepositional indicator for Gondwanan coals may be mislead

because the origin of inertinite in these coal has not been adequately explained. The

controls on the formation of inertinite in Gondwanan and other inertinite-rich coal remains

to be solved.

5.6.1 Depositional Patterns Within Tropical Peats

The Bukit A s a m coal was probably deposited in settings similar to those of some modern

tropical peats. Anderson (1964; 1983) has already recognised that the domed peat deposits

in Sarawak (Malaysia) have low ash and interpreted these as analogues for low ash coal.

Esterle et al. (1989) and Esterle and Ferm (1994) showed the spatial variability of tw

kinds of peat deposits in the Baram Delta, Sarawak, and in the estuary of Batanghari

River, Sumatra, Indonesia (Fig. 5.28). The Baram Delta peat developed into a mature

ombrogenous peat bog. The domed surface rises 10 m above the river level and is the

level reached by most flood events. The Baram peat has a clay layer at the base of the peat
 150
and above this the peat is composed of decomposed fine-grained hemic peat (Table 5.7)

that is interfingered with sapric peat at the margin of the deposit. It is overlain by a

sequence which comprises increasingly better preserved hemic peat with abundant well-

preserved woody stumps, then coarse-grained hemic peat with fibric peat that is derived

from shrubs, and stunted vegetation at the top of the dome.

On the other hand, the Batanghari peat is a low-gradient domed peat which only rises 3

m above theriverlevel and has a concave shape at the base of the peat. Flooding by the

Batanghari River maintains water and nutrients for a flourishing arborescent plant

community within the peat depositional area. The base of the peat, above the underclay

sediment, is overlain by a layer offine-grainedhemic peat that changes to sapric peat at

the margins of the deposit and in the area close to the levee. This fine-grained hemic peat

is then overlain by the hemic peat with abundant tree stumps. Coarse-grained hemic peat

only occurs at the centre of the deposit. Fibric peat did not develop in this area.

According to Esterle et al. (1989) and Esterle and Ferm (1994), petrographic examinatio

of the peats shows all peat types consist of > 9 0 % vitrinite maceral precursors and only

small amounts of liptinite and inertinite precursors. Sapric peat sometimes contains a

slightly higher abundance of liptinite precursors but this depends on the location.

Commonly, higher 'liptinite' values occur at the margin of the deposit (for example, 3 1 %

at the margin of Baram peat). High inertinite precursors occur near the river bank in the

Jambi deposit. N o distinctive fusinite layers were recognised. Degraded tissues and matrix

attritus constitutes a large portion of the fine hemic and sapric peat and gradually

diminishes in abundance in the hemic and coarse-grained hemic peat; both constituents are

largely absent in fibric peat. These changes hold for both the Baram and Jambi peats.
 151

The degree of decomposition and stage in the evolution of the plant succession can be

inferred from the ratio of the cellulose to lignin components and lignin biodegradation

products. The higher the ratio, the fewer the woody plants in the mires. Chemical analysis

of carbon functional groups in the peats, from both deposits, shows that the proportion of

cellulose compared to lignin-derived substances decreases in:

i. the coarse-grained particles compared tofine-grainedparticles;

ii. fibric peat compared to sapric peat;

iii. the central part of the deposits compared to the margin of the deposit; and,

iv. the top of the deposit compared to the middle or the lower portion of the deposit.

These findings support the hypotheses given by Preston et al. (1989) that chemical

decomposition follows the physical comminution of plant matter.

In the fine-grained hemic peat, an increase in the biodegradation products of lignin (i

form of syringyl lignin) indicates that the peat was derived from an arborescent plant

community because angiosperm degradation products contain a high proportion of syringyl

lignin. Strongest lignin biodegradation occurs in sapric peat and the proportion of the

arborescent plant-derived material decreases from sapric to fibric peats.

In summary, from the work of Esterle et al. (1989), Esterle and Ferm (1994) and others,

it appears that tropical domed peats develop in a range of environments ranging from

rheotropic wet environments, which have abundant nutrient and relatively abundant

dissolved oxygen in the water, to oligotrophic environments which have a low nutrient

supply and depend on the nutrients supplied from rain water (ombrogenic environment).

The plant community develops from arborescent plants to shrubs and these are succeeded
 152

by herbaceous plants. The water conditions change from high pH-high oxidising condition

to low pH-reducing conditions. The degradation process is at a maximum in the early

stages of peat formation, at the bottom of the peat mire, and decreases in intensely to

the top of the deposit and also from the margins of the deposit to the centre of the de

Cecil et al (1993) in their study of tropical peat in Riau, Indonesia, concluded that

allogenic factors are the main factors driving the cyclicity of some coal measures

sequences. They found that in the estuaries of the Siak and Kampar Rivers, siliciclasti

sedimentation was minimal and this was the result of the rain forest being located with

the ever-wet climatic zone near the equator. The result is low levels of sediment input

the estuary but some erosion. The suspended load in the river water is minimal and this

results in no sedimentation occurring in the estuary. Under this condition delta switch

stream meandering or barrier bar migration, which are commonly caused by a high

sediment load or siliciclastic sedimentation, are not expected to occur.

Cecil et al. also suggested that the east coastal plain of modern Sumatra and other isl

close to it, were the result of transgressive and regressive processes (allogenic) rela

the Central Sumatra foreland basin. A thick, extensive peat deposit formed on the poorl

drained coastal lowland. Initially the peat was formed in rheotropic conditions as a pl

topogenous bog that then developed into a more ombrogenous, domed peat deposit. The

peat development probably was always under oligotrophic (nutrient-poor) conditions caus

by the ever-wet climate that promoted extensive leaching and flushing of

nutrients/inorganic matter from the peat.

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5.6.2 Facies Interpretation of Bukit A s a m Coal

Initially, various published facies plots were initially used for the interpretation of the

environments of depositions for the Bukit A s a m coals. However, in most cases the plots

did not give sufficient resolution or in some cases, simply failed. For example, the GI-TPI

plots for Bukit A s a m coal are shown in Figure 5.29. Using this model, A l seam coal was

deposited mostly in a limno-telmatic environment with high GI values and low TPI values.

According to Diessel (1992), peat of this composition formed under three possible

conditions (Table 5.8):

i. if the ash content is high due to epiclastic layers (claystones that originated during

sedimentation processes such as flooding), the peat was deposited in forested

peatlands from strongly decomposed wood under conditions of slow subsidence in

the telmatic or limnotelmatic zone.

ii. if the coal has high ash and epiclastic layers, the peat was mostly derived from

herbaceous plants or s w a m p with fewer trees.

iii. if the ash content in the coal is low and epiclastic layers are u n c o m m o n , the peat

was deposited in a continuously wet but raised bog.

The Bukit Asam coal fits condition (iii) best in this scheme but it is unlikely that

formed in this environment given the maceral compositions.

On a GWI-VI diagram (Calder et al, 1991; Calder 1993) Bukit Asam coal plots in a

number of environments ranging from limnic to bogs (Fig. 5.30). The coals have an

extremely low vegetation index and this indicates an abundance of herbaceous plant

precursors. Peats derived from these types of plants are commonly deposited as raised bog

peats or in marginal aquatic zones. Bukit A s a m coal plots in the respective positions
 154
because of the high proportion of detrovitrinite. However, Bukit A s a m coal is very

different to the Westphalian coals of Canada which have a low detrovitrinite content as

described by Calder et al (1991) and Calder (1993). Calder's diagram was devised for the

Westphalian coals, that is, coals that have low detrovitrinite contents. It appears to have

limitations when applied to Bukit A s a m coal which have a high vitrinite content which was

derived from a woody angiosperm flora.

Parameters Used in this Facies Interpretation

The sampling method used in the study of the Bukit A s a m coal enables comparison

between plies and between seams. The evolution of a peat mire should be revealed by

variations in the composition of the plies. Given the limitations of the Calder and Diessel

techniques, facies interpretation for the Bukit A s a m coal was based on the following

parameters which are thought to be the most important factors for interpreting the

palaeodepositional conditions of the peat.

1. Detrovitrinite Content. Based on the tropical peat studies in Sarawak and Indonesia

by Esterle et al (1989), Supardi et al (1993) and Esterle and Ferm (1994), the proportion

of densinite and desmocollinite matrix tends to decrease from sapric tofinehemic peat and

are either extremely diminished or absent in fibric peat.

2. Sporinite, Inertodetrinite, Liptodetrinite Contents. These are of detrital origin an

therefore are commonly deposited in a subaqueous environment with relatively high pH.

3. Telovitrinite Content. Telovitrinite content is a measure of the amount of plant tis

that survives the degradation processes, either due to the size of the original plant material
 155

and/or the p H of the water. C o m m o n l y , stumps or fragments of stumps are found in hemic

peat or coarse-grained hemic peat (Esterle and Ferm, 1994). Although most of the

arborescent plants are largely degraded in the marginal areas of the peat bog, due to high

bacterial activity, some tree stumps survive; the remains such types of stumps can be found

in the hemic and coarse-grained hemic peat in Baram and Jambi peat deposits. This

suggests that the size of the plant material m a y also influence the telovitrinite content of

a coal. In the top layers and the central zone of the peat bog, the p H is commonly very

low and the preservation of the plant tissue is at a m a x i m u m . However in these areas, the

plants are stunted and the peat should consist mostly of material derived from herbaceous

plants. In summary, coal with abundant telovitrinite, or preserved plant tissue, is formed

from:

i. hemic or coarse-grained hemic peat if detrovitrinite is abundant because these kinds

of peat always contain "matrix" detrovitrinite and preserved tissue derived from the

remains of woody plants; and,

ii. fibric peat derived from shrub-like plants if the preserved tissue is not associated

with abundant detrovitrinite.

4. Mineral Content. The mineral content of a coal represents the influx of detrital

minerals, such as clay minerals, into the mires during flooding. Syngenetic mineral matter

indicates a low moor condition that is vulnerable toflooding;if the pyrite content is high

(> 1 % ) , there was a marine or brackish water influence.

Vertical profiles of the variations in maceral contents and mineral matter for various

locations and seams can be seen in Appendix 5.5.

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5.6.3 Facies for Bukit A s a m Coal Seams

A l seam:
The A l seam is 9 m thick and contains three tonstein layers, from the bottom to the top,

Tl, T 2 and T3. The coal layers between the tonsteins are banded bright coal except for

the ply immediately above the underclay (seat earth) which is a banded dull coal and at the

top of the seam where the coal is interlaminated bright coal and duller coaly claystone.

Above the underclay, a layer of dull coal to coaly shale has a high mineral content (1

86.9%) and contains vitrinite as the dominant maceral constituent (29 to 61.6%). O f the

vitrinite, 0.8 to 24.6% is telovitrinite and 19.6 to 6 7 . 4 % is detrovitrinite. Pyrite is absent.

The sporinite, liptodetrinite and inertodetrinite contents are low (maximum 2.4%). This

layer is interpreted as a clayey peat that commonly interfingered with sapric or fine-

grained hemic peat which represents the early stage of a peat-forming mire characterised

by rheotrophic conditions.

Between the basal layer and the Tl claystone, is a 0.6 m ply of bright banded coal wit

locally, in the Klawas Barat area, lenses of silicified coal. This layer contains a maximum

of 6 % mineral matter (commonly only 0.5%), except for the 10 c m zone under the

tonstein Tl. The vitrinite content is 86 to 9 6 % comprising relatively low telovitrinite (7.4

to 32.6%) and abundant detrovitrinite (46 to 73.6%). In three locations, K B A 1 1 (Klawas

Barat), and A L A 1 2 and A L A 1 3 (Airlaya), the lower part of this ply contains higher

telovitrinite and lower detrovitrinite contents than the upper part. The sporinite,

inertodetrinite and liptodetrinite contents in the lower part of the layer are much higher

than in the upper part.

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In the zone up to 10 c m thick below Tl claystone, the telovitrinite content is low at all

locations and the detrovitrinite content decreases slightly in the Klawas Barat area. The

sporinite, inertodetrinite and liptodetrinite contents increase and mineral content is a

slightly higher than in the plies below (1.8 to 7.9%). The low mineral content in the bright

banded coal indicates that during and after the deposition of the basal A l ply, the area was

cut off from a sediment supply, possibly because of the raised nature of the mire, and

because of the distance from the stream to the mire, the suspended sediment in the river

water was effectively filtered by the vegetation. The higher concentration of sporinite,

inertodetrinite and liptodetrinite in the lower part of the bright banded coal suggests water

transportation of the precursors of these macerals. This indicates that the mire was still

influenced by water movement possibly because it was still a topogenous/low moor mire

and the concentration of suspended sediment in the water had decreased to a very low level

by the time it reached the mire surface.

The bright banded coal layer between the basal ply and the Tl tonstein was deposited as

an ombrogenous peat.

The higher abundance of telovitrinite in the lower part of the bright banded coal probab

was caused by the flourishing arborescent vegetation. The higher proportion of

detrovitrinite at the top of the layer is c o m m o n in ombrogenous peats which are dominated

by afine-grainedvitrinitic matrix (Esterle and Ferm, 1994; Supardi et al, 1993).

After the deposition of Tl claystone, the mire morphology did not change markedly as

indicated by the gradational contact between the coal and the claystone. The mineral

content is slightly higher in the 10 c m ply above the T l claystone, with a m a x i m u m of

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10.8% in Suban area, and in the ply immediately below the middle or T 2 claystone.

Between the two is a bright banded coal. The vitrinite content is 84.5 to 9 3 . 4 % comprising

detrovitrinite (29.8 to 65.5%) and telovitrinite (15.3 to 58.6%).

Sporinite, inertodetrinite and liptodetrinite contents are highest in the 10 cm ply b

T 2 claystone. The high vitrinite content, including abundant detrovitrinite, and the

extremely low mineral content, suggest the coal was formed as an ombrogenous peat. The

higher proportion of telovitrinite compared to the layer below T l claystone indicates better

preservation conditions probably caused by lower p H values in the mire suggesting the

mire was not well drained.

Above the T2 claystone, is a bright banded coal consisting of vitrinite (86.2 to 93.8%

mostly detrovitrinite (49.0 to 69.0%) with telovitrinite (15.4 to 24.8%). Sporinite,

inertodetrinite and liptodetrinite content is commonly low (0.6 to 3.6%). The mineral

content is extremely low (0.2 to 7.6%) but is slightly higher in the 10 c m plies above the

T 2 claystone and below the T 3 claystone. The mire in which this coal formed was an

ombrogenous mire.

Above the T3 claystone, the coal is dominated by vitrinite, commonly exceeding 85%. Th

mineral content, and pyrite specifically, increases towards the top of the layer. The

telovitrinite and detrovitrinite contents are highly variable laterally.

Macroscopically, the upper coal layer comprises bright banded coal layers ranging from

a few centimetres to 60 c m thick, followed by the interlaminated, thinly-bedded bright coal

and shaly coal and thinly-bedded dull coal. This coal varies markedly in thickness between
 159

locations, decreasing towards the north (Klawas Timur area) and is reduced to a thin,

interbedded bright coal and shale. Commonly, the bright banded coal has a high

telovitrinite content and the ratio of telovitrinite to detrovitrinite is higher than that of the

coal layer below. At location A L A 1 6 , telovitrinite is dominant (62.3%) with only minor

detrovitrinite (7.8%). Sporinite, inertodetrinite and liptodetrinite contents are also lower

than in the underlying coal layer.

The low mineral content and the maceral composition indicates this layer was derived fr

a peat where m a x i m u m preservation of plant material took place and/or degradation of

plant material was at a minimum. This is only possible in the top part of an ombrogenous

peat bog. In this zone, fibric peats are dominated by preserved plant tissues and a only a

low percentage of degraded plant material is preserved (Esterle and Ferm, 1994). The

higher tissue preservation in the top part of A l seam suggests that the rate of subsidence

decreased slightly after the deposition of T 3 claystone then increased rapidly, leading to

the cessation of the deposition of A l precursor peat.

The pyrite content (Fig. 5.31) in the coaly shale at the top of the seam is highest in

southern area (Suban), northern part of Airlaya, the Klawas Barat and Klawas Timur areas

(0.6 to 1.8%). L o w concentrations of pyrite are found only in the middle part of Airlaya

pit near A L A 1 1 2 , A L A 1 4 and A L A 1 1 where pyrite is present only in trace amounts. The

pyrite content in coaly shale samples at the top of A l seam at locality A L A 18 is high

(4.2%). The coal below the coaly shale layer, is composed dominantly of telovitrinite

(43.0 to 51.0%). This maceral assemblage indicates that the peat was formed in the middle

of a raised bog with vegetation consisting of herbaceous plants. W h e n the sedimentation

of coaly shale occurred, probably during a marine or brackish water incursion, a

 160
depression formed and within this area the influence of marine water was greater as

indicated by the higher pyrite content.

The greater abundance of coaly shale in the northern part of study area, and the incre

in coal thickness in the southern area, indicate that the margin of the mire was to the north

of Klawas Barat. The gradual increase in mineral content towards the top of A l seam after

the deposition of the bright banded coal, indicates gradual inundation and with it came, a

greater sediment supply to the mire and this terminated the peat deposition.

A2 Seam

Unlike A l seam, A 2 seam has no distinctive claystones, except one thin (4 cm),

discontinuous blackish-brown layer in the middle of the seam. This layer is not found at

all localities. The coal is bright banded with an approximately 40 c m thick zone of

silicified coal at the top of the seam.

The lower part of A2 seam is a dull coal which consists mostly of detrovitrinite (52.4

67.4%) and lesser amounts of telovitrinite (13.0 to 24.6%). The mineral content varies

from 0.2 to 8.4%. Pyrite is absent except in the northern part of Airlaya (ALA22) where

one sample contains 1 % pyrite. The bottom layer also has a slightly higher sporinite +

inertodetrinite + liptodetrinite content (1.2 to 3.6%) than plies above. This layer is

probably derived from fine-grained hemic peat in which detrovitrinite was dominant. The

relatively low mineral content indicates it was not derived from sapric peat as these peats

commonly contain high mineral contents.

basal dull coal layer is a thick, bright banded coal layer (2.5 m thick) that
 161

occurs everywhere except in the Klawas Barat area where the silicified coal was formed.

The coal is dominated by vitrinite (approximately 9 0 % ) comprising mostly detrovitrinite

(55.2 to 76.2%) and lesser amounts of telovitrinite (9.0 to 26.2%). Telovitrinite contents

increase toward the middle of the seam except in the area near A L A 2 1 . T h e mineral

content is extremely low (0 to 0.2%) except in the Klawas Barat area where the silicified

coal occurs and here the coal contains up to 9 % mineral matter.

Above this layer, at location ALA21, a thin coaly claystone ply is found. A one metre

thick ply above this claystone has a low telovitrinite content (6%) and a high detrovitrinite

content (up to 61.6%). Sporinite, inertodetrinite and liptodetrinite content is relatively high

(8.6%). The mineral content is also slightly higher (2.8%) than in the underlying plies.

A n increase in the proportion of telovitrinite towards the middle of the seam indicates that

the peat mire tended more towards a raised mire where the p H of the water decreased

resulting in better preservation. This trend is not found in the A L A 2 1 area where, locally,

the abundance of detrital macerals and mineral matter is higher. In this area, there appears

to have been a local depression in the mire surface where the water level was higher than

peat surface.

Between the above layer and the silicified coal at the top of the seam, is 7 to 8 m of b

banded coal. In almost all locations the detrovitrinite content increases towards the top of

the seam. This trend, at some locations, for example A L A 2 2 and K B A 2 ) shows an

increase in the abundance of detrital/attrital macerals (sporinite + inertodetrinite +

liptodetrinite). T h e mineral content is consistently low towards the top of the layer (0 to

0.4%) except at location A L A 2 3 where the mineral content is high (6.4%). T h e trend of

decreasing preservation of woody tissue and an increasing detrovitrinite content,

 162

accompanied by increasing detrital/attrital macerals towards the top of the seam indicates

that the mire was drowned but no sediment influx came into the mires. At the top of the

seam, the p H of the water in the peat was evidently higher, because the higher water table

and more extensive bacterial activity degraded the plant matter.

The coal was largely deposited in a raised peat bog, with gradual development from

topogenous peat at the base to a raised mire for the middle of the seam. A b o v e that, the

peat was gradually drowned as can be seen by the higher detrovitrinite content and the

decrease in structured vitrinite towards the top of the seam.

BISeam

Bl seam, or upper Suban seam, contains more claystone than any other of the seams in

the Bukit A s a m Coalfield. T w o claystones are found to the south west of Airlaya (ALB11)

and four claystones in the Airlaya (ALB12) and Klawas Timur areas.

Detrovitrinite is abundant (29.1 to 62.6%) in the claystones and the telovitrinite co

is 3.8 to 9.6. The sporinite + inertodetrinite + liptodetrinite content is significantly higher

than in the adjacent coal plies (1.8 to 8 % ) . Resinite is also abundant (0.2 to 8.4%).

The coal in Bl seam is dominated by vitrinite (90%) comprising 29.8 to 75.8%

detrovitrinite and 20.8 to 2 9 . 8 % telovitrinite. Other macerals are not abundant except in

the ply samples below the claystone, second from the top at locality A L B 12 and below the

first claystone from the top in K T B 1 . These plies have relatively high resinite (2.2 to

2.4%); the sporinite + liptodetrinite + inertodetrinite content is 2 to 3.6%. T h e inertinite

content is higher in two areas A L B 1 2 and K T B 1 1 (0.44 to 7.2%) but average in ALB11.
 163

The coal was deposited in an ombrogenous peat mire. Volcanic activity in the early stages

of peat development produced the three volcanic claystones in the lower part of the seam.

B2Seam

The B 2 seam is separated from B l seam by approximately 5 m of brown claystone

containing abundant organic matter. Lenses of sideritic sandstone are c o m m o n .

The B2 coal seam is 3.7 to 6.35 m thick with one volcanic claystone near the middle of

the seam. The lowermost part of the seam is a dull coal 10 to 40 c m thick, comprising

abundant detrovitrinite (59 to 74.4%) and minor telovitrinite (5.4 to 7.8%). T h e sporinite

-I- inertodetrinite + liptodetrinite content is relatively high (3.6 to 5.8%). T h e mineral

content is generally low in samples from Airlaya but slightly higher in Klawas Timur

samples. Pyrite is present in trace amounts.

Above the claystone is a bright banded coal that has abundant vitrinite (90%) which

comprises 40.6 to 7 1 . 6 % detrovitrinite, 5.8 to 2 1 . 4 % telovitrinite . A slightly higher

resinite and detrital maceral content is present in samples from the Klawas Timur. The

mineral content is 0.8 to 5.2%.

The uppermost ply in B2 seam is a shaly coal that contains abundant detrovitrinite (40.

to 63.6%), small amounts of telovitrinite (3.8 to 4 1 % ) and a relatively high sporinite +

inertodetrinite + liptodetrinite content. Resinite (2.0 to 3.0%) is more abundant in the

Airlaya area than in the Klawas Timur area where there is also higher telovitrinite contents

and decreased detrovitrinite.

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The coal was deposited in an ombrogenous peat mire but the surface m a y have been not

greatly elevated. Mature development of the peat did not occur as telovitrinite-dominant

layers did not develop.

5.7 SUMMARY

Bukit Asam coal has been heated by intrusions in some parts of the study area and this has

resulted in accelerated coalification of the coal with vitrinite reflectance as high as 2 + % .

In coals with 2 + % reflectance, it difficult to distinguish between the maceral groups.

Bukit Asam coal is characterised by a low mineral content, abundant detrovitrinite

significant amounts of telovitrinite and minor gelinite. This composition indicates that the

mires in which the peat was deposited were mostly of a raised high moor type but these

did not reach the mature stage of peat development as indicated by the maceral

composition which points to a lack of fibric peat (abundant structured vitrinite and minor,

or absent, development of a detrovitrinite matrix) at the top each peat episode except for

Al seam. The mires of Bukit Asam were subjected to basement subsidence with the rate

of subsidence similar to the rate of plant accumulation. A modern analogue is thought to

be the Jambi peat deposit of Sumatra, Indonesia.

When the upper part of the Al seam was forming, the subsidence rate was probably l

and this provided an opportunity for the mire to develop as a raised bog. This is indicated

by the formation of fibric peat. However, soon after that, either subsidence accelerated or

arisein sea level occurred and the mire wasflooded,resulting in the termination of peat

development. The pyrite content is very low with a slight increase at the top of A l seam

indicating a possible return to a marine influence above the mire.

 165

CHAPTER SIX
GEOCHEMISTRY

6.1 INTRODUCTION

Goodarzi (1995a) stated that the dominant factors controlling the geochemistry of coal

are:

i. environment of coal deposition;

ii. nature of country rock, tectonic setting and hydrologic conditions; and

iii. age and rank of the coal.

These factors also appear to control the abundance and distribution of elements in the

Bukit Asam coals. Of significance is the influence of volcanic detritus on the trace el

abundance in coal plies adjacent to the tuffaceous claystone beds.

Geochemistry of coal was defined as the chemical composition and chemical properties o

coal (Bouska, 1981). Thus the study of coal geochemistry is a broad study covering

several areas which can include the study of the factors controlling the formation of c

the alteration of plant material during coalification, the geochemical principles gove

the concentration and distribution of trace elements in coal, and the structural and ch

relationships of coal. Swaine and Goodarzi (1995) stated that coal contains most elemen

in the periodic table with data available for 66 of the elements. For this study, only

concentration and distribution of the major oxides and trace elements will be consider

because these are of major significance when considering utilisation of the Bukit Asam

coal.
 166
Coal is a sedimentary rock that consists of organic and mineral matter in various

proportions. The organic materials are mainly aromatic and aliphatic compounds which

consist essentially of the elements C, H, O (van Krevelen, 1981; Stach et al, 1982; Bus

et al, 1983). From a utilisation viewpoint, the "impurities" in coal are usually the mi

matter which is defined as all forms of inorganic material associated with coal. Accor

to its origin, mineral matter can be divided into three groups (Mackowsky, 1982; Bustin

etal, 1983):

a. mineral matter that originated from and was apart of the original plant; this

mineral matter is commonly organic complexes within the original plant tissues and

is called inherent mineral matter.

b. mineral matter that formed during the first stage of coalification; this mineral

matter is syngenetic and is generally inorganic-organic complexes or common

minerals that are precipitated or introduced into the peat/coal deposit by water or

wind; this group is called primary mineral matter.

c. mineral matter that was introduced to the coal after the consolidation process,

that is, during later stages of coalification; these minerals were formed by the

interaction of groundwater either with primary mineral or interseam sediments; this

mineral matter is commonly deposited in the pores, cleats and fissures and are

termed secondary mineral matters.

The meaning of the term 'mineral matter' is very different to the meaning of the term

'ash'. Ash is the residue remaining after combustion of the coal (Bouska, 1981). The
 167

mineral constituents of the ash can be quite different to those in the coal and are formed

as a result of chemical changes in both the mineral matter and organic materials during the

combustion process. In relation to organic matter, these changes are a breakdown of

complex chemical structures with the formation of metal oxides and the release of H 2 0 ,

C 0 2 and other volatile elements (Swaine, 1990).

The analysis of coal ash provides an approximation of the mineral content of the coal,

assumption being the ash is derived solely from the minerals in the coal (Kiss, 1982). This

assumption is likely to be most valid in high rank coals but in low rank coals the ash is

not derived fully from the mineral matter. According to Kiss, one third of the ash in

brown coal from the Latrobe Valley of Victoria, Australia, is derived from organic sulphur

which is fixed by inorganic N a , C a and M g during the ashing process. Thisfixationis

dependent on the combustion conditions. Kiss suggested that analyses of ash should be

regarded as a result obtained from an empirical test and no other conclusion should be

drawn from it. However, Bouska has a slightly different viewpoint, even for this extreme

example. Bouska regards the elemental constituent of the ash as still useful as an indicator

of the coal constituents because it reflects the major constituents of mineral matter

(Bouska, 1981).

The chemical constituents of mineral matter in coal are influenced by many factors that

are not fully understood. Swaine (1990), stated that the trace elements in coal are the sum

of organic-bound trace elements and mineral-bound trace elements. Whereas as this is true,

Davidson (1996) stated that "even for elements found to be associated with the organic

matter, there is no firm evidence for them being organically bound in the higher rank

coals". Furthermore most of the "trace element content in coal is associated with three
 168

major minerals: pyrite, kaolinite, and illite. However, the minerals in coal are not

uniform, either in composition or physical properties (such as particle size and density)".

The organic-bound elements are inherently part of the coal either as organic or inorganic

elements that adsorbed into the coal. The mineral-bound elements are c o m m o n l y present

as discrete primary minerals that enter the coal as detrital influx or post coalification

secondary cleatfillingsin the coal. Other factors that influence the mineral matter in coal

are the condition of mires when the peat was deposited, the coalification process, the

interaction between inorganic sediments in the coal measures sequence and the

groundwater during coalification and igneous intrusions into the coal measures sequence.

Bouska (1981) stated that some trace elements are present if coal mostly as organo-met

complexes of chelate type whereas others are bound into the coal as functional groups or

sorbed onto the organic matter. Furthermore, "there is no doubt that the coal seams are

enriched in trace elements for the most part in post-sedimentary time".

Mineral matter in coal has been known, for a long time, to cause technical and

environmental problems during combustion. Coal which contains a high mineral content

which does not decompose during combustion, that is, produces a high ash and particularly

high bottom ash, is generally causes fouling and slagging in the boiler w h e n the coal is

combusted. Several elements such as Cd, A s , H g m a y cause health problems in the areas

surrounding a power plant. However, a more positive view for combusted coal waste

products has arisen in recent times and studies on the possible reuse of the ash have been

undertaken for several years. For example, Keefer (1993) indicated that fly ash can be

used to suppress pyrite oxidation.

 169

Davidson (1996) stated that eleven elements "commonly found in coal are potentially

hazardous air pollutants". These, together with the average and range of concent

for each were listed as:

Be 2 0.1 - 15
Cr 20 0.5 - 60
Mn 70 5 -300
Co 5 0.5 - 30
Ni 20 0.5 - 50
As 10 0.5 - 80
Se 1 0.2 - 10
Cd 0.5 0.1 - 3
Sb 1 0.5 - 10
Hg 0.1 0.02 - 1
Pb 40 2 - 80

The chemistry of the Bukit Asam coal has been reported by M C S Consultants (1980),

Geological Survey of Indonesia (1978) and Kinhill-Ottogold Joint Venture (1986).

reports contained ultimate analyses data and the major element content of the as

samples analysed were whole seam samples covering a wide area of the South Sumat

Basin and do not provide a detailed enough data base to effectively predict the

problems likely from the combustion of Bukit Asam coal. Only one sample was anal

for the trace elements content and this was done by MCS Consultants.

The main aims of this section of the study are to determine the major element and trace

element geochemistry of the coal and determine if the coal type or interseam cla

sediments have influence the geochemical composition of the coal, and to determi

differences in the geochemistry of the heated coal compared to the unheated coal

study uses the limited previously published data on the analyses of the ash yiel

addition selected samples were also analysed. Apart from coal, samples for ashin

selected from the tonstein layers and the ten centimetre coal interval immediate
 170
and below the tonstein, and from the sedimentary rocks above and below the coal seams.

Details in this study should be regarded as a preliminary study of the major element and

trace elements in Bukit Asam coal but they do show some significant trends that need to

be considered in utilisation studies of the Bukit Asam coals and form a basis for additional

studies.

6.2 FACTORS INFLUENCING MINERAL MATTER IN COALS

6.2.1 Conditions within the Mire

The process of transformation of plant matter to peat depends on the conditions within peat

mires. The Eh and p H of the mire influence the accumulation and dispersion of trace

elements (Bouska, 1981). L o w p H and anoxic conditions retard the degradation process

and assures a higher degree of preservation of the plant matter. O n the contrary, if high

p H or neutral p H and oxic conditions are prevalent, aerobic bacteria activity is promoted

and more severe degradation of the plant material is achieved.

Low pH and anoxic conditions occur where the mire is isolated from persistent floodin

because it isfloodingthat generally causes an influx of mineral matter and oxygen. Plant

nutrients become very limited in supply under these oligotrophic conditions. Under these

conditions, shrub-like plants and stunted plants are the only plant community that can

survive. The low p H conditions assure better preservation of the plant matter and this leads

to the formation of a raised mire. In humid tropical areas, raised mires can develop

because the abundant nutrient supply for the plant growth is supplied by the high rainfall.

The raised nature of ombrotrophic mires decreases the chance of flooding and marine

water incursion. The chemistry of the peat is then only influenced by the plant community
 171

and possibly by minerals deposited by wind or fallout from the atmosphere such as

volcanic detritus. T h e low p H in the raised mire also causes severe leaching of any

elements that enter the mire. This results in a suite of coals that contains extremely low

ash and usually a low concentration of acid soluble elements.

High pH and oxic conditions occur where there is a continuous water influx, other than

from rainwater, into the mires. T h e water influx maintains high oxygen contents in the

water and carries the mineral matter that supplies nutrients for the plant; importantly, an

influx of cations results and this maintains a high p H condition. T h e degradation of the

plant material is high as bacterial activity is at a m a x i m u m and m a y reach a stage where

the plant material completely is degraded and no peat is deposited.

The low topographic nature of this type of mire is vulnerable to marine or brackish wate

incursions which bring salt and minerals to the mire system. The reaction of incoming salt

and minerals, with the mire, results in precipitation of n e w minerals in the peat. Drever

(1982) stated that a marine water incursion which brings waters with sulphates 250 to 300

times higher than fresh water to the reductive condition of mire, m a y result in the

precipitation of FeS precursors. These will later be transformed to pyrite in the peat

(Casagrande, 1987). T h e elemental content of the coal derived from this kind of peat is

more likely to be varied.

6.2.2 External Factors Influencing Peatification

External factors which influence conditions within the peat include ash-fall from nearby

volcanic activity andfiresin nearby forests. Ash-falls were c o m m o n in m a n y ancient peat

deposits. The volcanic ash introduced nutrients to the mires for the plants and also added
 172

additional elemental constituents to the peat.

Ruppert and Moore (1993) studied tonsteins in the Tertiary coals of South Kalimantan.

They were able to differentiate tonsteins that originated from ash-fall and from those that

originated from water-borne sediments. They stated that the claystone layers associated

with volcanic ash deposits contained abundant kaolinite and some blue luminescent quartz

that contained abundant Ti, Zr and Y inclusions. Ti oxides, K-feldspar, barite, pyrite and

sanidine were also found in these rocks. The water-borne deposits were characterised by

the presence of chromite that was interpreted as having been derived from nearby

metamorphic rocks. Ruppert and Moore also recognised that Ca, C u , Ni, Z n , Ba, Sr and

N a contents were higher in the coals than in the volcanically-derived tonstein layers.

Zielinski (1985) studied the mobility of elements in a tonstein which had been altered

kaolinite in the Eocene W y o m i n g coals. It was found that tonsteins were highly leached

of the major elements except Al and Ti. Moreover, it was also recognised that the alkaline

trace elements R b and C s were also highly leached from the tonsteins. T h e transition series

metals were moderately leached and Ga, Zr and H f were immobile and were residual in

kaolinite. However, they considered that the traditionally-considered immobile trace

elements such as Th, Ta, N b , R E E and Y were leached from the tonstein under the swamp

conditions. The migration range of the mobile elements was very limited, to 20 m m , in

the coal layer adjacent to the tonstein.

Crowley et al. (1989), based on their study of volcanic ash layers in the Late Cretaceo

C coal bed, Emery Coalfield (Utah), stated that the coal directly above the tonstein is

enriched in desmocollinite, telinite and detrocollinite as a result of formation in a poorly-

 173

drained mire after the volcanic ash-fall. T h e layer below the tonstein was enriched in

semifusinite, inertodetrinite and fusinite as a result of well-drained s w a m p conditions. It

was also recognised an enrichment in the coal immediately above and under the tonstein

of some trace elements such as Zr, N b , T h and Ce. Spears and Lyons (1995) studied

tonsteins in British coals and by recognising the immobile trace element content in the

tonstein, they were able to recognise the tectono-magmatic setting of the parent volcano

from which the tonstein was sourced.

Forest fire may produce considerable ash debris and may be eventually preserved in the

mire as a layer or completely dissolved in the mire water. The ash composition m a y enrich

the peat with elements that survive either leaching by humic acids or absorption by plants.

6.2.3 Coalification

The process of coalification begins after the peat mire is covered with sediment.

Coalification is characterised by the gradual cessation of biochemical processes. T h e plant

material is compressed and thus its volume is reduced and as a result, water is lost.

Physically, the coalification processes is a reduction in porosity, the release of wate

the formation of colloidal matter which is precipitated in the more resistant tissue of the

plant, saturating them (Stach et al, 1982; Bouska, 1981).

During coalification, the chemistry of coal obviously changes. The decrease in the volu

results in concentration of the elements. At the same time, the aromatic structural unit

begins to form. According to Wilson et al (1984) the aromatic rings are defunctionalised

and the functional groups are replaced by hydrogen. T h e cross linking between aromatic
 174
structures occurs later in the coalification process. The release of the functional groups

also bring about a change in the elemental composition of the coal.

Lindahl and Finkelman (1986) showed there is significant variation in the concentrati

of organic-associated elements with changes in coal rank. Certain elements, such as M g ,

Sr, Ca, Ba, Na, and B, decrease in concentration with increasing coal rank. Lindahl and

Finkelman (1986) suggested that the organic functional groups, in which the elements were

bound, were destroyed as the rank increased and this resulted in the mobilisation of

associated inorganic elements. Bouska (1981) suggested that the distribution elements

follows the pattern of the early metamorphism phase of clay minerals with increasing rank.

6.2.4 External Factors Influencing Coalification

1. Groundwater. During the coalification process, ground-water m a y leach elements from

the interseam sediment and redeposit them in the coal. It has been k n o w n that a marine

roof will enrich the pyrite content of the coal. For example, Diessel (1986; 1992)

recognised higher concentrations of pyrite in the tops of coal seams, with a marine roof

deposited during a marine transgression, in the Hunter Valley, Australia, and in Germany.

However, there was no evidence as to whether the high pyrite content in the top part of

the seam results from a syngenetic process (during the transgression) or an epigenetic

process in which the redeposition of pyrite from the roof layers by leaching processes is

promoted by groundwater after the transgression.

Neuzil et al. (1993) studied the influence of marine strata, below a peat deposit, on

geochemical constituents of the peat. It was found that there is no evidence of any
 175

influence of the substrata on the geochemical composition of the peat. It was suggested that

the much higher pore water content in the peat is the main reason w h y the pore water

content in the substrate cannot enter the peat system.

2. Intrusions. An intrusion in a coal measures sequence is characterised by rapid hea

over a relatively short period of time. The temperature of intrusions, according to Bouska

(1981), m a y range from 200 to 750°C. Bouska showed that the ash content of the coal

seam increases close to an intrusion.

Intrusions in a coal measure sequence may influence the elemental content of the coal

two ways:

- the rise in temperature may decompose some minerals thus forming a new suite of

minerals with different elemental compositions.

- hydrothermal gases and liquids m a y enter the coal measures sequence and introduce

secondary minerals, and thus new elements, into the coal.

MCS Consultants (1980) indicated that sulphur content in the Bukit Asam area is highe

in coals that had been sampled in areas that had been heated by intrusions. For example,

for A l seam the back ground sulphur content ranges from 0.2 to 0.67% but in the heat-

affected area in the west bank of Airlaya (ALB47), the sulphur contents increased to 1 %

to 1.5%.

There are NO pp. 176-177 in original document

 178

Results from This Study

Whereas the major element data of composite samples from the previous studies are useful

for utilisation studies they are not so useful for geological studies. In the present study,

the sampling was carried out ply by ply according lithologic type of the coal. Additional

samples from below the known tonsteins were also taken as were samples from the roof

and the floor sediments. With this sampling strategy, the behaviour of major and trace

elements in seams can be better understood. The raw data for major oxides and trace

elements are given in Appendices 6.1 and 6.2, respectively, and vertical profiles of some

of the trace elements and major oxides are given in Appendix 6.3.

Samples were analysed for major oxides in the XRF laboratory of the School of

Geosciences at the University of Wollongong. A total of 146 samples from A l , A 2 , Bl

and B 2 seams were analysed. The major elements content of the samples is given in

Appendix 6.1.

The samples were firstly divided into two types, coal (ash content < 15%) and shaly

coal/carbonaceous shale/tonstein (ash content > 1 5 % ) in order to differentiate the major

elements content in each; each group was then grouped into three categories according to

the degree of heating by the intrusions: unheated samples (Ryinax < 0.5 % ) , slightly-heated

samples (R„max from 0.5 to 0.8%) and strongly-heated samples (Ryinax > 1.3%). The

reason for this was to determine if the elemental composition of each type of sample was

influenced by the intrusions, that is, did the heating add or delete any element.

The unheated coals and coaly shale/carbonaceous shale/tonstein are dominated by the me

oxides Si0 2 , A 1 2 0 3 and F e A (Table 6.1, Fig. 6.2) with other metal oxides in the range
 179

of 3 to 9 % for coals and between < 1 to 2 % for the coaly shale/carbonaceous

shale/tonstein. The Si0 2 and A 1 2 0 3 contents are much higher in slightly-heated coal than

in unheated coal with averages of 54 and 3 6 % respectively compared to 42 and 2 4 % . O n

the other hand, F e ^ , S 0 3 , and C a O are lower in the slightly-heated coal (Table 6.1). In

the strongly-heated coals, the Si0 2 , A 1 2 0 3 and F e ^ contents are less than those in the

slightly-heated coals but significantly more than in the unheated samples. The overall trend

therefore is a significant increase in Si and Al after heating.

The high Si02, A1203 and Fe^ contents reflect the mineralogy of clay minerals and

quartz as seen petrographically and with X R D . A similar major oxide composition for the

shaly coal/carbonaceous shale/tonstein group also reflects the clay mineral and quartz

mineralogy. However, some differences are evident.

In the shaly coal/carbonaceous shale/tonstein group, Si02 in strongly-heated coals is m

higher, but less in the slightly-heated samples, than in the unheated samples. The A 1 2 0 3

is higher in the slightly-heated samples and less in the strongly-heated samples, compared

to the unheated samples; the FejOa is approximately the same in all three. However, these

results are likely to reflect the variation in the composition of the original samples and

much as the variation due to heating (Fig. 6.2).

Table 6.3 shows the average major oxide contents on a seam by seam basis (ply thickness

weighted). A 2 and Bl seams have the highest Si02 contents (45 and 4 9 % respectively).

C a O content is highest in B 2 seam (8.2%) with A l seam having slightly higher C a O

content (5.8%) compared to A 2 and Bl seams. The S 0 3 content in A l and B 2 are higher

(9.1 and 10.6%, respectively) than in A 2 and Bl (5.4 and 1.2% respectively) and the
 180
N a 2 0 is highest in B 2 seam (5.3%).

A high S03 content (7.7 to 40.6%) was reported in the low rank brown coals from

Victoria (Gloe and Holgate, 1991). Kiss (1982) stated that the organic sulphur contributes

approximately 3 0 % of the total ash weight of low rank and low sulphur coals. In

combustion processes, the organic sulphur isfixedby Ca, Na, M g and Fe that is in the

coals.

Bl seam is somewhat different to the other seams as it has the highest Si02, Ti0

A1 2 0 3 (acid oxides) and has low basic oxides F e ^ , CaO, N a 0 2 , K 2 0 , and S0 3 .

6.4 GEOCHEMISTRY OF TRACE ELEMENTS

The only previous trace element data for the one full seam sample from Airlaya pit

analysed by M C S Consultants (1980) grouped the trace-elements into three categories:

- trace elements with concentrations below 1 ppm: As, Ga, Co, Cr, Sc, and Li,

- trace elements with concentrations equal to or slightly higher than 1 ppm: Pb, M o , Zr,

Br, Se, Zn, Co, Ni, V, and P,

- trace elements with concentrations much larger than 1 ppm: Ba (55 ppm), Sr (23 ppm),

M n (28 ppm), Ti (26 ppm) and B (48 ppm).

MCS Consultants concluded that elements likely to be hazardous to the environme

as Se, As and Co, were not present in significant amounts.

6.4.1 XRF Trace Element Data

For this study, trace element data were obtained for ply samples using two methods, X R F
 181

and I N A A . The use of two methods provided data for a broader range of elements than

otherwise would have been available if only the X R F facilities in the School of

Geosciences, University of Wollongong had been used. I N A A analyses were carried out

by Becquerel Laboratories, Sydney. The results, on an ash basis, are presented in

Appendix 6.2 and a summary of the data is presented in Tables 6.4 to 6.14.

The XRF method was used for samples from Al, A2, Bl and B2 seams samples and the

additional I N A A data were for samples from A 2 , Bl and B 2 seams. Five samples from

Al seam were analysed by both methods for comparison. Only four elements, Th, Rb, A g

and Zn, were c o m m o n to both methods (Table 6.5). A g content could not be used for

comparison because it was mostly below or near the detection limit for both methods.

Graphs of X R F values versus I N A A values for Th and Zn (Fig. 6.3) show a reasonably

good correlation, with the exception of T h in one sample, suggesting that values obtained

represent sample versus sample variations rather than method versus method variations.

The sample with the anomalous result is a tuffaceous tonstein from thefirsttonstein of A l

seam (T3) and it was taken from the strongly-heated zone in Suban. The Z n contents

obtained by the I N A A technique are consistently higher than those of the X R F values

whereas the reverse is true for Th. The differences may also indicate differences in the

detection limits of the respective techniques.

XRF analysis was carried out on a total of 109 samples (seven localities) from Al s

and 19 samples (two localities) from A 2 seam, 11 samples from Bl seam and seven

samples from B 2 seam were analysed. These X R F analyses provided data for the elements

Ni, Zn, Cu, Pb, Rb, Sr, Ga, Y , Zr, N b , T h and Ag. Full analyses are given in Appendix

6.2A and a summary of the range and average for trace element is given in Tables 6.6 and
 182

6.7.

For many elements there is no apparent trend in the concentration of the respective

elements when unheated and heated rocks are compared with differences in many cases

well within the limits of the instrumentation. For example, in coaly shale and tonste

average Ga content ranges between 23.2 and 24.4 ppm; for nickel the average values ar

lowest in the slightly-heated samples and highest in the strongly-heated samples. How

some exceptions to this generalisation do occur and may be significant.

For shaly coal and tonstein:

i. Sr, Y and Pb contents are higher in the unheated samples compared to the heated

samples indicating a relative increase in the content of these elements when a

sample is heated; for example, the concentrations of Sr, Y and Pb in the unheated

samples averages 197.8, 59 and 32.8 ppm respectively, whereas in the slightly-

heated samples the concentrations are 120.3, 38.4 and 29.2 ppm; in the strongly-

heated samples the values are 58.5, 43.1 and 19.9 ppm, respectively (Table 6.7);

the ranges of concentrations show this trend except the minimum value for the

unheated samples is the lowest; and,

ii. Zr has the lowest average concentration in the strongly-heated samples (171.4 ppm

and the highest average concentration in the slightly-heated samples (322 ppm); the

latter value is only slightly higher than the concentration in the unheated samples

(299 ppm); the minimum and maximum values show this trend although some

overlap of the ranges occurs; the trend indicates a loss of zinc when the shaly coal

and tonstein are heated strongly.

 183

For coal samples:

i. the concentrations of Ni and Zn decrease with heating, with the amount of heating

needed not very great; the average concentrations of these trace elements are 36.9

and 223 p p m in the unheated coals, 23.9 and 124 p p m in the slightly-heated coals

and 27.4 and 155 p p m in the strongly-heated samples, respectively; Sr and T h also

show this trend; and

ii. Y concentration is higher in the heated samples; the average concentrations of the

elements are 180 p p m in the unheated coal, 223 p p m in the slightly-heated coal and

236 p p m in the strongly-heated coal;

Comparing the concentrations of elements (ash basis) in the coal group with those in

shaly coal/tonstein in slightly-heated samples, almost all elements are higher in the coal

than in shaly coal and tonstein, except Rb, which is always higher in the shaly

coal/tonstein.

On a seam by seam basis:

- A l seam has the highest R b (18.9 p p m ) and Y (205 p p m ) ,

- A 2 seam has the highest Ni (47.3 p p m ) and Z n (428.5 p p m ) ,

and the lowest Sr and Y contents,

- Bl seam has the highest Sr (1816.2 p p m ) and Pb (94.8 p p m ) ,

- B2 seam has the highest Zr (801.7 p p m ) and N b (29.8 p p m ) .

6.4.2 INAA Trace Element Data

As stated earlier, this method provided data on a wider range of trace elements, including
 184

Sb, As, Ba, Br, Ce, Cs, Cr, Eu, Au, Hf, Ir, Fe, La, Lu, M o , K, Rb, S m , Se, Se, Ag,

Na, Ta, Th, W , U, Yb, and Zn, with the added advantage that the detection limits are

lower. For this part of the study, sample selection was restricted to a limited number of

samples. Full analyses for each sample are given in Appendix 6.2B and a summary of the

data are given in Tables 6.8 to 6.14.

For the unheated samples, and disregarding rock type, the elements can be categ

three groups:

1. Elements with average concentrations of more than 700 ppm (Ba, K, Na and Fe)

2. Elements with average concentrations between 10 to 300 p p m (Ce, Cr, Hf, La, Rb,

Sc, Th, As and Zn).

3. Elements with concentrations mostly less than 10 ppm (Sb, Br, Cr, Eu, Au, Ir, Lu,

M o , Sm, Se, Ag, Ta, W , U, Yb).

Generalising, for the element in Groups 1 and 2, many elements, with exception

and Cs, have higher concentrations in coal than in shaly coal/tonstein. Some of the more

significant examples are:

- As (average values of 42.5 ppm in coal and 17.1 ppm in coaly shale/tonstein),

- Ba (711.6 in coal and 182 ppm in shaly coal/tonstein),

- Ce (110 compared to 51 ppm),

- Sc (47.7 compared to 19 ppm),

- Th (37.3 compared to 17.1 ppm), and

- Zn (240 compared to 153 ppm).

 185

K, Rb and Cs are known to be related to the occurrence of mixed layer clay minerals in

one suite of U S A coals (Rimmer, 1991). K, Rb and Cs are alkali metals and commonly

substitute for one another in various minerals. The shaly coal/tonstein from Bukit Asam

also contains a significant proportion of clay minerals and it is probable that the grouping

of these elements, and their high concentrations, are a function of the clay content of the

samples.

On a seam by seam basis the following patterns were observed.

1. A2 seam contains the highest concentrations of Group 1 elements (Fe, Ba, K, N

some elements in Group 2 (Sc (55 ppm), Rb (38.1) and Zn (272 ppm), and some

Group 3 elements such as Sb, Au, Ir, M o , Ag, Ta, W and U.

2. Bl seam contains highest concentrations of Co, As, La and Cs. C o and As are

commonly associated with pyrite.

3. B2 seam has the highest concentrations of Ce, Hf, Th, Eu and Yb.

6.5 CLUSTER ANALYSIS OF THE TRACE ELEMENTS

A P C computer program for cluster analysis, written by Associate Professor Jones

(University of Wollongong), was used to analyse the relationships between elements and

between samples.

Cluster analysis is a multivariate classification method which attempts to infe

within a data array by linking together those variables (R-mode) or objects (Q-mode)

which are most strongly correlated (Harbaugh and Meriam, 1968; Davis, 1973). A perfect

positive linear correlation, where the correlation coefficient (r) is 1, means that by
 186
knowing one factor, the other factor can be predicted to a very small degree of error and

in theory to 1 0 0 % accuracy, with both factors increasing together. In contrast, a

correlation coefficient of -1, indicates a perfect negative correlation; a correlation

coefficient of 0 indicates no linear correlation.

After calculating a full correlation coefficient matrix, the relationship between the vari

or objects can be simplified by progressively combining the variables with the greatest

positive correlation to produce a dendritic network or dendogram.

6.5.1 R-Mode Analysis

For the R-mode cluster analysis in this study, the data were not refined and were examined

using a Pearson Product-Moment correlation coefficient with 24 variables for A l seam

(major and trace-elements from X R F analysis) and 27 variables for A 2 , Bl and B 2 seams

(trace-elements by I N A A method).

Al Seam

In Al seam, the dendogram for R-mode cluster analysis shows four main clusters or

groups (Fig. 6.4). The main groups are linked by low similarity coefficients, ranging from

-0.12 to 0.11. In Group A , the six variables are mineral matter, ash yield, Si0 2 , R b , K 2 0

and vitrinite reflectance. T h e mineral matter (%vol) has a strong positive similarity

coefficient with the ash yield (%wt) as expected. R b and K 2 0 are correlated whereas Si0 2

is in a subgroup by itself. Also in Group A is vitrinite reflectance. The linking of five

other variables is as expected because the mineral matter consists predominantly of silica

and clay minerals.

 187

The vertical profiles of the ash content and various elements and oxides in A l seam (Figs

6.5 to 6.8) show significant trends. Figure 6.5 shows the relative increase in Si0 2 and the

decrease in R b and K 2 0 in the shaly coal/tonstein layers and the opposite in the coal plies,

specifically, Si0 2 content is high in the tonstein and the shaly coal at the bottom and the

top of the seam and also in the three tonstein layers (Tl to T 3 ) .

Cohen and Stack (1996) suggested that some plants produce authigenic silica during

peatification and Cohen et al. (1987) also recognised diatoms and fresh water sponges in

domed peats and suggested that these were probably the source in part, at least, of the

silica in the coals. Neither of these reasons is likely to be the cause of the high silica in

the Bukit A s a m coal. T h e primary cause is the abundance of volcanic ash that was input

to the peat mire to form the tonsteins at the time these plies were forming.

Both the petrography and the geochemistry support the hypothesis that the high silica

content in the plies adjacent to the tonsteins and the top and bottom of the seam were

formed by solution of silica from the tonsteins and deposition in the coal plies. T h e high

silica content is a diagenetic effect.

XRD analysis shows that the tonstein above Al seam contains mainly quartz, kaolinite,

pyrite and natrojarosite. T h e shaly coal at the base of the seam contains quartz, orthoclase

and illite. The tonstein layers commonly contain quartz and kaolinite except the lower

tonstein layer which contains kaolinite, tridymite and illite. K 2 0 and R b are commonly

associated with mixed layer clay minerals that are not present in the tonstein layers in the

Bukit A s a m coal. This strong correlation between R b and K 2 0 and clay minerals suggests

that the coal plies contain a greater relative proportion of clay minerals and a relatively
 188
lower proportion of quartz and chalcedony than the tonsteins.

The inclusion of vitrinite reflectance in Group A reflects the relationship between

increasing reflectance of samples taken from near the intrusions. In these samples, the

mineral content is commonly higher. Bouska (1981) also recognised increasing ash content

towards an igneous intrusion in one Russian coal deposit.

Group B comprises Ni and Mn03. Both parameters commonly have higher values in coal

than in tonstein/shaly coal plies (30 to 50 p p m for Ni in coal compared to approximately

10 p p m in tonstein layers). This suggests Ni and M n 0 3 are possibly associated with

organic matter. However, at one location ( A L A 12), the vertical profiles show that the

concentration of Ni parallels the ash content in the shaly coal layers at the top of the seam

and at the bottom of the seam.

The shaly coals at the top and the bottom of the coals are allochthonous and some of

tonstein layers are derived from volcanic ash-fall deposits. This m a y indicate that both Ni

and M n 0 3 were derived from clastic detritus that was introduced to the mire rather than

from volcanic ash.

Group C contains Zn, Pb, FeA, Sr, P205, CaO, S03, MgO and Na^O and is

characterised by the gradual increase in the concentration of these elements in the coal

toward the top of the seam and low concentrations in the shaly coal/tonstein (Fig. 6.6).

The progressive increase in the concentration of these elements towards the top possibly

parallels the plant evolution during the process of doming of the peat. Esterle and Ferm

(1994) and Cohen and Stack (1996) showed that in modern tropical peats, the mire evolves
 189

from a planar peat that is dominated by more arborescent plants to a domed peat that is

characterised by sapric peat derived from shrubs-like plants. They also recognised that

preservation potential increases toward the top of the peat.

Group C can be subdivided into three subgroups (Figs 6.6 and 6.7) - Clt C2 and C3.

Group C x contains Zn, Pb and F^O-j. This group is characterised by a gradual increase

in Zn, Pb and F e 2 0 3 contents in coals towards the top of the seam and a very strong

negative correlation between the elements and the tonstein T l , T 2 and T 3 . At some

locations, the coal samples immediately above or below the tonstein have significantly

higher concentrations of Z n compared to the concentrations in the adjacent layers. Pb

shows the same trends as the other members of the subgroup but the concentrations are

higher immediately above the tonstein. The mire forming above the tonstein would have

been poorly drained and this possibly permitted greater preservation of the plant material.

The higher Pb in these plies suggests that Pb and the other elements in the group are

associated with higher preservation of the plant tissues. Pb, Z n and F e ^ probably

indicate an association with sulphides, in this case pyrite. Galena and sphalerite have been

reported in coals (Stach et al, 1982)

Group C2 contains Sr and P205 and these elements are more concentrated in coal than

shaly coals/tonstein samples and are more concentrated towards the top of the seam.

Another characteristic of Sr is the lower concentrations in the coal plies immediately above

and below the tonstein compared to adjacent plies. In low rank coals, Sr is reportedly

associated with organic functional groups (Finkelman, 1986). Sr and P 2 0 5 m a y be

associated with phosphate minerals such as apatite [Ca 5 (P0 4 ) 3 ] or phosphorite that could

be of volcanic origin. In this case, Sr replaces the C a as they are in the same group in the
 190
periodic table (Ha). Phosphate minerals may also be derived from animals with phosphate

skeletal structures if these were incorporated in the mire. According to Stach et al (1982)

the presence of phosphate in coal is indicative of a proteinaceous albuminous constituent

(proteinaceous albuminous is a type of globular protein).

Crowley et al (1989) postulated that coal layers immediately above tonsteins are form

from "well fed" plants because more nutrients are available from the volcanic ash than the

peat. She also suggested that above tonstein, peat is poorly drained and this leads to a

higher water table and, as a result, a higher degree of plant preservation. Sr content is

probably related to the degree of preservation of plants in the peat and is derived from the

tonstein.

Group C3 has four members, CaO, S03, MgO and Na20. Species in this group are also

more concentrated in coal rather than in tonstein and shaly coal. The close association of

C a O and S 0 3 probably indicates the presence of gypsum in the samples with gypsum

forming through the breakdown of calcite and the transformation of organically-bound

sulphur during combustion as reported by Crowley et al. (1989). The other alkaline

elements such as N a and M g are also fixed by the release of organic sulphur during the

combustion process.

Group D, with species Ga, Ti02, A1203, Y, Zr, Nb and Th is characterised by low

concentrations of the species in the bottom and top plies the shaly coal, moderate

concentrations in coal and in the 10 c m intervals immediately above and below the tonstein

(Figs 6.7 and 6.8). Group D can be divided into two subgroups, D , and D 2 .
 191

D! has three members, G a , T i 0 2 and A1 2 0 3 . This group is characterised by relatively low

values in coal and shaly coal samples (for example, approximately 20 p p m for Ga; Fig.

6.7), regardless of the ash content and higher values in the tonstein and coal immediately

above and below the tonstein. T i 0 2 and A 1 2 0 3 are likely to have been derived from

volcanic products, probably rutile, ilmenite and other aluminosilicate minerals in the coal.

It seems unlikely that Ti0 2 , A 1 2 0 3 and G a were derived from detrital sources as shown by

the low concentration in the shaly coals at the top and bottom of the seam. The distribution

patterns indicate that Ti0 2 , A 1 2 0 3 and, to a lesser extent Ga, survive leaching from the

tonstein.

According to Zielinski (1985), Ga is a residual or immobile element in tonsteins in coa

that have been exposed to leaching by low p H mire waters. In Bukit Asam, the G a content

in the coal above and below tonsteins at some locations, are higher than in the tonstein.

This indicates that G a is less mobile and has migrated limited distances. Similar patterns

have been recognised in W y o m i n g and Emery coal (Utah) by Goodal (1983) and Zielinski

(1985). They suggested that the low p H of the mire water is responsible for the

mobilisation of Ga. T i 0 2 and A 1 2 0 3 show a gradual increase from the bottom to the top

of the seam; the increase in G a from the bottom to the top of the seam is not as noticeable.

D2 subgroup contains Y, Zr, Nb and Th (Fig. 6.8). These elements have far higher

concentrations in the ten centimetre coal plies immediately above and below the tonstein

than in the tonstein. The concentrations of these species in the shaly coal at the top and

bottom of the seam are lower than in the coal plies. The negative correlation with the ash

content probably indicates that these elements are more commonly associated with organic

matter and that they m a y have been mobilised from the volcanic ash originally, probably
 192

from a mineral, associated with zircon, by ground water after deposition of the peat and

then became bound in the organic matter in the coals immediately above and below the

tonstein. Zielinski (1985) recognised a similar pattern in tonsteins in W y o m i n g coal and

Crowley et al (1989) also recognised a similar pattern in the Emery Coal Bed, Utah.

According to Wedepohl (1969; 1978) D 2 elements are relatively immobile during low

temperature alteration. However, in Aj seam, the higher concentrations of these elements

in the samples immediately below and above the tonstein than in the tonstein, indicate that

these elements are mobile as shown by Zielinski (1985) and Crowley et al (1989). Goodal

(1983) and Zielinski (1985) suggested conditions of low p H in the peat, due to humic

acids, was responsible for the mobilisation of these elements.

A2 Seam

A 2 seam only contains one thin tonstein of very limited lateral extent and at some localities

no tonstein. The A 2 coal has an extremely low ash content. R-mode cluster analysis was

applied to two sets of data: the trace element data obtained from I N A A analyses and the

major and trace elements data obtained from X R F analyses.

R-mode, INAA Data

The dendogram for A 2 seam shows 6 main groups: A , B (Bl and B2), C , D (Dl and D2),

E and F (Fig. 6.9).

Group A, contains two parameters vitrinite reflectance and ash, and again this is

to the inclusion of heated samples in the population.

Group B has six members - Sb, Hf, U, Th, Na and Ta which are divided into two
 193

subgroups, one (Bl) containing Sb, Hf, U and Th, and a second (B2) containing N a and

Ta. The elements in this group have lowest concentrations in shaly coals and highest

concentrations in coal. The concentrations are highest in the middle of the seam and

decrease toward the bottom and the top of the seam. Petrographic data show that

telovitrinite and gelovitrinite contents follow the same pattern suggesting a strong

correlation between vitrinite and group Bl elements. According to Shotyk et al. (1990) U

and C u are soluble under aerobic conditions with a depletion in the top and lower parts

of seams, probably due to oxidation which is more severe at the top and the bottom of the

seam.

The samples above the underclay (seat earth) have abundant Cs, Rb, K, Ba, Fe, Ce and

La. Petrographic data (Chapter 5) show that inertinite content in these samples is

significantly higher than in the coal above this ply sample. This might suggest that the

enrichment of these elements is correlated to inertinite content. According to Esterle et al

(1989), inertinite forms in marginal areas where the water is always flowing past or

through the accumulating plant material.

Crowley et al (1989) also recognised a close relationship between inertinite content a

the elements Th, Ce, S m , E u and Zr. The absorption of elements from underlying strata

by the coal seam is impossible, according to Neuzil (1993), because the pore-water in peat

is more saturated than the pore-water in the clay underneath; migration of elements does

not take place across a negative gradient.

According to Wedepohl (1969; 1978), U and Th are responsible for the radioactivity in

coal. Both elements commonly are present as functional group complexes (Swaine 1990).
 194
In Precambrian to Mesozoic organic-rich sediments, spherical bitumen with a

zircon/uraninite core, known as thucolite, are commonly found which, under microscope,

can be recognised by radiation rims. Both elements are clearly organically bound in the

thucolite association. Zircon and monazite are also commonly considered to be the main

sources of Th and U in minerals. The origin of Sb in coal is not clear. Swaine (1990)

suggested an organic association for Sb but this element also m a y be present in sulphide

minerals. H f is also correlated with zircon (Crowley et al., 1989)

Subgroup B2 contains of Na and Ta. Both elements show a relatively constant

concentration from the top to the bottom of the seam except for the layer above the floor.

Commonly, N a is found as an organically-bound element (Beaton et al. 1993) but is also

included in the mobile element-reactive element (low ionic potential) group (Crowley et

al. 1989). It can be introduced into, and removed from, porous lignite by water. Ta has

similar chemical properties to N b (Wedepohl, 1969; 1978) and both are associated with

zircon.

Group C has two members Ba and Fe (Fig. 6.10) although the two are not strongly

correlated (Fig. 6.9). According to Wedepohl (1969; 1978), Ba m a y derived, at least in

part, from plants. Lyons et al (1989) discussed the occurrence of B a in coals but gave

conflicting views. They stated that Ba, Ca, M g and Sr are most likely to indicate higher

amounts of clays, carbonate, other minerals and a nonmarine origin.. However, later they

stated that living tree ferns biologically fractionate Ba and a variety of other elements

suggesting that Ba might be organically associated in coal especially if some of the parent

plant material is derived from tree ferns. In A 2 seam samples that have not been heated,

Ba concentration is highest in the middle of the seam and depleted in the roof and floor
 195
of the seam. This indicates that most Ba originates from plant material. Fe probably

originated from plant material where components such as chlorophyll contain Fe (Bouska,

1981). The pyrite content in A 2 seam is very low and in many samples, zero; thus Fe

cannot be sourced from pyrite. The Ba and Fe profiles closely resembles the vitrinite

profile, which is a measure of the degree of preservation of plant in the peat during

peatification.

Group D has two subgroups. Subgroup Dl contains Br, W, Lu, Yb, Eu and Sm and D2

contains Cr Sc, Zn, C o and A u . Subgroup D l is characterised by relatively low values

from the top to the bottom of the seam except the samples immediately above the floor of

the seam which have higher concentrations. According to Lyons et al. (1989), data on the

geochemistry of vitrinite in coals from Australia, England and Canada showed Br and W

are the most organically-bound elements. O n the other hand Lu, Y b , E u and S m are

associated with kaolinite. Thus the clustering of elements in this group may be a function

of low concentrations of these elements in the ash rather than a geological association.

D2 subgroup contains Cr, Sc, Zn, Co and Au and is characterised by significant

concentrations of the elements, except A u , in tonstein samples suggesting each is closely

associated with mineral matter. According to Crowley et al (1989), Cr is typically in

insoluble compounds in the ash and is immobile. O n the other hand, Z n originates from

degraded plants and, is enriched when degradation occurs (Wedepohl, 1969; 1978) and

thus is strongly associated with vitrinite content.

Group E contains Ce and La. Ce and La contents are positively correlated with ash cont

and reach a m a x i m u m in the shaly coal samples (Fig. 6.10). C e and La have similar
 196
atomic numbers and both are rare earth elements (REE) and are reported to be closely

related (Kendrick, 1985). The light rare earth elements (LREE) are released during the

breakdown of volcanic ash and the preferred host is clay minerals. O n the other hand, the

heavy rare earth elements (HREE) are commonly hydrolysed or bound to organic

complexes and migrate from the partings or tonstein into the coal.

Group F contains As, Cs, Rb and K. It is characterised by high concentrations of

elements in floor samples and low values at the top of the seam. Above A 2 seam is a

tuffaceous sandstone of obvious volcanic origin. In A l seam, R b and K 2 0 are closely

related to detrital mineral but not with volcanic ash. The low R b content at the top of the

A 2 seam is in accordance with the previous discussion on the A l seam. Rb, Cs and K are

associated with illite, mica or mixed clays which contain potassium (Rimmer, 1991).

Arsenic is commonly related to pyrite.

R-mode Analysis, XRF Data

The R-mode dendogram for the X R F data can be divided into four clusters (Figs 6.11 to

6.13):

Group A - M M , Ash, Si0 2 , ^ m a x , Rb, K 2 0 and Pb.

Group B - F e ^ , M n 0 3 , CaO, S0 3 , M g O and N a 2 0 .

Group C - Ni, Zn and Zr.

Group D - Cu, Ti0 2 , Sr, P 2 0 5 , A1 2 0 3 , Y and Nb.

The XRF results show similar patterns as the INAA data.

Group A: This group is divided into two subgroups Al and A2. Subgroup Al show an
 197

association between ash, mineral matter and silica content as expected and again this is

related to the silicified coals at the top of the seam which always show higher Si0 2

contents. Subgroup A 2 (Rb, K 2 0 and Pb) shows a different pattern with a low level in the

silicified coal zone. This confirms that the silicified coals was formed purely as a result

of redeposition of leaching products from the interseam water-transported sedimentary

rocks between A l and A 2 seams and were not the result of water-borne detritus.

The coal immediately below the silicified coal in A2 seam also contains abundant Ni and

Zn that may have been leached from claystone layers. These claystones are not volcanic

ashes deposits but are thought to have been deposited as water-transported sediments.

Group B: Species in this group are characterised by high contents in the coal and this

interpreted as indicating an association with, and probably derived from, organic sulphur

that was fixed by N a , Fe, M n , Ca, N a and M g during combustion.

Group C: This group contains Ni, Zn and Zr. Ni is the only element in this group that

shows high values in the silicified coals at the top of the seam. Again Zr contents are

highest at the top of the seam and gradually decrease to the bottom of the seam indicating

that Zr was also derived from leaching of interseam sediment between A l and A 2 .

Group D: This group contains Cu, Ti02, Sr, P2Os, A1203, Y and Nb. Again the close

correlation between the Sr and Sr 2 0 5 suggest that phosphate minerals derived from

volcanic ash m a y have been the source of these entities. The profile of these elements in

the A 2 seam show that the highest concentrations are in the plies above and below the thin

tonstein in A 2 seam. This suggests that the phosphate minerals were derived from
 198

leachates from the tonstein. Ti02 and A1203 are probably derived from the tonstein as

well. The presence of Cu is not easily explained and may be coincidental, especiall

values are not high.

Bl Seam

The R-mode cluster analysis dendogram based on INAA data for Bl can be divided int

five main clusters or groups (Fig. 6.14):

Group A - Rvmax, Cs

Group B - Ash, U, Cr, K, Rb

Group C - Sb, As, W, Co, Sc, Zn, Th

Group D - Ba, Br, Au, Ce, La, Sm, Lu, Yb

Group E - Hf, Na, Ta, Fe, Eu.

Group A: The correlation of Cs with Ryinax is probably not a geologically based

association.

Group B: This group is characterised by higher concentrations in the top and botto

of the seam and lower values in the claystone samples. As the roof and floor sedime

in B seam are derived from water-transported sediments, the high concentrations of

K20 in the roof and floor samples (Fig. 6.15) suggest that Rb and K20 have a close

association with water-borne sediments rather than volcanic fall deposits.

Group C: This group is characterised by the relatively higher concentration in the

than in the claystones, roof and floor. These elements are organically-bound elemen
 199
Anomalously high levels of these elements in the lower part of the seam at location A L B 1 2

is thought to reflect the higher abundance of detrovitrinite and other detrital macerals

(sporinite, inertodetrinite and liptodetrinite) in this ply.

Group D: This group is characterised by relatively higher concentrations in the coals t

in the claystones, shaly coal, roof and floor (Figs 6.16 and 6.17). Again, these elements

are thought to be organically-bound elements

Group E: This group is characterised by extremely low concentrations and this may be the

reason they are grouped together.

The R-mode dendogram and vertical profiles (Figs 6.18 to 6.20) using XRF data show a

similar clustering of the elements as for the I N A A data.

B2 Seam

A smaller number of samples were analysed for B 2 seam than for the other seams. The

preliminary results obtained show a similar pattern to that for Bl seam (Figs 6.21 to 6.24).

6.5.2 Q-mode Analysis

Q-mode analysis is used to analyse the clustering of samples rather than the clustering of

properties of the samples. Thus if Q-mode analyses is applied to samples from one seam,

it shows the relationships or correlations between the samples, for this study ply samples,

rather than relationships or correlations between properties of the coal.

Q mode analysis (Fig. 6.25) was applied to samples from seven localities for Al seam (in
 200
Airlaya-ALAl, Suban-SBAl and Muara Tiga Selatan-MSAl), two localities for A 2 seam

(Airlaya-ALA2, and Suban-SBA2) and two localities for Bl seam (Airlaya-ALBl and

Suban-SBBl).

Al Seam

The Q-mode dendogram for A l seam gave four groups with some of the groups as

expected given that the sample population includes samples of coal, shaly coal, tonsteins

and claystones.

Group A: This group is dominated by the shaly coal/tonstein/ claystone samples. Inc

in this group are samples from the roof of the seam, the floor of the seam, the three

tonsteins, and the coaly shale immediately below the roof and above the floor. One

subgroup of clean coals is included in the group and there is no apparent geological reason

for this.

Group B: This group comprises samples that have extremely low ash (subgroups 8, 9,10

11 and 12) but the samples did not always come from the same strata. This indicates that

the samples from different strata sometimes have similar chemical constituents, regardless

of the stratigraphic position.

The samples in Group B are commonly samples from near the intrusions and samples tha

have been heated.

Group C: This group consist of samples that contain relatively high amounts of ash.

are several subgroups in this group. S o m e samples in some of the subgroups can be
 201
correlated with each other laterally. These samples commonly c o m e from the coaly shale

under the roof of the seam and a few come from above the floor of the seam in the

unheated area in Airlaya pit.

Group D: This group contains coal samples that have 6-15% ash content and which come

from the 10 centimetre ply immediately below and above the tonsteins, and some shaly

coals from the floor of the seam.

Although the Q mode analysis distinguished between different types of samples, it did no

distinguish between samples from different seams and different claystone and tonstein

layers.

6.5.3 Elemental Data and Petrographic Properties

R m o d e analysis of data combining macerals, major oxides and trace elements in coal

samples shows that there appears to be little correlation between specific elements and

specific macerals (Fig. 6.26). The macerals commonly cluster in groups 3 and 4 whereas

the elements and oxides cluster in groups 1, 2 and 3. In a few cases, some macerals are

in the same cluster with elements or major oxides; only two correlations are apparent:

exsudatinite and micrinite with Ni and pyrite.

fluorinite with M n 0 4 .

However these relationships are doubtful because both the macerals and the

oxides/elements have such low concentrations and any association m a y not be real, only

reflecting the abundance/concentration of the species.

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6.6 DISCUSSION

Bouska (1981) states that elements in ash from combusted coal are derived from the

original plants (primary ash matter), minerals admixed with the coal as water- and wi

borne sediments (secondary ash matter), elements physico-chemically captured from

circulating waters and bound to the organic matter during coalification (mainly from

overlying clastic beds, tectonic fractures and basin margins) and elements derived f

igneous intrusions. It is probably that for the Bukit Asam coals, elements were deri

from all these sources and from volcanic activity as well.

One of the factors controlling the behaviour of elements in water is the ionic poten

which is the ratio of the charge of the ion and ionic radii (Mason, 1966). By compari

the ionic charge of the elements and ionic radii, Mason divided the elements into th

groups (Fig. 6.27):

i. the first group contains the elements with low ionic potential; in aqueous soluti

they form soluble anions; included in this group are the alkali metal elements Li,

Na, K, Rb, Cs and some of Group IIIA elements, Ba, Sr, and Mn;

ii. the second group contains elements that have moderately high ionic potential and

which are deposited as hydrolysates; included in this group are the REE, Sc, Fe,

Ga, Al, Mg, Be, Th, U, Zr, Ti, Mn, Nb, Ta, V and Si; and,

iii. the last group contains elements which have high ionic potential and form solub

complex anions.

During leaching, the soluble cations remains in solution and are easily mobilised. T

explains the low concentration of Rb, K and Cs in the tonsteins as these are mobile
 203
elements.

Elements that form hydrolysates are the most inert or immobile elements because the

hydrated ion is precipitated from solution. This explains the high contents of Ti0 2 , A 1 2 0 3

and G a in the tonstein. Other elements in this group, such as N b , Y , Zr and also T h and

U , should be immobile but, according to Goodal (1983) the low p H of the mire water and

possibly water percolating through the coal seam mobilises the elements and they are

trapped in the coal immediately above and below the tonstein.

The abundant Rb, K, Cs in the roof and shaly coals at the top of the seams is probably

caused by the presence of K-rich clay clastic minerals such as mixed layer clays or illite.

Lyons et al. (1989) studied the elemental associations with vitrinite in a number of

American, English and Australian coals and stated that a number of elements are in

"dominantly inorganic association" in all coals; the elements were Al, A s , C o , Cs, Cu,

Fe, Hf, La, M g , Ni, Si, Ti, T h and Yb. They stated that quartz and low-temperature ash

correlate with the elements Al, Cs, M g and Si. Low-temperature ash was associated with

Rb and illite was correlated with all the above-mentioned elements except M g , Cr, G a , K ,

Ni, and Pb. Kaolinite was associated with Al, Cs, Ni and R b plus the rare earth elements

Yb, Lu, H f and Sc. Thus their study supports the clay-Rb-K-Cs hypothesis although they

do not specifically mention K.

The high concentrations of the elements Nb, Zr, Y, Th and U in intervals immediately

above and below the tonsteins indicates that the tonsteins initially contained high levels of

these elements. Ruppert and M o o r e (1993) showed that the composition of the volcanic

ash in tonstein from East Kalimantan contains a high proportion of zircon and blue
 204
luminescence quartz. The claystone also contained groupen or pelletic textures which are

characteristics of the tonsteins in the Bukit A s a m coals. Probably, the composition of the

ash-fall detritus in Bukit A s a m was not very different from ash that formed the East

Kalimantan tonsteins.

Sr, Ba, Zn, Le, Ca and Na form soluble cations but the ionic potentials of these elemen

are somewhat higher than that of the alkali metal groups. These elements are also probably

mobilised and deposited in the coal. Alternatively these elements m a y have been inherently

bound by humic acid when the peatification process was taking place although in eh case

of Ba. Finkelman (1995) stated that the abundance of B a minerals indicates this element

is dominantly associated with the inorganic components of most high rank coals but the

leachibility of Ba in low rank coals indicates that substantial amounts of B a are organically

bound.

Goodarzi (1995b) studies the relationship between the trace element distribution and th

affect of heat on coal due to an intrusion (a dyke). H e found that three groups of

elements:

i. elements that appear to undergo progressive depletion towards the dyke from the

onset of alteration to the contact;

ii. elements that show a sudden increase in concentration near the outer edge of altered

coal zone and then decrease somewhat erratically towards the contact; and

iii. elements that seem little affected distant from the contact but rapidly increase near

the contact, but decreased at th contact.

The first group of elements were thought to be organically bound elements and hence wit
 205

loss of organic matter due to the heating process, the elemental concentration decreases.

The explanation for the second group of elements is that the elements are mobilised and

migrate in fluids as a result of the heating process, and accumulate in the porous coke

which acts as a trap for these elements. The third group or elements are associated with

sulphides such as pyrite. A s these sulphides decompose as a result of the heating, the trace

elements are mobilised due to explosive expulsion.

The trends found by Goodarzi were not found in the suite of samples studied here. The

heated samples of Bukit A s a m coal were taken from localities some distance from the

intrusion and had not been heated to the same degree as some of those studied by

Goodarzi. The main reason for variations in the major oxide and trace element

concentrations in the heated samples from Bukit Asam, compared to the unheated samples,

is due to the introduction of minerals to the heated coals such as quartz, calcite. Given the

close association of C a and Ba, as shown by the substitution of C a by Ba, the increased

calcite concentration in the heated samples would result in an increase in the ba

concentration of the coals.

6.7 SUMMARY

In Bukit A s a m coal, the major oxide and trace element composition is closely linked to the

mineral content of the samples with some variation associated with the effects of the

intrusions. In unheated samples the major oxides are dominated by Si0 2 , A 1 2 0 3 and F e 2 0 3

and this is a function of the quartz and clay mineral, principally kaolinite, content. The

Si0 2 and A 1 2 0 3 contents are m u c h higher in slightly-heated coal than in unheated coal and

again this is a function of movement of hydrothermalfluidsthrough the heated coals and

the resultant precipitation of secondary quartz and possibly secondary clay minerals. In the
 206
strongly-heated coals, the Si0 2 , A 1 2 0 3 and Fe20 3 contents are less than those in the

slightly-heated coals but significantly more than in the unheated samples. T h e overall trend

therefore is a significant increase in Si and Al after heating. This was confirmed by

petrographic observations which calcite and quartz in the heated samples are higher than

in the

unheated samples. R-mode cluster analysis confirms the petrographic observations that

Si0 2 content is related to the quartz content and other silicates minerals.

The CaO content is highest in coals that have been heated reflecting the presence of

secondary calcite in these samples.

The present study indicates that the trace element content, given by MCS Consultants

(1978) in their preliminary study of only one sample, is commonly m u c h lower than the

results of this study. Vertical distribution graphs of the various trace elements also indicate

that the trace element content is mainly determined the abundance of mineral matter in the

seams.

Vertical trace element distribution graphs also show that Rb, Cs and K are most likely

derived from detrital clay (K-rich clay or mixed clay) but have been leached from the

mineral-rich claystone (tonstein) layers and redeposited in the coal. Y , Zr, N b , T h and to

a lesser extent Sb, H f and U have also been mobilised from the tonsteins during

coalification stage and were redeposited in the coal plies immediately above and below the

claystone layers.

Ti, and sometimes Ga, are immobile elements and were resistant to peat-water leaching
 207

after the deposition of volcanic ash. The elements Ba, Sr and to a lesser extent Z n and Pb,

are organically-bound elements. Ca, Na, S and Fe show similar trends.

Cluster analysis does not show any significant relationships between element concentrat

and maceral composition.

208
 209

CHAPTER SEVEN
COAL QUALITY AND UTILISATION

7.1 INTRODUCTION
In Indonesia, coal is mostly used as a raw material for direct combustion, either for s

generation in power plants or direct firing of furnaces for the cement industry. Sulist

(1990) reported that the highest proportion of domestic coal consumption is mainly for

electricity generation (67.1 %) and the cement industry (31 %); other uses only constit

1.9% of the total consumption.

In the early part of the next century, as cheap coal utilisation technologies are devel

in Indonesia, the proportion of "other uses" is expected to be higher, for example, the

petrochemical industry, liquefaction and domestic residential uses of coal are likely t

increase significantly as Indonesia attempts to diversify its energy sources. Little re

relating to liquefaction has been carried out in recent times (Daulay, pers. com., 1996)

However, a pilot factory for coal briquetting, mostly for residential use, has been

constructed recently (Mangkusubroto, 1995).

Bukit Asam mines contribute 4,203,000 tonnes annually or 32.9% of the total coal

production of Indonesia (Mangunwijaya, 1992) and this compares favourably with other

Sumatran coals. The Bukit Asam coal is mostly used for steam generation and as fuel for

the cement industry. The main consumer of Bukit Asam coal is Perusahaan Umum Listrik

Negara or the State Electricity Company (PLN) which use the coal in the Suralaya power
 210
station, West Java (4 x 400 M W and with an extension of 3 x 600 M W capacity) and the

local Bukit A s a m power station (4 x 65 M W capacity). Bukit A s a m coal (12.6% of total

production) is projected to be exported in future years but this will only be 6.5% of the

total Indonesian coal exports. This is despite the present coal exports from South Sumatra

being quite small with the export destination mainly Malaysia with small amounts to Japan

(Syafrizal and Esmara, 1992). The small share that Bukit A s a m coal contributes to total

Indonesian coal exports could be increased markedly. Additional markets could be obtained

specifically to diversify into a broader market front. A comprehensive review of quality

and possible utilisation of Bukit A s a m coals is essential if these marketing proposals are

to be realised.

The performance of coal can be predicted from the chemical and physical properties wi

sets of tests or parameters established to predict the performance of coal during

combustion. In recent times, coal combustion technologies have been biased towards

pulverised coal andfluidisedbed combustion. Use of coal either for pulverised coal or

fluidised bed firing requires assessment of the coal before firing so that combustion

performance, furnace heat transfer, pollutant formation and fly ash collection can be

predicted. The chemical and physical properties are the important criteria for this

assessment. However, laboratory tests only indicate the potential performance of the coal

and obviously large scale tests are necessary if the coals are not to cause problems during

scaled up combustion.

Tests for combustion performance are commonly the proximate and ultimate analyses and

major oxides. These tests are required to predict the slagging or fouling potential in the

boiler system and also environmental hazards potential.

 211

Coal petrology is also an important test which can be used to predict the performance of

coal during combustion. Coal with a high inertinite content has a lower degree of

efficiency in combustion; the inert macerals persist in the flame in a semi-reacted form

(Nandi et al, 1977; Sanyal, 1983). This is not the case for high vitrinite-low inertinite

coals such those from Sumatra.

For carbonisation studies, beside the dilatation (swelling properties) and volatile con

tests (rank), organic petrography is an important tool for analysing the composition of the

coal. Organic petrography is also an important component in coal gasification and

liquefaction studies. Davis et al. (1976) and Cudmore (1977) showed the importance of

organic petrology in coal conversion studies. They indicated that the highest conversion

rates of coal to liquids and gases are obtained from coal where the vitrinite reflectance is

less than 0.8% and where the coal contains mostly reactive macerals. Important parameters

were found to be:

- vitrinite and liptinite greater than 6 0 % ,

- volatile matter (daf) greater than 3 5 % , and

- the ratio of hydrogen to carbon greater than 0.75.

Daulay (1994) stated that, based on coal liquefaction experiments, liptinite content is

strongly correlated with oil yield.

The mineral matter in coal also strongly influences the performance of coal during

combustion. In high temperature combustion, the melting of some minerals results in

deposition on the boiler wall (slagging) or deposition in the convective heat-transfer

surfaces (fouling). T h e deposition of mineral matter on the wall of the boiler results in a
 212

decrease in the heating efficiencies and to that end, increases the mainten

In recent times, environmental issues have become more of a concern, even i

The dense population and increasing industrialisation in Indonesia forced t

to apply stricter regulations regarding pollutants emission from the power

plants, especially in Java, the most density populated island. In some Thir

countries, coal has been regarded as a dusty, dirty fuel with emissions imp

control. However, the recent development of clean coal technology with rega

desulphurisation (FGD) and fluidised bed combustion, combined with the use

and low sulphur coals, offers a solution for relatively clean, pollutant-fr

combustion.

For combustion purposes, the Bukit Asam coal has a low ash content and a lo

content and is therefore a good candidate for a clean coal combustion feeds

content can be improved with selected mining if needed as the highest contr

in Bukit Asam coal is the claystone of volcanic origin (tonsteins). The low

sulphur also makes this coal a potential raw material for a petrochemical i

In this chapter, the discussion will focus on the utilisation of Bukit Asam

probable minimal impact that it will cause as regards environmental issues,

used.

7.2 COAL QUALITY

7.2.1 Proximate Analysis

Proximate analysis is an empirical test designed to classify higher rank co

 213
their coking and gasifying characteristics (Kiss, 1982). The test shows the relative amounts

of light organic compounds (volatile matter) versus the non-volatile organic material (fixed

carbon). The moisture content of the coal and the inorganic components remaining after

the coal is burned (the ash) are also measured. In low rank coal, volatile matter is a very

important measure because it reflects the hydrogen and carbon contents of the coal and is

an indicator of rank.

A summary of the proximate analysis data for unheated Bukit Asam coal, provided by PT.

Bukit A s a m (1994), is given in Table 7.1 and detailed analyses are given in Appendix 5.6.

Table 7.1 shows that the overall average volatile matter for all seams at Bukit A s a m coal

is 47.1 % (adb),fixedcarbon is 49.45% (adb) and ash is 5.6% (adb). The striking feature

of the data is the similar mean values and range of values for the above parameters for all

seams, indicating that the coals in all seams can be used without significant changes to

equipment if the feedstock is changed to a different seam. Alternatively, the similarity is

seam properties means that more than one seam can be mined at once and the coal can be

mixed without deleterious effects in the combustors.

The average gross calorific value for unheated coal is 7096 kcal/kg and there is no

substantial difference in values between seams (Table 7.1). M C S Consultants (1980) gave

slightly higher values for the calorific value (Table 7.2) because their report included the

data for heated coals. Based on these chemical data, Bukit A s a m coal is included in the

sub-bituminous coals, according to the classification of Teichmuller and Teichmuller

(1982) and this is consistent with the rank as assessed by vitrinite reflectance. T h e thermal

heating by magmatic intrusion in Bukit A s a m Coalfield causes wide diversity in coal

quality. The unheated coal ( R ^ a x less than 0.5%) has a volatile content of more than
 214
4 5 % (adb), the slightly-heated coal ( R ^ a x of 0.6% to 1.1%) has an volatile content of

25 to 3 5 % (adb) and strongly-heated coal, with a vitrinite reflectance of more than 2 % ,

has a volatile content as low as 1 2 % (adb). Compared to Victorian brown coal, Australia

(which has moisture = 60.1%, ash = 1.3%, volatile matter = 4 9 . 4 % (all daf), C =

69.4%, H = 4.9%, O = 24.8%, N = 0.6% and S = 0.3%), the Bukit A s a m coals have

a higher rank. The ash and sulphur contents of the Bukit A s a m are slightly higher than

those in the Victorian brown coals.

The sulphur content is very low with an average of 0.52% (range of 0.12 to 1.92%). MCS

Consultants (1980) also gave similar results stating that the sulphur content was 0.6%. The

Geological Survey Indonesia gave a similar result, 0.51 %. Kinhill-Ottogold Joint Venture

(1986) reported that the sulphur is dominantly organic sulphur with minor sulphide and

sulphate sulphur. From the petrographical analysis, pyrite is commonly present as

framboidal pyrite that is concentrated in the top or the bottom of the seam, especially in

the A l seam.

7.2.2 Ultimate Analysis

The ultimate analysis gives the percentages of the elements carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen,

sulphur and oxygen, regardless of the origin. Oxygen is usually estimated by difference.

The sulphur content given is the total sulphur present in the coal, regardless of the form

or origin of the sulphur.

The carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen contents are very important parameters as they are

very useful for assessing the coking, gasification and liquefaction properties of a coal

whereas the nitrogen and sulphur contents indicate possible sources of pollution when the
 215

coal is burned. Typical ultimate analyses for Bukit A s a m coal can be seen in Table 7.3

which is taken from the report by M C S Consultants, (1980). The table shows:

carbon content ranges from 67.5 to 83.4% with an average of 72.5%;

hydrogen content ranges from 3.9 to 5.3% with an average of 5.1%;

nitrogen content ranges from 1 to 1.5% with an average 1.2%;

sulphur ranges from 0.3 to 1.0% with an average of 0.6%;

oxygen ranges 14 to 15.1 with an average 14.2%; and

ash content ranges from 5.1 to 7.7% with an average 6.4%.

7.2.3 Organic Petrography

Vitrinite reflectance is a measure of the percentage of incident light that is reflected from

a polished surface of the vitrinite macerals. Vitrinite reflectance is a measure of the degree

of coalification, a process that is mainly controlled by temperature and the length of

heating time (Stach et al, 1982; Bustin et al, 1983).

The vitrinite reflectance of Bukit Asam coals ranges from 0.35 to 2.7%. This range

generally can be grouped to three groups, a reflectance of 0.37 to 0.50% representing

values for the coals from non-heated areas and a reflectance range from 0.6 to 2 . 7 % which

represents values from coals that have been heated by igneous intrusions.

The petrographic composition of coals has long been used as a performance indicator of

coals during combustion. In low rank coal, liptinite has a higher hydrogen content

compared to vitrinite and inertinite. Below the rank of medium volatile bituminous coal

(volatile matter > 3 0 % ) liptinite is relatively stable, but at ranks above medium volatile
 216

bituminous coal the liptinite changes rapidly. This stage is known as the coalification

(Stach et al., 1982). During carbonisation, liptinite yields considerable quantities of

gas. Liptinite is the most reactive of the macerals in response to temperature changes.

Vitrinite also contains relatively high hydrogen and is also highly reactive. In contra

inertinite has low hydrogen contents but a higher oxygen content than the other two

macerals group. It behaves differently during combustion; it is less reactive and takes

longer time in the combustion chamber before being totally burned.

Bukit Asam coal contains on average of 88.6% vitrinite and 4.7% liptinite with minor

inertinite (4.3%) and mineral matter (2.1 %); the latter is mostly clay minerals and qu

Steaming coal (or thermal coal) has different specifications to coking coals. For steam

coal the higher the proportion of reactive macerals and the lower inertinite content, t

greater the ease of ignition and combustion efficiency. For coking coal it is desirable

the rank be that of medium volatile bituminous, that is, an Ryinax no higher than 1.35%

and not less than 0.8%. Optimal coke strength depends on the proportion of inert

macerals.

Some of the heated Bukit Asam coal has reflectance values within this range but the tot

reserves of coal with these specifications is probably not large and as yet are not wel

defined. Thus it is unlikely, on these grounds alone, that Bukit Asam coal will not be

targeted as a coking coal. In addition, Bukit Asam coal has a low inertinite content,

medium calorific value and a high proportion of reactive macerals (vitrinite and liptin

suggesting that use as coking coals is minimal. The slightly-heated coal with 20 to 30%

volatile matter and an ^max of 1.1 to 1.5% may be suitable as a feedstock for blending

purposes with other high inertinite coals to produce strong cokes. The heated coal of
 217

semi-anthracite rank (Rymax > 2 % ) has very low volatile matter, poor swelling indices

and can probably only be used for combustion. Coal with a low reflectance (Ryinax <

0.5%) also has a similar problem if considered as a coking coal as it does not swell during

combustion and this is a requirement for coking coals.

7.2.4 Mineral matter

Mineral matter occurs as inherent mineral matter (that is, mineral matter that is inherently

part of the plant matter), as syngenetic mineral matter (mineral matter that enters the coal

system during the sedimentary processes in the peat stage) and epigenetic mineral matter

(mineral matter that enters the coal system during the coalification process). In most coals

mineral matter is commonly clay minerals, pyrite, quartz, calcite and siderite minerals.

In the combustion process, the different minerals interact with each other and form new

materials with various properties. Most mineral matter is transformed into ash and gas

emissions (SOx, N O x , and trace elements emission). The ash includes bottom ash that is

deposited in the burner and fly ash that is discharged with other flue gases. Fly ash

emission can reduced by an electrostatic precipitators which commonly collect 80 to 9 9 . 5 %

of the total ash.

The fate of mineral matter in the combustion process, to a certain degree, can be predic

from the composition of the coal and other tests. T h e major elemental composition,

together with the ash fusion temperature data of ash, are valuable indices for predicting

the slagging and fouling properties. The ultimate analysis can be used to calculate the air

required to burn the coal and to predict the emission gas composition and concentration.
 218
The elemental content of ash represents the elemental composition of the residue after

burning. The average concentrations in a seam depends on the ash content of each ply.

The ash content and the major element content of each of the Bukit A s a m seams (thickness

weighted average) is given in Table 7.3.

The ash content in ply samples from Bukit Asam is not generally evenly distribute

claystone (tonsteins) and the shaly coals at the top and the bottom of the seams would

contribute a considerable fraction of the average ash content for the whole seam if mined.

For example, at location A L A 12, the claystone and shaly coals contribute 52.6% of the

average ash content in A l seam where the average for the seam is 7.3% (Fig. 7.1).

Some trace elements are considered to be causes of potential environmental proble

example Cd, Cu, Pb, M n , As, Ni, Se, U , Th and Zn. The average value of these elements

in Bukit Asam ash can be seen in Table 7.4. Examples are:

Cu content ranges from 42.2 to 52.3 p p m with an average between seam is 45.8

ppm,

Pb ranges from 29.9 to 94.8 p p m with an average of 54.3 ppm,

M n in the form of oxides in ash is less than 0.1 %,

As ranges from 12.6 to 108.4 p p m with an average 45 ppm,

Ni ranges from 19.4 to 47.3 p p m with an average 33.85 ppm,

Se ranges from 3.6 to 8.6 p p m with an average 5.96 ppm,

U ranges from 2.9 to 9 p p m with an average 6.76 ppm,

Th ranges from 21.6 to 25.6 p p m with an average 22.96 ppm.

high average concentration of arsenic in Bl seam is caused by an anomalously high

 219

concentration in sample ALB1210 (443 ppm) in the lower part of the seam. The reason

for this very high value is not known and may be due experimental error. There is no

pyrite in this sample and the mineral matter content also low (1.2%), suggesting

experimental may be the cause.

7.3 COAL UTILISATION

7.3.1 Combustion

Combustion is a series of exothermic reactions, between the fuel and oxygen in the air at

elevated temperature. Complete combustion can only be ensured by providing a sufficient

air supply to the fuel bed, adequate turbulence and an optimum temperature (Ward, 1982).

The efficiency of combustion depends on the rate and the concurrent burning of volatile

matter and carbonaceous residues (char) during heating. The rate of air inflow and other

conditions can be adjusted to ensure that the volatile matter and the char are burned both

rapidly and simultaneously. The burning efficiency can be checked by analysing the flue

gases produced during combustion.

Two forms of combustion techniques are generally used, solid coal combustion and

pulverised fuel combustion. Solid coal combustion is combustion of coal using a bed of

granular or grated coal. Air is passed through the bed of crushed and grated coal. The

thickness of the bed and the permeability of the bed are the most important factors

determining combustion efficiency. A thick bed does not allow the oxygen to freely react

with the fuel, resulting in a low burning efficiency. If the bed is too thin, the air passes

too rapidly through the bed and some of the fuel may not react effectively with the

oxygen. The swelling or caking properties of the coal influence the permeability of the

bed. A strong caking coal forms a massive bed that lacks fissures or porosity for the air
 220
to pass through. A low caking coal allows more air to pass through therefore resulting in

more efficient burning. In some stoker combustion techniques, a low ash coal should be

avoided as excessive ash causes overheating.

Pulverised fuel combustion is carried out by injecting a mixture of pulverised coal an

into a furnace with special burners that produce turbulent flow. T h e turbulent flow ensures

efficient and rapid combustion. The pulverised coal combustion is more commonly used

for electricity generation. The Suralaya power station uses this method of combustion in

its furnaces. For this reason the discussion on predictions of the use of Bukit A s a m coals

will focus on the coal for use as a pulverised fuels.

The performance of coals as a pulverised fuel should be assessed from several aspects

order to make the production costs as low as possible. After the mining phase and prior

to burning, coal passes through several stages: stockpiling, transportation, pulverising and

transportation to the burner. M a n y problems arise regarding the quality and handling of

coal during these processes.

A. Handling

In the stockpiling and transportation phases there are some aspects that should be

considered. The moisture content of the coal should be known as it strongly influences the

total weight of the coal. This information is needed in the transportation planning stage.

After mining, coal is commonly stockpiled before transported.

In a stockpile, coal reacts with oxygen in the free air and this may bring about a

deterioration in the quality of the coal. The finer the grain size of the coal, the more
 221

surface area there is to react with the free oxygen. C o m m o n l y , thefine-grainedfraction

( < 2 m m ) should not exceed 3 0 % (Queensland Coal Board, 1990). If the temperature in

the stockpile reaches the ignition temperature of the coal and the oxygen has free access,

spontaneous combustion m a y occur. Ward (1982) stated that spontaneous combustion

occurs when the temperature reaches 120 to 170°C and after a certain threshold time that

the coal has been exposed to the free oxygen. Spontaneous combustion m a y be prevented

by controlling the surface temperature and, as far as possible, minimising the contact of

the coal with the free oxygen. Pyrite in the coal also promotes the spontaneous combustion

in that when the pyrite oxidises, not only is it an exothermic reaction, it forms an F e

hydrate and this fractures the coal grains. Cracking the coal grains means the surface area

is increased and therefore the grain is more prone to react with oxygen. The temperature

may increase until the spontaneous combustion temperature is reached.

Another problem commonly arises if clay minerals are present in claystone or the roof an

floor. A n y rocks that are rich in montmorillonite are subject to shrinkage and swelling if

the humidity changes (Ward, 1982). This may lead the undesirable breakage of the coal

grains resulting in excessive fine particles.

In the presence of water, montmorillonite tends to cover clean coal grains with a film

is very difficult to clean, and to this the end, it influences the performance of the boiler.

Combined with a high moisture content, clay minerals m a y become sticky and then the

coal does not flow readily during transportation. This "sticky" material tends to block

screens and hoppers and also adheres to the conveyor belt. This problem had been

reported by the Indonesian Cement Association (1993) when trialing coals from Bukit

Asam. The coals were probably from the A l seam as it contains several distinct tuffaceous
 222
claystones or "dirtbands". However, X R D analysis of the claystones in the A 1 seam at

Bukit A s a m show they contains quartz and kaolinite; kaolinite is not as detrimental as

montmorillonite. Because of the contradictory X R D data and the handling data,

contamination m a y be a cause of the problem. Thus further study on this problem is

needed.

The presence of abundance quartz in claystone also has to be considered. Quartz is h

abrasive, either in the pulveriser or in the flue gas passages of the boiler.

Despite the abundance of quartz in several plies in the Bukit Asam seams, selective

can effectively remove most of the quartz and this will result in m u c h less severe problems

with handling as the total mineral content in other plies is mostly less than 5 % .

B. Milling

Coal from the mining site has to be pulverised until 75 to 8 0 % of it passes through a 75

urn (micrometre) screen prior to being conveyed to the burner. There are two major

aspects that should be considered in the pulveriser - the moisture content and the hardness

of the coal. Information on both is required during the planning stages.

The hardness of the coal should be tested as the long term efficiency of the pulveri

depends on the hardness of the coal. A hard coal generally requires more individual

pulveriser units to produce the same tonnage of pulverised fuel than a soft coal. The

hardness test of a coal is commonly the Hardgrove Grindability Index (HGI) which uses

a scale from 13 to > 100. A high H G I value indicates that the coal is easy to grind (soft)

and a low H G I value shows that the coal is hard.

 223

The hardness of coal is known to be influenced by the liptinite content and mineral content

(Nandi et al., 1977; Daulay, 1994). Liptinite commonly concentrates in the coarse fraction

of the pulverised coal whereas vitrinite and inertinite are in thefinerparticles fraction. A

coal with a high liptinite content commonly has lower H G I values (hard) whereas coal with

a higher mineral matter content, depending on the mineral species, m a y have a higher H G I

(soft).

The moisture content should not vary to any great extent and should be low. The

commonly-used pulveriser needs a moisture content in the range of 0 to 25 % (Queensland

Coal Board, 1990). In the pulveriser, the coal can be dried by mixing it with a primary

air stream.

The HGI of Bukit Asam coals is 60 to 65 (adb) - (MCS Consultant, 1980). The moisture

content (total moisture content) ranges from 3.5 to 2 6 . 5 % with an average 19.5% for A l

seam, 7.9 to 2 7 . 6 % with an average 2 1 . 2 % for A 2 seam, 9 to 2 6 . 5 % with an average of

18.4% for Bl seam and 2 to 2 8 . 3 % with an average of 20.04% for B 2 seam (Geological

Survey Indonesia, 1978). Thus as far as grindability, Bukit A s a m coal is not likely to have

major problems with respect to moisture.

The liptinite content of Bukit Asam coal is not excessively high and rarely exceeds

therefore should not influence the H G I greatly. The high liptinite content in some ply

samples is commonly caused by a high resinite or exsudatinite content. Exsudatinite is

commonly present in cleats or infills bedding plane fractures. Therefore, it probably does

not influence the H G I values as much as if the exsudatinite was discrete particles because

the difference in properties between the exsudatinite and enclosing macerals would
 224
probably create a plane of weakness along the fracture surface and this would facilitate

crushing. Given the moisture and maceral contents, Bukit A s a m coals are not likely to

have any significant problems in a pulveriser and on this basis should be a good feedstock

for pulverised coal combustion furnaces for electricity generation.

C. Boiler Considerations

Moisture content of coal influences the combustion efficiency. A coal with a high moisture

content produces more water vapour and inert flue gas when combusted (Allardice and

Newell, 1991). Moisture and rank influence the flame temperature in the boiler. This

needs to be accommodated by modifying the boiler design. St Baker and Juniper (1982)

suggested that for sub-bituminous coal, the boiler should be 1.1 times higher than a boiler

used for bituminous coal in order to produce similar amounts of energy. The taller boiler

is intended to provide an adequate surface area for radiant heat transfer in the furnace

because the flame temperature of sub-bituminous coal is lower. In Bukit A s a m coal

average run-of-mine total moisture for all seams is likely to be approximately 2 0 % , and

if the coal is not dried prior to combustion, efficiency will be reduced.

Calorific value is the energy or heat liberated during the combustion of coal. Calorif

value is one property of a coal that determines the m a x i m u m temperature that can be

reached in the furnace. The effective energy decreases as ash increases and as moisture

content increases. Commonly, the calorific value is presented as the gross calorific value

which is determined from laboratory tests. In the laboratory test, the combusted gas and

moisture are allowed to condense after combustion. A s a result, the calorific value given

is a higher value than the actual value in the burner. In the actual combustion process, all

material is burnt freely to the atmosphere. This lower value is called the net calorific value
 225

and can be calculated by the formula:

Net CV = Gross CV (adb) x (100-M)/(100-M1) - (49.2H + 5.5W)

where: M is total moisture.

M l is inherent moisture.

H is hydrogen content, as received base.

W is total moisture, taking into account the effect of ash content, that is,

every 1 % ash is equivalent to an additional 0.1 % total moisture.

For Bukit Asam coal the average net specific energy is 5350 kcal/kg whereas the gross

calorific is 7000 kcal/kg where the coal has 2 0 % total moisture ( M C S Consultants, 1980);

the net calorific values range from 4700 to 5,500 kcal/kg (Geological Survey Indonesia,

1978).

The fuel ratio is the proportion of heavy hydrocarbon fractions (fixed carbon) to the

fractions (volatile matter) and is a measure of the ease of ignition and burn out. In low

rank coal, the volatile matter is more useful for predicting the ease of ignition. The fuel

ratio also influences the N O x formation (Edgar, 1982). Higher volatile coal produces a

lower N O x . N O x formation is dependent on the combustion conditions such as oxygen

availability and temperature. Bukit A s a m coal has 40 to 5 0 % volatile matter and is

expected to be reactive. The heated coal only contains 30 to 1 0 % volatile matter,

indicating that this coal is likely to be less reactive during combustion compared to the

unheated coal.

Organic petrology provides valuable information on coal and can be used as a combustion
 226

performance predictor (Ramsden and Shibaoka, 1979). Ramsden and Shibaoka found that:

i. vitrinite-rich particles in bituminous and sub-bituminous coals expand and form a

cellular structure, on the other hand fusinite-rich particles do not expand;

ii. expansion depends on the rate of heating;

iii. vitrinite-rich particles have higher burn off rates than fusinite-rich particles;

iv. coals of anthracite rank behave like fusinite-rich coals.

This finding was confirmed by Sanyal (1983) who suggested that the high inertinite co

was responsible for a slower rate of combustion, thus contributing to less efficient h

transfer in the lower portion of the furnace and with the upper regions of the furnac

experiencing correspondingly higher temperatures as the particle bum out was complete

in that region of the furnace. Nandi et al (1977) also confirmed that inert macerals w

found to persist through the flame in a partially-reacted form. He also suggested tha

changing the combustion conditions, the efficiency could be improved.

7.3.2 Combustion Calculations

Ultimate analysis data provide the percentages of the elements in a coal regardless o

origin of the elements. The elemental analysis is required to calculate of the theoret

(stoichiometric) air requirements and the volume and composition of the products of

combustion.

The calculation of the theoretical air requirement for the Bukit Asam coal and the vo

and composition of combustion products given in the following sections, is in accordan

with the coal combustion calculations given by Wall (1986).

 227

1. Theoretical volume of air needed.

The theoretical volume of air needed to burn 100 kg of the Bukit Asam coal (

6.4% ash and 8.3% inherent moisture is calculated, taking average values for

using the ultimate analysis data as given by MCS Consultants (1980). Given t

small differences in the values on a seam by seam basis, the calculated valu

acceptable for all seams.

Calculations are given in the following table:

kg Reaction 0 2 req. (kg) 0 2 req. (kmole)

c 83.6 c + o2 — > co2 77.5 x 32/12 = 7.45/12 = 6.45
206.5

H 5.45 H2 +1/2H 2 0—>H 2 0 5.45 x 16/2 = 5.45/4 = 1.36

43.6
N 1.28 NC NC NC
S 0.64 s + o2 — > so2 0.64 x 32/32 = 0.64/32 = 0.02
0.64
0 15.18 -15.18 -15.18/32 =
-0.47
Total 235.56 7.36

The theoretical volume of air is:

7QC , .„ 22.4 m5 100 w 3 air = 785 w 3 at STP

7.36 kmol 02 x — : — — x 21 m 3 02
kmol

The mass of air required is

235.56 kg 02 W0 kg air AnnA * . » J * i

o—z_ x i w KS uu _ 1 0 2 4 kg mrjkg daf coal
100 kg daf coal 23 kg 02
 228

For a coal of 6.4% ash and 8.3% inherent moisture, the mass of air required is

10
- 24 ** air x 85
- 3 ** ** coal = 8.73 kg airlkg coal
kg daf coal 100 kg coal

2. Composition of the Flue Gases

When 100 kg (daf) of Bukit Asam coal is fired with 20% excess air the flue gas

composition is determined as tabulated:

Source kmole %Volume |

C 0 2 from C 6.45 14,68
H 2 0 from H (1.36 x 2) 2.72 6.19
S 0 2 from S 0.02 0.04
O 2 2 0 % of theoretical 1.47 3.35
N 2 by convention is assigned as 33.27 75.74
(1.28/28) plus (7.36 x 1.2 x 79/12)
Total 43.93 100

For conversion to an Orset analysis, which is a dry analysis with S 0 2 reporting as C0 2

(see table below):

kmole %vol
C 0 2 (+S0 2 ) 6.47 15.70
o2 1.47 3.57
N2 33.27 80.73
Total 41.21 100

3. Excess Air Used from Flue Gas Analysis

The Orset analysis can be used to back-calculate the excess air as given below

H20 and dew point of the flue gas can be estimated on the basis of 100 kmoles

gas. The excess air calculation is tabulated as:

 229

kmole kmole 0 2 accounted for

co 2 15.70 15.70
o2 3.57 3.57
N2 80.73 -

Total 19.27

The kmole of 0 2 used is

21 kmol Oo
80.73 kmol N2 x — ?- = 21.46
2
79 kmol N2

The excess 02 = the percentage of excess air, and is thus,

^^ x 100% = 19.95%
21.46 - 3.57*

* Note that an Orset analysis producing CO would reduce this value by the amou

oxygen required to convert CO to C02 (1/2 kmole 02/kmole CO in the analysis).

The kmoles of 02 associated as H20 must be balanced between the 02 used and that

accounted for in the analysis, or:

21.46 - 19.27 = 2.19 kmole/dry flue gas.

The kmole of H20 in the analysis is therefore:

2.19 x 2 = 4.38 kmole H20/kmole dry flue gas (moles H20 are formed for each mol

O,).
 230

The absolute humidity of the flue gas can be estimated as follows:

4.38 kmol HzO 18 kg H2Q kmol air = Q Q27 kg H2Q

100 kmol dry gas kmol HzO 28.92 kg air ' kg dry air

4. Fuel Composition

From an Orset analysis of the flue gas, the ratio of carbon to hydrogen in the fuel can be

estimated. For coal, this calculation is in error due to sulphur and nitrogen in

However, the calculation provides a useful predictor.

From the previous calculation, the mass of carbon and hydrogen in the fuel can be

estimated as:

Source kg
c From C 0 2 , which includes S 0 2 and will 15.70 x 12 = 188.4
therefore be an overestimate
(95.55%)
H From H 2 0 4.38 x 2 = 8.76

(4.45%)

5. Pollutants Emission

Potential pollutant emissions include the dust burden or fly ash and SOx and NO

emissions. The concentration of each can be estimated as follows:

a. Dust Burden

From equation (2), the flue gas at STP is:

 231

43.93 kmol gas 22.4 m 3 gas = gQ 4 m 3 gas

100 kg daf coal kmol gas kg daf coal

For a coal with 6.4% ash and 8.3% inherent moisture, the dust burden at any T

be estimated as:

0.064fcg ash \00kg coal 100kg daf coal kmol ^273

kg coal 85.3kg daf coal A3.93kmol gas 22.4m3 gas T

= 2.08/T kg ash/m3 gas, at T°K

This uncontrolled dust burden will be reduced by 20% in most furnaces due to r

of the dust in the ash hopper.

b. Sulphur Oxides

The volume of sulphur oxides is given as:

(Mi) kmol S02

—2± x 0.7 = 0.000318 mol fraction,
43.93 kmol gas

or as a volume fraction = 318 ppm = 318 ug/g, on the assumption that in low ra

70% of the total sulphur is given off from a large scale boiler as SOx (Kiss, 1

This value can be converted to 909.5 mg/Nm3 (using a conversion factor of 1 ppm

(volume fraction) = 2.86 mg/Nm3; IEA Coal Research, 1991). The value represents

uncontrolled SOx emissions. The emission from the stack can be reduced by prov

SOx catcher before it emitted.

 232

c. Nitrogen Oxides

The NOx is estimated on the assumption that 25% of fuel N is converted to NOx:

(1?8) kmol N {*NOx)

14
x 0.25 = 0.000520 mol fraction,
43.93 kmol gas

or as a volume fraction = 520 ug/g = 520 ppm, or 1066 mg/Nm3

(using a conversion factor of 1 ppm = 2.05 mg/Nm3, IEA Coal Research, 1991).

However, the NOx emission is not only dependent on the N content of the coal, it is

highly dependent on the combustion process which in turn is influenced by burner

temperature and oxygen availability in the boiler. The NOx emission can be reduced

modifying the combustion system such as decreasing the combustion temperature, red

the oxygen supply and delaying the time of combustion (Ward, 1982; Sullivan, 1993).

Lowering the temperature and restricting oxygen availability leads to excessive un

coal particles in the ash (Sullivan, 1993).

b. Boiler Deposits

Two types of deposits are produced from mineral matter in the coal during boiler

combustion - slagging deposits and fouling deposits.

1. Slagging is the uncontrolled build up of ash deposits in the radiant section of

This causes problems such as closure of burners and de-rating of the boiler capaci

to inefficiencies.
 233
2. Fouling is the uncontrolled build up of ash deposits in the convection passages of the

boiler. This causes reduced boiler efficiency due to a fall in steam temperature and a rise

in a flue gas temperature.

Traditionally, slagging and fouling can be estimated from several parameters that use a

composition data. C o m m o n predictors are the Base/Acid Ratio, Slagging Index and

Fouling Index. These indices are used by many manufacturers and operators but they do

not always give satisfactory predictions for some applications. The ash fusion temperature,

for example, commonly gives higher deformation temperatures due to the different

behaviour of ash components during combustion in the boiler as opposed to in the

laboratory apparatus test.

The ash fusion temperature or ash fusibility is intended to assess the behaviour of a

mixture of mineral compounds, that is, a multicomponent system in which each mineral

has a different melting point (Borio and Lavasseur, 1986). The test is carried out by

heating a cone of ash with a gradually increasing the temperature. At a certain

temperature, each ash cone starts to deform indicating the lower melting points of some

of the components in the ash. A s the temperature increases, more ash components melt and

mix with the unmelted components. The ash fusion temperature is given as a three stage

temperature: the temperatures when the ash first deforms, the temperature when the ash

forms a hemisphere and the temperature when the ash has completely melted.

Significant sintering in boilers can occur far below the first deformation temperature

and Narcisco, 1978). This is a result of the difference between the time/temperature

history in the laboratory test and the actual time/temperature relationships in the boiler.
 234
The composition of laboratory-analysed sinter m a y be different to the actual sinter that

adheres to the boiler or adheres to the boiler wall. The melting point of the sinter on the

boiler wall m a y be lower than the melting point of ash in a laboratory vessel.

Ash viscosity also suffers similar problems as the ash fusion test. Sintering occurs f

before the fluid state temperature and happens when particle to particle bonding occurs at

a temperature below the deformation temperature (Altmann, 1986).

The Base/Acid Ratio is used as an indicator of the ash behaviour. It is related to the

softening temperature. Normally low melting ash has an Base/Acid Ratio between 0.4 to

0.7. T h e Base/Acid Ratio m a y explain variability in the ash softening temperature.

However, with regard to slagging and fouling behaviour, it has a similar predictability

status as the ash fusion temperature.

The Fe/Ca ratio assesses the contribution of the two components of ash regardless of t

other components in the ash. This ratio gives less accurate predictions for fouling and

slagging because the ratio m a y conceal the actual content of each component. For example

if a Fe/Ca ratio is 0.66 this can be derived from an iron content of 0.66 or 66, if the

corresponding C a is 0.99 or 99. The two ashes will perform differently in the boiler,

despite the same Fe/Ca ratio because of the different in the absolute quantity of Fe and Ca.

Slagging and fouling indices commonly are based on specified ash constituent ratios an

are corrected for sulphur content or alkaline metal content. This improves the predictor

potential as the special deleterious effects of Fe and sulphur are recognised and are

therefore taken into account in the Slagging Index calculation. Schneider (1980) proposed
 235

that forms of Si02 that have higher melting points, should be also recognised because they

do not influence the slagging process as much.

The Queensland Coal Board (1990) gave a summary of various parameters and the scales

used (Table 7.5). These parameters are calculated for the Bukit A s a m coals and the values

given in Table 7.6. The viscosity of the molten slag during combustion is also an

important parameter (Ward, 1982).

Each oxide behaves differently during combustion. There are some key oxides that

strongly influence the slagging behaviour due to their relatively lower melting point than

the other oxides.

i. Altmann (1986) stated that coal with high A 1 2 0 3 and low S 0 3 or coal with high

C a O and high S 0 3 is prone to severe slagging in the boiler.

ii. Borio and Lavasseur (1986) stated that Fe and N a are the components that are

responsible for ash deposition.

iii. Chlorine is believed to cause corrosion in a superheater if the sulphur content is

low.

iv. Schneider (1980) showed that sand particles (mainly S i O ^ maintain their shape in

the combustion chamber; the shape only changes a minor amount and then only

along the edges of the particles, whereas other ash particle fuse to form glassy

spheres.

Based on the work of Schneider (1980) and others, Altmann (1986) proposed a method

for predicting slagging and fouling behaviour by normalising the relatively inert Si0 2

content. The Si0 2 is corrected by multiplying with the F e ^ content as this component
 236
melts at a lower temperature, and therefore earlier in the combustion process, to form

molten slag. This initiates the impingement of other components of ash including Si02.

The calculation algorithm is given in Figure 7.2.

Based on the average oxide content of the ashes, a calculation of the slagging and fo

indices for coals from the Bukit A s a m seams have been made (Table 7.6). Calculations for

the method proposed by Altmann (1986) were also done and are summarised in Table 7.7.

The calculations show that the Bukit A s a m coals are prone to slagging and fouling in

combustion chambers. However, the propensity for slagging and fouling is not constant

between seams and results are given below.

1. The ash fusion temperature data for A2 seam, are below the medium to low slagging

temperature boundary (1350°C) and should therefore be considered as prone to slagging.

The ashes from A l , Bl and B 2 seams have higher ash fusion temperatures indicating low

to medium slagging propensities.

2. The Base/Acid Ratios for Al, A2 and Bl seams are < 0.4 whereas that for B2 seam

is only slightly higher at 0.43. Coals with a potential for slagging have base/acid ratios

between 0.4 and 0.7 and therefore Bukit A s a m coal must be considered to have minimal

slagging potential using this index.

3. The T250 temperature index was designed to predict the temperature when the molten

slag reach 250 poise (Ward, 1982) with an upper threshold value of 1275°C; coals with

temperature above this tend to deposit molten ash on boiler walls. Coals from all Bukit

Asam seams have high T ^ Q temperature (above 1275°C) indicating low slagging
 237
propensity.

4. Using the iron-calcium ratio, coals with values between 0.3 and 3.0 are indicative

high slagging tendencies. Bukit A s a m coal has an iron/calcium ratio within this range and

are therefore prone to slagging in boilers.

5. The Slagging Index is calculated from the ash fusion temperature data and is desig

for lignite where the ash contains Fe^Oj < [CaO + M g O ] . The slagging indices of the

Bukit Asam coals indicates that most have a low to medium tendency to produce slag

(indices of > 1150) in the boiler except A 2 seam which has a lower Slagging Index ( <

1150) and therefore a greater tendency to slagging. Using the slagging factor, which is

used preferentially for bituminous coal in which the ash contains higher F e ^ than the

sum of C a O and M g O , the coal from the Bukit Asam seams has a low slagging propensity.

6. The Fouling Factor is the product of the Basic/Acid ratio and the NajO content of

ash. The Bukit A s a m coals mostly have a relatively high propensity for fouling with values

above 0.63, except the coal from Bl seam which has a Fouling Factor of 0.18, which are

all well above the low fouling boundary of 0.2.

7. The chlorine data from Geological Survey Indonesia (1978) for all seams are below

and this indicates low fouling tendencies.

8. Calculation of the slagging and fouling propensity using Altmann's method suggests

the Bukit A s a m coals would tend to form deposits in the boiler either in the radiant heat
 238
area (slagging) or convection transfer area (fouling).

The inconsistency in results between the methods indicates the problems associated with

predictive indices, an area that is still not fully understood in ash behaviour during

combustion. M o r e recent predictive methods for slagging and fouling properties were

reported by Borio and Lavasseur (1986). They included a correlations for pulverised coal

particles separated by gravity separation, slagging behaviour and discussed the application

of Scanning Electron Microscopy to analyse boiler slag. Borio and Lavasseur also pointed

out the areas of uncertainty in slagging and fouling behaviour. These included:

bonding strength of deposits to the boiler;

an accurate description of furnace conditions in order to assess resulting deposits,

in particular, boiler condition; and,

cleanability of the deposits.

Unfortunately for Bukit Asam coals, there is no data on gravity separation of pulverised

coal particles and thus the slagging behaviour can only be predicted in this study using the

methods given above.

7.3.3 Carbonisation

Carbonisation is a process of upgrading coal to a carbon-rich material called coke. Coke

is a solid residue that is formed when coal is heated in the absence of air until a substantial

part of the volatile constituents have been driven off. Metallurgical coke is commonly used

for the conversion of iron ore to iron and then steel; a small amount of coke is used in

direct combustion. There are two kinds of carbonisation process: low temperature

carbonisation and high temperature carbonisation (Tsai, 1982). T h e final coking

 239
temperature in the low temperature carbonisation process is commonly below 700°C and

thefinalproduct commonly contains ultrafine pores, a reactive char and tar. The coke is

used as a smokeless solid fuel for residential and industrial combustion. The feedstock

commonly is a low rank coal (sub-bituminous to high volatile bituminous coal). The final

coking temperature in the high temperature carbonisation process is greater than 900°C.

The product is a high strength coke for metallurgical use, that is, metal manufacture.

To produce a strong coke there are several requirements of the coking coal. The most

important criteria for a coking coal are rank and type (which relate to swelling properties).

The ability of coal to fuse and form a "cake" is essential. A coal that has a rank that too

low (for example, brown coal) or is too high (very low volatile bituminous coals) does not

cake well and therefore it is not capable of forming a good coke. The optimal rank for

coking coal is medium volatile bituminous coal with a volatile content range from 20 to

3 0 % ; this is equivalent to a vitrinite reflectance of 1.2 to 1.4%. If the volatile content is

between 30 to 4 0 % the coal will produce a soft coke. Where volatile content is below 1 2 %

or above 4 5 % , a coal is not a good coking coal.

Coal properties are important when blending coals of different rank for coke making. T

blends of coals m a y have similarfinalvolatile matter values but m a y shows different coke

strengths. A coking coal that is blended from brown coal and anthracite coal will form a

weak coke. Prime coking coal is derived from blending coals that are high to medium

volatile bituminous coal. Stach et al. (1982) stated that the coke formed from 1 0 0 %

medium volatile bituminous coal produces a prime coke (Fig. 7.3).

The composition of coal (type) also is an important parameter. Vitrinite and liptinite
 240
macerals and a proportion of semifusinite macerals are reactive when heated. Most types

of inertinite and semifusinite are inert components during heating. T h e fused components

of the coking coals bind inert components such as inertinite, mineral matter and non-

fusible coal matter together. Coke quality is determined by the rank of the coal as well as

the proportion of inerts and fused (or reactive) components in the coking coals.

The other requirements for the coking coals are:

- low moisture content (12%);

- ash content between 6 to 1 0 % ;

- sulphur content not exceeding 1 % (adb);

- Roga index above 3; and,

- dilatation or fluidity of 0 to 100.

Bukit Asam coal has a wide range of ranks. The unheated coal has a vitrinite reflectanc

of 0.35 to 0.5% and a volatile content of greater than 4 5 % ; this coal is definitely a

noncoking coal. Coal that has been slightly heated by an igneous intrusion with a rank

equivalent of R ^ a x ranging from 0.6 to 1.5% (volatile content of 20 to 4 0 % ) may

produce soft to hard coke and is therefore suitable as a coking coal if the inert content of

the coal is adequate. However, the strongly-heated coal, with Ryinax 1.9 to 2.7% and a

volatile content of less than 1 2 % is not a good coking coal because of both the rank and

the composition.

The maceral composition of the Bukit Asam coals is dominated by reactive macerals

(vitrinite + liptinite) that comprise up to 9 5 % of the total organic matter. Coal with this
 241

proportion of reactives is not a suitable coking coal. Most of the inertinite in Bukit A s a m

coal is semifusinite and it is hard to differentiate from the vitrinite in some samples; it

commonly has only a slightly higher reflectance than that of vitrinite suggesting that is

probably reactive w h e n heated. This results in a very low or negligible amount of truly

inert macerals in the heated coals. T h e slightly-heated coals are commonly located in the

western part of Airlaya mines and in a narrow ring surrounding the Bukit A s a m intrusion

(Fig. 7.4). This coal has a potential as a blend component with a high inertinite coal of

equal rank to produce a strong coke.

7.3.4 Liquefaction

The conversion of coal into liquid fuels or gas, coal liquefaction, is carried out by adding

hydrogen to the coal. T h e process is basically cracking the complex aromatic compounds

in the coal and collecting the resultant aliphatic compounds which have various

hydrocarbon chain lengths. T h e process is generally carried out under high pressure and

high temperature conditions.

Coal liquefaction can be carried out in two ways (Whitehurst et al, 1980).

a. Degradation: coal is degraded by hydroliquefaction or pyrolysis

b. Synthesis: liquefaction using gasification as thefirststep then synthesis to liquid fuels.

Commonly, liquefaction is grouped into three main methods: hydroliquefaction, pyrolysis

and synthesis.

Hydroliquefaction. In this method, the coal is fed into a reactor in the form of a slurry

with a substance such as anthracene oil. T h e mixture is reacted with hydrogen under high
 242

pressure and in the presence of catalysts. The hydrogen can either be added as a gas or

donated by a hydrogen-rich solvent which can be recovered after the process. T h e crude

liquid product is then upgraded into a liquid fuel.

Synthesis (Fischer-Tropsch synthesis). The coal is burned in oxygen and steam, genera

a gas composed mainly of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. T h e gas is then purified and

passed over a catalyst to convert the mixture into liquid products ranging from methanol

to hydrocarbons of high molecular weight (such as waxes and oils).

Pyrolysis (carbonisation). The coal is heated in the absence of air to produce a carb

coke and/or char together with hydrogen-rich oils and gases which are suitable for

upgrading into liquid fuels. This process produces a m a x i m u m of 3 5 % liquid fuel using

pilot-scale plants.

Comparing the three methods, hydroliquefaction is the more preferable over pyrolysis

synthesis. This method can produce greater quantities of liquid products per tonne of coal

with higher thermal efficiency than the other methods. Hydroliquefaction can produce 0.3

to 0.6% m3/tonne coal at 60 to 6 5 % thermal efficiency.

Liquefaction reactions are influenced by the rank and maceral composition of the fuel

High volatile A bituminous coal, with a high reactive macerals content, gives a higher

volume of conversion product. Bustin et al (1983) gave the rank range as 0.67 to 1.1*

vitrinite reflectance with as high as possible content of reactive macerals (vitrinite, liptinite

and some semifusinite)

 243
Cudmore (1977) indicated that to produce 6 0 % liquid from dry ash free coal requires:

- vitrinite reflectance < 0.8%,

- sum of vitrinite and liptinite > 6 0 % ,

- volatile matter > 3 5 % , and,

- hydrogen to carbon ratio > 0.75.

The high percentage of vitrinite and substantial liptinite content of the Bukit Asam

make Bukit A s a m coals a strong candidate for liquefaction purposes. Recent research on

the liquefaction of Bukit A s a m coal indicates a conversion value of 88.4% of original coal

weight to liquids (Daulay, pers. comm 1995).

7.4 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

7.4.1 S O x , N O x and Fly Ash

Coal may contain chemically bound sulphur, nitrogen, inherent mineral matter derived

from the original plants tissue, syngenetic mineral matter that is precipitated during the

accumulation of plant material and epigenetic mineral matter that forms during and after

coalification.

In combustion, the sulphur and nitrogen are converted to sulphur oxides (SOx) and

nitrogen oxides (NOx). Once in the atmosphere, these gases dissolve in water vapour to

form acidic water vapour that becomes acid rain. S o m e of the mineral matter is converted

to veryfine,light-weight ash (fly ash) and heavier ash (bottom ash). The fly ash mostly

passes out of the chimneys and into the air unless collected by electrostatic precipitators

(ESP) or bagfilters.Thesefinely-dividedparticles m a y contains trace elements. Ash from

electrostatic precipitators should be disposed in a safe way to ensure there is no leaching

 244
by water or environmentally dangerous elements. Very fine fly ash m a y pass through

electrostatic precipitators and be emitted to the atmosphere. This m a y cause environmental

problems because the ash m a y contain concentrated trace elements that are easily taken in

animal bodies during respiration.

To reduce the harmful effects of gases and particulate emissions from coal combustors,

emission limits are set by the authorities (usually under government regulation). The

emission limits m a y vary from country to country, or even from region to region

depending on the geographic location, population density, size of the combustor plant and

the degree of industrialisation in the area. These limits are usually based on the absolute

point source emissions which are quoted as the mass of contaminant in a normalised

volume of stack gas ( m g / N m 3 of gas at atmospheric pressure, 0° C and at a given oxygen

level, to ensure that the control is not achieved by air dilution).

The environmental emission standards in the major industrial countries are shown in T

7.8.

The policy of the Indonesian Government, regarding emissions control, is to maintain t

emission of gases and particulates to as low a level as possible to prevent health and

environmental problems in the densely populated island of Java where most of the large

power plants are, and will be, located.

The allowable ambient emission given by the Ministry of the Environment are:

S O x - 200 to 300 m g / N m 3 ;

N O x - 1700 to 4600 m g / N m 3 ; and

 245
particulate matter - 400 to 600 m g / N m 3 (PLN [State Electricity Company] 1992) .

The extremely low limit for SOx is considered by the power generation plant managemen

to be too low (PLN, 1992) as this requires additional costs for fitting emission control

devices to the plant.

The theoretical calculated SOx levels given above is 909.5 mg/Nm3. This value is far

above the limit given by the Ministry of the Environment and this will require a reduction

to below 200 m g / N m 3 (a drop of more than 8 0 % ) if Bukit A s a m coal is used. The fitting

of a flue gas desulphurisation device to the plant will obviously solve much of the problem

since this apparatus can reduce the S O x emission by 8 0 % from the total SOx.

The calculated, uncontrolled quantity of NOx produced from Bukit Asam coal is 1066

mg/Nm 3 . This is lower than the limit given by the Indonesian Government and hence the

N O x emissions do not pose any problems for the use of Bukit A s a m coal.

The particulate ash value is 2.08/T kg ash/m3, at T°K. At 0° C the particulate ash

to 7619.05 m g / N m 3 . Most of modern power generating plants have been fitted with

electrostatic precipitators that remove 9 9 % of the ash. With electrostatic precipitators with

an efficiency of 9 9 % , the Bukit A s a m coals will only release 76.2 m g / N m 3 particulate

pollutants which is well below the recommended level.

7.4.2 Trace Elements

For combustion studies trace elements can be grouped into three categories based on their

partitioning behaviour (Edgar, 1982; Clarke, 1993):

 246
- Group 1. This group of elements is concentrated in the coarse residue fractions or are

equally partitioned between the coarse residues and the finer particles. Included in this

group are Eu, Hf, La, M n , Rb, Sc, S m , Th and Zr.

- Group 2. This group contains elements that are volatilised in a combustor or gasifi

then condense down-stream of the combustor. These elements are concentrated in the finer

particles which m a y escape particulate control systems. Included in this group are B, Se,

I, As, Cd, Ga, Ge, Pb, Sb, Sn, Te, Ti and Zn.

- Group 3. This group contains the most volatile elements and only low concentrations

found in the solid product phase. Included are H g , Br, CI, Fe and Rn.

In Group 1, Th and Mn cause health problems if concentrated in significant amounts, f

example, T h is a radioactive element. Fortunately, the elements in Group 1 are deposited

in the coarse residue and therefore are easy to treat and remove from the system.

In Group 2, Se, As, Pb and Zn may be environmentally hazardous. They are mostly

trapped by electrostatic precipitators and thus only low quantities of these elements are

released to the atmosphere unless there are equipment breakdowns or accidents. However

some elements, such as Se and A s are more volatile and are released with group 2 to the

atmosphere in higher quantities (Clarke, 1993). A s an example, Edgar (1982) stated that

7 0 % of the Se content in coals is release to the atmosphere.

Of the group 3 elements, most are very volatile and are released to the atmosphere. E

(1982) stated that 9 0 % of the H g content is released with the flue gases, and metal halides,
 247
such as CI, F and Br are totally released to the air. Because of instrument limitations,

elements in this group were not analysed for this study and hence their environmental

impact is unknown when Bukit A s a m coal is combusted.

The trace elements in the Bukit Asam coal mostly are deposited in the bottom ash or s

(Th and M n ) or m a y be collected in the electrostatic precipitators (Pb, Cu, Z n and part of

As and Se). S o m e of the A s would probably be released together with the flue gases to the

atmosphere. Unfortunately there is no data for Se concentrations in the stack gas of the

Suralaya power plant, the plant that mostly uses Bukit A s a m coal as its fuel.

7.5 EXPORT PROSPECTS

The South Sumatra Basin contains huge coal resources, 51.7% of the total Indonesian coal

resources (Mangkusubroto, 1995). The Bukit A s a m mine is the only part of the prospect

area in the basin that has been mined. Most of the coal resources is still unexploited.

Although the quality of Bukit A s a m coal is higher than most other South Sumatra coals,

the presence of igneous intrusions in the coal measures limits the reserves. However, the

coal reserves not influenced by intrusions are essentially equal to those from the rest of

South Sumatra Basin.

Coals from similar stratigraphic units in the Musi Rawas area (approximately 300 km

northeast of Tanjung Enim) are lignitic coals with calorific values of 5400 kcal/kg - adb

(PT. Triaryani, 1990). The Bangko coals have calorific values 6600 (db) (Kinhill-Ottogold

Joint Venture, 1986) which generally are equal to the rank of Bukit A s a m coals and higher

than those from Musi Rawas. Therefore, the unheated coal of Bukit A s a m is still

representative of the South Sumatra coals. The comparison of the quality of Bukit A s a m
 248
coals to that from other coal companies prospects is given in Table 7.9. T h e table shows

the heating value of the Bukit A s a m coals is equal to the other coals, however the H G I is

better than the most Kalimantan coals.

The east Asia region is the fastest growing region economically in the world. Lead by

Japan and followed by N e w Industrial Countries such as South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore

and the other A S E A N countries, industry is growing rapidly. W h e n this happens, the

energy supply then becomes a vital commodity for their growing industries. Commonly

these countries have relied on the cheap, relatively clean oil fuel to supply their energy

need. However, the high oil prices in the mid seventies forced some of them to reduce

their dependency on oil and diversify their energy source. C o m m o n l y the alternative

energy chosen was coal, as it is abundant in the Pacific Region. According to NEDO-IEE

(1987), 4 8 . 5 % of recoverable coal reserves are on the Pacific rim countries. This is one

of the reasons w h y the change to coal was precipitated in the east Asia countries.

The coal resources in the Pacific Region are mainly concentrated in the territory of t

People Republic of China, United States of America and Australia. Relatively small

resources have also been discovered in Canada, Indonesia, Colombia and N e w Zealand.

China, U S A and Australia are traditionally the main coal suppliers to the rapidly-growing

industrial countries of east Asia. The huge recoverable coal reserves in these countries

ensures a stable supply and the suitable composition and rank are the main reasons for

choosing these coals.

NEDO-IEE (1987) proposed a concept of coal trade flow in the Pacific. In this concept

Indonesia was considered to be coal exporter but since the energy needs of Indonesia are
 249

also high, the capability to export coal has been limited up to now.

The Philippines has a 1.6 billion tonnes reserve and a 241 million tonnes mineable r

Coal production was expected to be 7 million tonnes in 1995. However, with further

development including the expected building up of generating plants with up to 3300 M W

capacity by 2000, the Philippines need additional sub-bituminous coal, as much as 9.35

million tonnes annually. The Philippines imports coal from Australia (36%), China (47%)

and Indonesia (16.4%) (Bomasang, 1990). In the case of imports from Indonesia, the coal

comes from East Kalimantan because that is the closest mining area to the Philippines.

Malaysia has 764.48 million tonnes of coal resources with 145.62 million tonnes in th

measured reserves category. The rank range of these coals range from lignite to anthracite.

The coal demand of Malaysia is 2.6 million tonnes annually and of this Malaysia has to

import 0.3888 million tonnes to fuel three x 300 M W generators at Port Klang.

Commencing in 1990, Malaysia imported coal from Indonesia, supplied by mines in

Ombilin, Bukit A s a m and eastern Kalimantan.

Other ASEAN countries also tried to diversified their energy. Singapore undertook a

to determine the possibility of building generating plants using coal as fuel. Thus,

Singapore could be a coal importer of Indonesian coal in the future.

Japan proposed that the coal imports should be restricted to coal with a rank range f

0.5 to 0.7% Rymax and with a moisture content of less than 9 % ( N E D O - I E E , 1987).

Some of heated coals from Bukit A s a m meet these requirements, but they are very limited

as regards reserves. The unheated coals do not meet this requirement. However the
 250

possibility of using lower rank coals m a y also be considered in the future. A study on the

possibility of combusting lower rank coal, with higher efficiency than is available at

present, has already been carried out ( N E D O - I E E , 1987). Future requirements for

Japanese coal m a y change in the future and if lower rank coals are needed, Bukit Asam

will be in an ideal situation to supply these coals.

From a marketing perspective, the huge coal reserves of the South Sumatra Basin, of

similar quality and type to other export coals from Indonesia, is a good insurance for a

stable supply of coal for any power generating needs of Indonesia in the future and also

to participate in new export opportunities.

7.6 DISCUSSION

Slagging properties

The slagging properties calculation indicate that the coal from three seams, A l , Bl and

B2, have a low to medium tendency to form slag deposits in boilers. Only coal from A2

seam has a high to severe slagging propensity as indicated by the Slagging Index and ash

fusion temperature. However, Sudadijo and A k m a l (1988) stated that the actual ash fusion

temperature of the Bukit A s a m coal is commonly lower than the ash fusion temperature

shown by the ash analysis test. Thus the propensity for slagging by Bukit A s a m coals may

not be as severe as laboratory test indicate.

According to Borio and Lavasseur (1986) one of the reasons for a high propensity for

slagging is the presence of flux minerals such as pyrite and calcite; these reduce the

melting temperature of the ash and increase slagging propensity. O n e method for reducing

the slagging and fouling potential of a coal is to reduce the quantity of high slagging and
 251
fouling minerals that give Fe20 3 , N a O , C a O , A1 2 0 3 and M g O , for example, pyrite and

siderite. However, sometimes separating the mineral matter from the organic part of a coal

is difficult because the nature of the mineral matter. For Bukit A s a m coal, pyrite is

commonly associated with shaly coals at the top and the bottom of the seam and in very

small percentages only. The top of the A l seam has a higher than average percentage of

pyrite, up to 4 % in the shaly coal layer at the top of the seam. Selective mining which

avoids mining in the areas having abundant pyrite and calcite plies should be applied.

Some interseam sediments, such as those between B 2 and C seam and between A 2 and Bl,

have abundant in pyrite and siderite but as these will not be mined, they are of no

consequence. A prudent attitude in mining may improve the boiler performance of Bukit

Asam coal.

Liquefaction

The rank, type and other parameters of the Bukit A s a m coal indicate they are suitable for

conversion to liquid fuel in liquefaction reactions. The coal has a suitable rank, reactive-

dominated maceral composition with suitable H/C ratios making it a good feedstock for

coal liquefaction. However, liquefaction is an expensive process and a large capital

investment is needed to place plants on stream. Thus the price of liquid fuel from

liquefaction of coals is up to 10 times the price of oil (Cook, pers. com. 1996). A

comparison of fuel price is given in Table 7.10.

Potential Pollutants

Emission of S O x theoretically is higher than the limit recommended by the Indonesia

Ministry of Environment. This level can be reduced by the application of a flue gas

desulphurisation ( F G D ) process. However the S O x emissions are lower than those in many
 252
other countries. These limits are highly desirable if the coal is used in power plants located

in Java.

Deleterious trace elements in Bukit Asam coal would be mostly caught in the electrost

precipitators or in the slag. However the high percentage of arsenic in the ash of Bl seam

should be studied in more detail as it is a volatile element (Clarke, 1993; Edgar, 1982) and

ions are easily discharged to the atmosphere and thus enter the respiration system of

animals causing health problems and, in long term, death. Similar problems also apply for

selenium and mercury but these elements are not a major problem as they are present in

high levels in Bukit A s a m coal.

Export possibility

The geographic position of South Sumatra, combined with the quality of Bukit Asam coal,

makes this coal quite attractive as an export product. Export to other less-developed

A S E A N countries isfirstpriority when they become more industry oriented. The newer

industrial countries and Japan are already supplied by the large-coal producing countries

such as Australia, U S A and China and it would be more difficult to break into this market.

7.7 SUMMARY

Bukit A s a m coal is a sub-bituminous coal with low ash and sulphur contents. The coal has

some propensity for fouling boilers but this problem is likely to be drastically reduced if

modern technology is used and selective mining is practised. S o m e of the heated Bukit

A s a m coal has potential as a blend coal for coking coals but the reserves are very limited.
 253

Apart from use as a thermal coal, a use for which the coal is well suited,

Bukit A s a m coals is a good feedstock for liquefaction. However, the economics of this

process in an Indonesian scenario, is still equivocal.

Any export of Bukit Asam coals should be directed towards other ASEAN countries.

Considerable research remains to be done on the trace elements behaviour during

combustion, the concentration of trace elements in the molten slag, electrostatic

precipitator residues and the fly ash. Emissions of elements such as H g , A s and Se from

the Suralaya power station is not well known and a study comparing the trace element

emissions from the power station with the trace elements in Bukit A s a m coal ash should

be undertaken to better understand the behaviour and dispersal patterns of trace elements

in South Sumatra coal during combustion.

254
 255

CHAPTER EIGHT
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

This study is based on a petrographic analysis of the coal in the Bukit Asam Coalfie

which is a complex of working coal mines located near the small town of Tanjung Enim

South Sumatra, Indonesia. The study area is part of the concession area of PT. Tamban

Batubara Bukit Asam which is the operator of the mines.

Studies show that total Indonesian coal production is predicted to increase from 36.

million tonnes in 1995 to 50 million tonnes in the year 2000. Of this amount, Sumatra

coal comprised 11.4 million tonnes in 1995 and was estimated to increase to 13.8 mil

tonnes by 2000. Much of this increased production in Sumatra will come form the Bukit

Asam Coalfield.

The formation and properties of the Bukit Asam coal is influenced by the geology of

Asam area and this requires an understanding of the evolution of the South Sumatra B

because the coal measures unit at Bukit Asam is part of the sedimentary sequence in

basin. Deposition of the sequence was controlled by the climate, topography, structur

dynamic change within the basin once the peat had been deposited.

The South Sumatra Basin formed as a result of plate collision and interaction betwee

Sunda cratonic mass, commonly called the Sunda Shelf and the Indo-Australian Plate in

the Early Tertiary. Locally the Bukit Asam Coalfield experienced the same regional
 256
influences as the rest of the South Sumatra Basin except the marine influence during the

formation of the coals was probably less pronounced.

The Bukit Asam coal seams are part of the Muara Enim Formation which is composed of

shale, siltstone, claystone, sandstone and intercalated coal layers. Within the immediate

Bukit A s a m area, the Muara Enim Formation can be divided into two units - a lower unit

which consists mostly of coal, dark grey to black shale, brownish-grey claystone, sandy

claystone and a few coarse-grained sandstone beds, and the upper unit which is composed

of shale, coal, tuff, claystone and sandstone.

The most economic coal in the Bukit Asam area is in the A (Mangus), B (Suban) and C

(Petai) seams. The coal seams were deposited almost rhythmical in the lower part of the

Muara Enim Formation.

Preliminaries studies showed that the Bukit Asam coal is a vitrinite-rich coal of r

vary from sub-bituminous to low volatile bituminous. However, the data was obtained

from a limited number of samples and those samples were full seam samples. In order to

fulfil the aims of this thesis, a larger study was needed and samples were collected from

individual plies from drill hole core and from outcrop samples. In addition, samples were

collected from the interseam sedimentary rocks.

The Muara Enim Formation was deposited during a regressive phase in a transgressive-

regressive cycle that controlled sedimentation in the South Sumatra Basin. During the

Middle Miocene, the basin was a shallow marine basin with deposition of the middle/outer

neritic sediments of the Baturaja and laterally equivalent Gumai Formation, followed by
 257
the inner neritic Air Benakat Formation which contains abundant marine foraminifers.

Conditions became much less marine; the Muara Enim Formation was deposited and then

the terrestrial deposits of the Kasai Formation. Thus the Muara Enim Formation is a

transitional unit between the inner neritic Air Benakat Formation and the terrestrial Kasai

Formation at the top of the sequence. The most important feature of the basin was that

regionally, there was an overall shallowing controlled by a regression.

Tectonically, the basin was in a depression zone of a back-arc basin in the Early Tertia

Sumatra subduction system. The basement of the basin comprises dissected preTertiary

rocks that were vertically displaced to form a horst and graben structure that was easily

rejuvenated. This depression zone was also vulnerable to subsidence as the young sediment

filled the basin. Higher subsidence rates were experienced in the depocentre which was

located in the Bukit A s a m area as shown by the isopach m a p of coal thickness for the

Muara Enim Formation. The source of the clastic detritus was probably more from the

west or south rather than from the Malayan Shield to the northeast because of the distance

to that provenance.

During the early stages of deposition, the basin was probably still connected to an open

sea but the connection was restricted and eventually closed with the emergence of Bukit

Barisan to the west of the basin.

Sea level fluctuations were significant and this was the main factor influencing the

deposition of the coals in the Muara Enim Formation. The dominance of fine-grained

sediment in the Muara Enim Formation and the widespread extent of this fine-grained

sediments suggest that the basin was dominated by a low energy regime environment
 258

during most of its Tertiary history. The basin was very vulnerable to sea level flu

and because of the depth of the basin and the low-lying surrounding topography and r

or fall of the sea level would have affected a vast area of the basin with those pre

conditions.

8.1 CONCLUSIONS

This study confirmed the generalisations given in earlier work by the preliminary

feasibility studies undertaken by two consultant groups the Montreal Engineering,

Canadian Pacific Railways and Swan Wooster Canada Consultants group (MCS

Consultants) and the Kinhill-Ottogold Joint Venture group, prior to the mining oper

at Bukit Asam by PT. Tambang Batubara Bukit Asam. However, this study provided much

greater detail and provided answers to some of the questions that arose after the f

studies.

The general objective of this thesis was to undertake a petrographic study to deter

environments of deposition of the Bukit Asam coal and to relate petrographic propert

of the coal to the elemental compositions thus providing a framework on which to pre

uses of the coal.

1. The primary aim of this study was to undertake a detailed petrographic study of

coals from Bukit Asam to determine lateral and vertical variations in maceral

composition, and to determine the influence of the igneous intrusions on the

petrography and elemental composition of the coal.

this study confirmed that Bukit A s a m coal is characterised by a low mineral

 259
content, abundant vitrinite and minor liptinite and inertinite. Mineral matter is mostly

quartz and clay minerals (mostly kaolinite) with minor pyrite and calcite. Vitrinite is

predominantly detrovitrinite with significant amounts of telovitrinite and minor gelinite.

The detrovitrinite contents range from 7.8 to 7 6 . 1 % (an average of 56.6%) whereas

telovitrinite contents range from 3.0 to 6 2 . 6 % with an average of 21.1%; gelovitrinite

contents range from 1.4 to 2 7 . 6 % (an average of 9.2%).

Liptinite in Bukit Asam coal is generally sparse, with an average of 5.3%, but ranging

from 0.2 to 2 5 . 4 % . Resinite, sporinite, suberinite, cutinite, liptodetrinite are the dominant

liptinite macerals but minor fluorinite and exsudatinite are also present. It is likely that

much of the exsudatinite was produced by the influence of the intrusions

Inertinite is not abundant in Bukit Asam coal and constitutes from trace to 11.2% (average

of 3.6%). The most c o m m o n inertinite maceral is semifusinite, followed by inertodetrinite,

sclerotinite, fusinite and sparse macrinite. Samples from A 2 seam, locality A L A 2 1 , have

the highest inertinite content ( > 5 % ) .

There is no significant interseam difference in maceral composition with all seams having

high vitrinite contents (88.0 to 90.5%), and low liptinite (4.2 to 5.0%) and inertinite

contents (4.1 to 5.5%). The proportions of each maceral group in the respective seams is

almost the same although Bl seam has the highest vitrinite content and the lowest liptinite

and inertinite contents. B 2 seam has highest liptinite and inertinite contents and the lowest

mineral content. Mineral matter (discounting the claystone partings) progressively increases

from the oldest B 2 seam to the top A l seam.

 260
Intraseam variations in maceral composition are also relatively small.

The intrusions caused a significant increase in rank of the coals adjacent to the intr

but the proportion of coal affected is not great when taken in context with the size of the

deposit. In strongly-heated coal, it is difficult to distinguish between the maceral groups,

as expected, so that any maceral analysis gives virtually all telovitrinite and this is related

to the loss of volatile matter, and increased compaction and more pronounced layering as

a result of heating.

The rank of the Bukit Asam coal, as indicated by vitrinite reflectance, the volatile co

and fixed carbon content is sub-bituminous except where the coal has been heated by one

or more of three intrusions. Heating of the coal has resulted in accelerated coalification

with vitrinite reflectance as high as 2 + % . In coals with 2 + % reflectance, it difficult to

distinguish between the maceral groups.

Vitrinite reflectance for unheated samples ranges from 0.35 to 0.5% with most values

falling in the range of 0.4 to 0.46%.

2. The second aim of the project was to reinterpret the environments of deposition of

the interseam sediments and to determine any influence on the coal by these units.

The Merapi seam to C seam unit was deposited in a freshwater lagoon with probably

several marine incursions in the lower part and shallowing as indicated by the deposition

of a prograding delta sequence preceding quieter water conditions, probably a tidal flat,

immediately before the deposition of C seam. Siderite is abundant in this unit.

 261
The claystone and siltstone immediately beneath C seam indicates a low energy

environment, probably in a tidal flat environment.

The C seam to B2 seam interval is a coarsening-upward sandstone interpreted as a

prograding floodtidaldelta terminated by the deposition of coaly shale which formed in

a marsh on a tidal flat environment in which clastic detritus was deposited with the organic

matter. The grain size of the sandstone indicates a low energy regime and this reflects a

distal position from the source. The basin became deeper as indicated by the deposition

of laminated silt and clay deposits in an interdistributary bay or a subtidal environment

followed by deposition of sands by flood tidal channels at the top of the sequence

preceding the deposition of B seam.

Flaser and lenticular bedding in the sandstone in the Airlaya pit section, indicates it wa

deposited in an intertidal flat area where the current was relatively strong or, alternatively,

close to a tidal channel and that the Airlaya area was more proximal to the source of

clastic detritus. Pervasive bioturbation throughout this section indicates colonisation by

animals with considerable food available.

The B seam to A2 seam interval was deposited as a prograding delta, distal to the source,

in a freshwater lagoon. Progradation of the delta continued until deposition of the A 2 mire

on atidalflat. Compared to that in the Perimeter Ditch area, the basin in the Airlaya area

was probably m u c h shallower as indicated by the interlaminated siltstone and claystone

with abundant organic matter; sediment of this size is indicative of a low energy regime.

Deposition in this low energy environment was interrupted by the poor development of a

marsh and low moor representing the lower part of the Suban Marker. However, this was
 262

a temporary state as the sediment influx increased as indicated by the deposition of

laminated dull coal layer at the top of the Suban Marker. The mire was later drowned

later shallowing of the water as indicated by the deposition of sandstone at the top

sequence. A tuff layer was deposited above the Suban Marker and represents an ash fal

deposit.

The A2 seam to Al seam Interval (Mangus Tuff) is interpreted as a series of volcanic

packages and represents a large increase in the volume of volcanic detritus entering

basin. The first and second layers represent products of volcanic eruptions and are

widespread with some evidence of reworking by water as indicated by the graded beddin

and crossbedding. Based on the field evidence gained for this study, the A2 seam to A

seam interval is derived from volcanic ash and should be called Mangus Tuff.

The lower part of the Al seam to First Hanging seam interval represents lagoonal depo

with some parts of this unit deposited in slightly brackish water. The coarsening-upw

upper part of the unit is interpreted as prograding lobes of a delta.

The major influence on the development of peat mires and the subsequent coal formatio

was volcanic activity. This influence lasted for almost the entire period that the Mu

Enim Formation was being deposited. Many small volcanic eruptions produced ash which

accumulated as claystone layers or tonsteins in the coal seams. The biggest eruption,

may have been a series of closely spaced eruptions, produced a vast volume of ash tha

accumulated as the interval between Al seam and A2 seam. Most claystone layers have

sedimentary structures such as ripples, cross-bedding and graded bedding and these

indicate significant reworking of the ash.

 263
3. The third aim of the project was to provide a revised model for the formation of

the coals based on a review of published interpretations of the sedimentary patterns

and environments ofdeposition of the clastic units in the Bukit Asam Coalfield, and

additional measured sections taken during field work.

The environments of deposition of the coal seams was interpreted using both petrographic

and interseam sedimentary rock data. Bukit A s a m coal is characterised by a low mineral

content, abundant detrovitrinite, significant amounts of telovitrinite and minor gelinite,

liptinite and inertinite. A tropical climate during the Tertiary, when the Muara Enim

Formation was deposited, produced a restricted the amount of suspended load in the

streams and lateral avulsion was probably rare. The tropical climate, with high humidity

and high rainfall, assured a freshwater supply to the basin. The dense tropical rain forest

restricted erosion and as a result, the suspended sediment in the water was low.

A review of published organic facies models showed that most were unworkable when

petrographic data for the Bukit A s a m coals were used. Thus, it was necessary to use an

alternative model for facies determination and four petrographic components or attributes

of the model were:

- Detrovitrinite content,

- Sporinite, inertodetrinite and liptodetrinite contents,

- Telovitrinite content, and

- Mineral content.

The model for the formation of Bukit Asam coal is the coal was largely deposited in a
 264

raised peat bog, with gradual development from topogenous peat at the base to a raise

mire for the middle of the seam. Above that, the peat was gradually drowned as can be

seen by the higher detrovitrinite content and the decrease in structured vitrinite to

the top of the seam. The petrographic composition of Bukit Asam coal indicates that t

mires in which the peat was deposited were mostly of a raised high moor type but thes

did not reach the mature stage of peat development because of a lack of fibric peat a

top each peat episode except for Al seam. The mires of Bukit Asam were subjected to

basement subsidence with the rate of subsidence similar to the rate of plant accumula

A modern analogue is thought to be the Jambi peat deposit of Sumatra, Indonesia.

4. The fourth aim of the project was to undertake a study of the major oxides and

trace elements in the coal and claystone layers in the coal, by analysing the

composition of the ash.

In Bukit Asam coal, the major oxide and trace element composition is closely linked to

mineral content of the samples with some variation associated with the effects of the

intrusions. In unheated samples the major oxides are dominated by Si02 and A1203 and thi

is a function of the quartz and clay mineral, principally kaolinite, content. The Si02

A1203 contents are much higher in slightly-heated coal than in unheated coal and again

is a function of movement of hydrothermal fluids through the heated coals and the res

precipitation of secondary quartz and possibly secondary clay minerals. In the strongl

heated coals, the Si02, A1203 and Fe^ contents are less than those in the slightly-heate

coals but significantly more than in the unheated samples. The CaO content is highest

coals that have been heated reflecting the presence of secondary calcite in these samp
 265
The significant findings of this project are that Rb, Cs and K are most likely derived from

detrital clay (K-rich clay or mixed clay) but have been leached from the mineral-rich

claystone (tonstein) layers and redeposited in the coal. Y , Zr, N b , T h and to a lesser

extent Sb, H f and U have also been mobilised from the tonsteins during coalification stage

and were redeposited in the coal plies immediately above and below the claystone layers.

Ti, and sometimes Ga, are immobile elements and were resistant to peat-water leaching

after the deposition of volcanic ash. The elements Ba, Sr and to a lesser extent Z n and Pb,

are organically-bound elements. Ca, N a and Fe show similar trends.

Cluster analysis does not show any significant relationships between element concentrati

and maceral composition.

5. The final aim of the project was to assess coal quality data to determine the best

use of Bukit Asam coals.

Bukit Asam coal is a sub-bituminous coal with low ash and sulphur contents. The coal has

some propensity for fouling boilers but this problem is likely to be drastically reduced if

modern technology is used and selective mining is practised. S o m e of the heated Bukit

Asam coal has potential as a blend coal for coking coals but the reserves are very limited.

Apart from use as a thermal coal, a use for which the coal is well suited, Bukit Asam

coals is a good feedstock for liquefaction. However, the economics of this process in an

Indonesian scenario, is still equivocal.

 266

Any export of Bukit A s a m coals should be directed towards other A S E A N countries.

8.2 FUTURE STUDIES AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROJECT

Considerable research remains to be done on the trace elements behaviour during

combustion, the concentration of trace elements in the molten slag, electrostatic

precipitator residues and the fly ash. Emissions of elements such as H g , A s and Se from

the Suralaya power station is not well known and a study comparing the trace element

emissions from the power station with the trace elements in Bukit A s a m coal ash should

be undertaken to better understand the behaviour and dispersal patterns of trace elements

in South Sumatra coal during combustion.

Much of the data produced for this study showed that the generalisations put forward by

the Shell Minjbouw N.V. program are applicable in the Bukit A s a m area but the local

variations in coal composition and trace element distribution are m u c h better known as a

result of the work undertaken in this project.

Of great importance is the now established significant contribution of volcanic detrit

this has been documented. This study will be of value for future researchers, mining

operations in the Bukit A s a m area and electricity generation authorities as it will have an

impact on mine planning, coal utilisation, environmental studies and models relating to the

environments of deposition of coal in southern Sumatra and probably elsewhere in

Indonesia.
 267

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 280
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 281
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282
283

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 284

IsL

85
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 285

KASAI FM.
KA
—7-
"Niru

Lematang

Enim

Kebon

Benuang

Burung •* MUARA ENIM FORMATION

Upper Mangus(Al)
Lower Mangus(A2)
Upper Suban(B1)
Lower Suban(B2) Scale
'Upper PetaKCD
Lower Petai(C2) TO

Merapi 1.100m

Kladi.
AB AIR BENAKAT FM

Figure 1.3. Coal seam nomenclature of Bukit Asam coals.

 286

102° 00' 103° 00' 104° 00'

102° 00'
103° 00' 104° 00' iaj°oo'

Figure 1.4. The coal exploration prospect areas of the South Sumatra Basin
(after Stalder, 1976)
FIGURES, TABLES AND PLATES
CHAPTER 2
287

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288
 289

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 290

THICK-
LITHO- NESS DESCRIPTION
AGE FORMA-
TION LOGY (m)

Pleisto
>200 Tuff, tuffaceous sandstone and clay
cene KASAI
't v v v v v

Pliocene

250 to Claystone intercalations with

MUARA 800 sandstone, coal and siltstone
U ENIM
P
P
M e
300 to Claystone intercalations with
r AIR glauconitic sandstone, abundant
I BENAKAT 600
foraminifers
O M
i Claystone intercalations with
C d sandstone and siltstone
d
E 1 150 to
e GUMAI 1500
N
i '
Calcareous shale intercalations
E L with limestone marl and siltstone
o
w BATURAJA 50 to Limestone
e 200
r Interbeded sandstone and shale

TALANG
AKAR 400 to
850 Coarse to very coarse sandstone
intercalations with shale and coal
+<m ' • ^ N * W »
Tuffaceous, shale and siltstone
Oligocene <S- • • V

LAHAT .y.v.V.V.V.y
• • • y •• • v • v • v
200 to
0 0 0 0 O 0 v c- 780 Tuff, sandstone , agglomerate,
i 4» 4 J 1 » 4
breccia.
v vvy r A a
Pre
tertiary BASEMENT Granite, quartzite, phyllite and
slate

T = terrestrial, L = littoral, N = neritic

Figure 2.4. Stratigraphic c o l u m n o f the Tertiary S o u t h S u m a t r a

Basin ( S u m u y u t a n d Sarjito, 1 9 8 9 ) .
 291

IOS*C

fc

ANTICLINE

SYNCUNE

NO PLIO- PLEIST.
STRUCTURING
> w ^ P R E - TERTIARY
^ ^ ~ OUTCROP

«* 00 3 •

SUMATRA

Sb
30 100 ISO 200 230
•I- * JAKARTA
KILOMETERS
r\n

Figure 2.5. Regional structural pattern resulting from the Plio-

Pleistocene Orogeny (de Coster, 1974).
292

ed

14 .
ti
m

SB
<* c
.. o
J*
If
o •*• 9^

a
 293

Figure 2.7. Structural m a p of Airlaya mine.

 294

Calculation Method ... Frequency

Class Interval 10 Degrees
Fi Itenng Activated
Mini mum Az i muth ... 0.0 Degrees
Max i mum Az i muth . . . 360.0 Degr
Data Type Unidi recti one
Rotat i on Amount 0.0 Degrees
Population 20*1
Max i mum Percentage . . 6. 1 Percent
Mean Percentage 2.9 Percent
Standard Deviation 1 55 Percent
Vector Mean 91,16 Degree
Confidence Interval . 15 31 Degree
R-mag 0.12

Figure 2.8. Rose diagram of fault plane directions in Airlaya mine.

 295

Plate 2.1

1. Andesite from Bukit Asam dyke with phenocrysts of plagioclase, biotite

and olivine in a glassy matrix and sometimes minute plagioclase crystals.
Sample T S 13245, from near T V station, Bukit Asam. Field of width
3.95mm. (a) in plane polarised light, (b) crossed polars.

2. Andesite from Bukit Tapuan, showing the phenocrysts of augite and

plagioclase, commonly showing zonation. The matrix comprises
plagioclase and augit. Sample T S 13249, from Bukit Tapuan Quarry. Field
of width 3.95mm. (a) plane polarised light, (b) crossed polars.
 296

& 2F
•r-: •'•'
FIGURES
CHAPTER 3
 297
MOO 363000 364000 365000 366000
i r

KLAWAS BARAT ffBA2 f

(KB) \ KBA12
o^ KBA11
I
.a I o o
/ + 0 - 9589000

KLAWAS TENGAH ^ KTA2-/ # jgB1^

(KT) \ KTA11 N
/

+ /
/ ALA18—•" .-ALA15 \
i
// AIRLAYA
(AL) ALA19— N
" ALA110
I
/
ALB44 ALA12
e 0

0 RC6O-0 AU2£
a
ALB47
ALB48 o .-ALA11 H 2 1 .--ALA14,
MM02 0 • ^ALA111/
a 0 ALB12 o /
ALA114 ALB11 •' ,. ... •
V \ • —ALA13
ALA21
ALA23 / ALA112 /

BHA14 «N - •-ALA115
"•.VBHA11 ALA113
BHA12Ai.
J. i
RC27A
"\

l
"""\ MUARA TIGA SELATAN CP1,2,3,4 \,
\ (MSA) NSB06_ 1
\N RC12 ° \ • "4~ >r-NSB02 /
NSB01B 0 \
\ / PC®**
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MSA12' V°."
MSA2
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MSA11 _L_ / ' TA65 o SBA14 / '
I /
SUBAN
/ SBA13°.—SBB1 /
Sa
/ (SB, U3.^SBA2/
/ SBA11 -KfjggQg
'-NSB11
o
• MINE FACE SAMPLE LOCATION
NSB10 o DRILL HOLE DATA AVAILABLE
"NSB07

NS805

Figure 3.1. Bore hole and sample locations.

298
FIGURES, TABLES AND PLATES
CHAPTER 4
299

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 300

KASAI FORMATION
WEST BENAKAT MUARA LAKITAN
BANKO
0 I V NIRU SEAM BENAKAT SEAM
\ __
MANGUS SEAM (A]
MUARA ENIM FORMATION
MARINE
r
PETAISEAM(C)_
500m -|(EBURNA ^^
MARLS) ~"""~"-^.
y

AIR BENAKAT FORMATION

1000m .
40 km

SOUTH SUMATRA COAL BASIN

MARINE CONTINENTAL

500m-i

L O W E R RHINE C O A L BASIN

1000m

Figure 4.2. Comparison between the South Sumatra Basin and the Lower Rhine Basin,
Germany (after Stalder, 1976).
 301

o°-

4" 00' S

SINGAPORE £

- 4° 00' S

SUMATRA

250 KM

Figure 4.3. A. Distribution of the Telisa Formation (after de Coster, 1974)

B. Distribution of the Muara Enim Formation and the isopach of the total
thickness of the coal seams (compiled from de Coster, 1974 and Shell
Minjbow, 1978)
 ,302

CAINOZOIC SEDIMENTARY BASINS

Figure 4.4. Global cycles on relative sea level change during cainozoic. The shaded area is
the time range when the Muara Enim Formation ( M E F ) was deposited
(modified from Vail and Mitchum, 1979).
 303
GRAIN SIZE DEPOSITIONAL
DESCRIPTIONS
ENVIRONMENT
BSSosc
• 11111111

160 Ffi£ A1 Seam, black bright banded coal, wilh

three mottled tuffaceous claystone
MlRli
bands, dull shaly coal at the base and
the top of the seam.
— Clayey coal
ISO Mangus Tulf, sandy, med.-coaise, massive, tig. CHANNEL
Tuff plag., Qrlz
Sandstone vc.lrg. qrtz, plag., wood, soil.
VOLCANIC-RELATED

A2 Seam, black blight banded coal, with

silicilied coal at Iho top of the seam. M1IU:

Siltstone, Inteilaminated with very line

sideritic sandstone.

LAGOON
Grey- brown claystone, friable.

Tf 2

U Seam, black, bright bunded cuui.

liu -

fj Sandstone Grey-green sandstone, fine to medium

•*• Unit grained, good sorting, wave ripple
S . structure. y ^
100 -
iXZ I
Blackish-grey siltstone, intercalated with LAGOON
thin sideritic sandstone layers.

Yellow siltstone, very fine-grained, with PROGRADING

thick lenses of hard, yellow, sandstone FLOOD TIDAL DELTA
and thin coaly claystone at the top.
> TIDAL FLAT

C seam, black banded bright coal, with

wave ripples at the upper of the
tuffaceous claystone band. MIRE A N D TIDAL FLAT

Sandstone, line to medium-grained,

abundant organic matter
FLOOD TIDAL CHANNEL
Sandstone,fineto medium-grained, well
sorted, scour mark at the base.
v -£.

Sandstone, fine-grained, Interlaininalion

with siltstone.

LAGOON
30 -

Black, grey claystone laminated, with

layers and nodules of Ironstone.
®

Merapi Seam, black banded bright coal MIRE

M>v
Figure 4.5. Measured section, Perimeter Ditch, Muara Tiga Besar Utara
 304.

GRAIN SIZE DEPOSITIONAL

DESCRIPTIONS ENVIRONMENT

• ' • ' • ' • '

A 1 Seani, black bright banded coal, will)

100 three mottled liiltaceous claystone
A1 bands, dull shaly coals at the base and MIRE
the top of the seam.
,*r ^L
Grey sandy tuff, medium - to coarse CHANNEL
grained, tuff, pumice, mica, quartz and VOLCANIC RELATED
90 sometimes coal fragments, laminated at
the bottom.

A 2 Seam, black bright banded coal, with MIRK

silicified coal al the top of Ihe seam.
- 81)
A2

rr -z.-Lr.
Dark grey claystone, laminated, abundant
organic matter, interlaminated with
- 70 sideiilic sandstone, reddish brown, line,
Suban hard, laminated, with abundant organic MIRE AND TIDAL FLAT
Marker matter. Thin coal layer (Suban maiker)
irr^S occurs in the middle of the sequence.
Thinly bedded tuff occurs above the
Suban Marker coal.

Bl Seam, black, bright bunded coal,

B1 with al least tluce cluyslutie bauds. MIRE

5U
Grey claystone, with yellow sideritic
sandstone lenses.

B2 B 2 Seam, black, bright banded coal,

MIRK
_ with a claystone band at the middle of
\ the seam. /^

-30 Alternation of sandstone and grey to

brown siltstone, flaser deposits,
abundant organic matter, intercalated
with hard reddish-yellow sideritic FLOOD TIDAL DELIA
siltstone, sometimes nodules, abundant PROGRADING LOBES
pyrite. Siltstone has quartz, plagioclase
20 *» •*•
and mica and carbonate cement.
Yellowish-brown sandstone, friable,
abundant organic matter, burrowed,
especially under the sideritic siltstone
nodules. This sandstone is commonly
more dominant at the top of the
ID
sequence.

-0

Figure 4.6. Measured section, Bench 5 and northern wall of Airlaya

 305
GRAIN SIZE
DEPOSITIONAL
(ui) DESCRIPTIONS
ENVIRONMENT
OBHSOSEO
* 11 M 111

Hanging S e a m , black, bright banded

MJ1U!
coal

Brown claystone, compact massive.

>sS

14(1
LAGOON
Brown claystone, laminated, with
ironstone nodule

Grey sandstone and polymictic

conglomerate, fragments quartz, coal,
13U- lilhic fragments, coarsening upwaid. CHANNIiL

J20 -

110- Brown claystone intercalated with

ironstone nodules, coarsening upward to FLOOD TIDAL DELTA
siltstone and fine grained sandstone,
abundant organic matter; crossbedding PROGRADING LOBES
r.' at the top.

Brown claystone. intercalated with

pebble-sized ironstone nodules and thin
3=/* MIRE AND TIDAL FLAT
bright banded coals.

Dark brown claystone, intercalated with

reddish-yellow slderiUc siltstone. T h e
sideritic siltstone often occurs as lenses
su or nodules. Spary calcite lenses
commonly occur below the siltstone. LAGOON

40 -

30 •

1U
© fg^s

M Seam

Figure 4.7. Measured section, Muara Tiga Selatan

 306

Figure 4.8

a. Wave ripples in the upper claystone band in C seam, Perimeter Ditch,

Muara Tiga Besar Utara.

b. Hard, reddish brown sideritic siltstone between blackish-grey soft

siltstone, interval between A2-B1, Klawas Barat.

c. Lense of calcareous sandstone in B2 - C Section, Bench 5, Airlaya.

d. Layer of ironstone nodules in siltstone, Bench 5, Airlaya.

e. Current ripple show direction 330°, in the interval between Bl and A2

seams, Klawas Barat.

f. Weathered silicified coal at the top of A2 seam, East Bench, Airlaya.

g. Cross bedding in a quartz-dominated tuffaceous sandstone between Al

and A 2 seams, West Bench, Air laya.

h. Parallel lamination in the second mottled claystone band (T2) of Al

seam, Airlaya.
, 207
FIGURE 4.8
 308

Figure 4.9

a. Trace fossil MonocraterionC?) in B2-C Section, Bench 5. Airlaya.

b. Outcrops of calcareous sandstone lens in B2-C Section. Bench 5,

Airlaya.

c. Interseam clastic unit between B seam and A2 seam; the unit is

dominated by dark brown claystone, with abundant organic matter
interlaminated with calcareous siltstone.

d. Tuff layers between Al and A2 seams.

309

FIGURE 4.9
 rjT^
J> r

i ••*-.•*>. ,*tf\€r-?; v}<

\ .
1
••)>'
i >' •„.'(.••*';' V1'.

•JTJ- >k

•livi'• M -yra f1

Wtadt
1
> i
• ye«
i, i ..< *•'; r > ii"

•'fef r
'• ' ' V i I

,«,:.!,

r
i-
i'f
V
 311

Figure 4.11

a. Middle claystone layer (T2) from A l seam, from heated zone.

Subrounded oval tufffragmentsin tuffaceous claystone with abundant
organic matter. Sample A L A 1 1 7 , Airlaya. White bar is 1 cm.

b. Middle claystone layer (T2) from Al seam. The organic-rich zone has
cross lamination. Sample ALA129, Airlaya. White bar is 1 cm.

c. Lower claystone layer (Tl) from Al seam. Subrounded oval tuff

fragments in tuffaceous claystone with abundant organic matter.
Rootlet remains at the top. Sample ALA1413, Airlaya. White bar is 1
cm.

d. Lower claystone layer (Tl) from Al seam. Subrounded oval tuff

fragments in tuffaceous claystone with abundant organic matter.
Sample K B A l 113, Klawas Barat. White bar is 1 cm.

e. Upper claystone layer (T3) of Bl seam. Subrounded oval tuff fragments

in tuffaceous claystone with abundant organic matter. Sample A L B 113,
Airlaya. White bar is 1 cm.
 ,313

Table 4.1 Main lithologies of the Muara Enim Formation and adjacent units
(Shell Minjbouw, 1978)
U
Forma- n Coals T P G M M F
tion • Lithology u R 1 M F W
I f a F F
t
s
f u
Alluvium AL Varioustypesof terrestrial deposits
commonly reworked Kasai Formation
Light coloured gravels and tuffaceous
sandstone, some glauconitic, some with
crystalline quartz. Light coloured, blue
Kasai KA green, azure blue tuffaceous kaolinitic
claystone. Acid pumice, volcanic
•
concretions and tuffaceous sandstone. Few
coal lenses.
•Niru
Blue green tuffaceous claystone and sandy —Lematang/ •
claystone. Some dark-brown coaly Jelawatan m
M4 claystone. Some white and grey fine to
coarse-grained sandstone, glauconitic. Benakat
Babat
Upper Single pumice stone layer in central •» Enim
Palembang area. Coal seams.
Muara _ Kebon 1
1
Sandstone and claystone complex underlain
• Benuang 1
Enim by predominantly blue green, grey green

(Mpb) M3
grey brown clay complex. Few thin
calcareous and dolomitic bands. Sandstone
Burung/
Pinang H
horizon of 3 to 6m, approximately 4 0 m •
above Mangus with some gas pockets. Coal
seams. 1
S Mangus m
II 1
tt-Jk
(A)
Brown to brown-grey claystone and sandy
claystone. Brown, grey, fine to medium- • Suban
Lower M2 grained sandstone. Some green-grey fine- " (B)
grained sandstone in the lower part. Coal . Petai
Muara seams. Ml
.' <C>
I
• r
Enim Brown and grey sandstone, siltstone and Merapi
claystone with minor glauconitic sandstone.
(Mpa) Ml Coal seams • •|
Kladi m Ml

•
Grey brown to blue grey claystone and
sandy shales, often marly. Green-grey to
Air green glauconitic fine sandstone. Few •
Benakat AB limestones in North Palembang area and
few tuffaceous horizons in the South
Palembang area.

PR-Plant remains, Glau-Glauconite, MMF-Micro Marine Fossil, MF-Marine Fossil, FWF-Fresh water
Fossil
 314

Table 4.2. Average ash content of South Sumatra Coals

(only coal with ash-contents less than 2 0 % included)
after Stalder, (1976)

Area Kladi Petai Suban Mangus Benak. Jelaw. Lemat.

Arahan 5.6 7.0 6.7 3.9 - - -
Air Laway - (3 4) 5.0 3.1 (5.2) - -
Bukit Asam - 4.2 3.9 3.9 - -
Banko - 5.8 5.2 4.5 (3.4) - -
Suban Jeriji - (4.5) 4.6 3.4 6.1 7.3 8.4
Meraksa - - - 8.7 9.6 -
Kepayang - - - - 10.2 - -
W . Benakat - - 7.4 5.1 - - -
Prabumulih - - 8.5 - 8.3 - (8.3)
Sig. Benuang - - (7.4) 6.5 6.8 9.8 11.3
Tg. Akar - - - - 7.7 (8.3) (8.2)
Tg. Langaran - - - 6.3 8.4
M . Lakitan - - - 4.8 6.3 - -
Babat - - - - 6.8 - -
Kluang 6.4 - - 8.0 6.3 - -
Tamiang - - - 8.3 8.0 - -
Bentayan - - - 5.5 - - -
(3.4) Only one borehole average available
 315

Table 4.3. Description of claystone in A l seam

Dirtbands Thickness Position Description XRD

T3 7 to 15cm upper Sandstone, conglomeratic texture, Quartz,

yellowish-brown, white in weathered Kaolinite
outcrops, coarse grained, 1 m m to 3 m m
grains, subrounded, m e d i u m sorting,
fragments comprise of tuff, quartz, coal
and plant detritus.

T2 5 to 10cm middle Sandstone, conglomeratic texture, Quartz,

yellowish-brown, white in weathered Kaolinite
outcrops, coarse grained, 1 m m to 10 m m
grains, subrounded, m e d i u m sorting,
fragments comprise of tuff, quartz, coal
and plant detritus. Micro-cross
lamination.

T1 5 to 10cm lower Sandstone, conglomeratic texture, Tridimite, 1

1 yellowish-brown, white in weathered Kaolinite 8
outcrops, coarse-grained, 1 m m to 3 m m
grains, subrounded, poorly sorting,
fragments comprise of tuff, quartz, coal
and plant detritus.

"" l • • i mi i 1 ,• i •• 1
 316

Table 4.4. Sulphur content in the Bukit A s a m Coals

Normal Coal Heated Coal
Seams range(%) average(%) Seams range(%) average(%)
A1 0.16-1.81 0.65 A1 0.44 - 0.73 0.6
A2 0.1 -1.01 0.26 A2 0.05 - 0.70 0.44
B1 0.18-1.49 0.32 B1 0.49 - 0.85 0.61
B2 0.26 - 2.39 1.02 B2 0.9-2.17 1.41
C 0.42 - 2.52 0.98 C 0.94-1.53 1.2
 3.17

Plate 4.1

a. Thin section of sample T S 12865, quartz siltstone and sideritic claystone

with abundant organic matter. Field width 3.95 m m .

b. Thin section of medium-grained sandstone of TS 12864 with carbonate

cement between the quartz fragments. Field width 1.56mm, crossed
polars.

c. Thin section of sample TS 12865, quartz siltstone and sideritic claystone

with abundant organic matter. Field width 1.56 m m .

d. Thin section of sample TS 12863, quartz siltstone filling a burrow in

sideritic claystone matter. Field width 3.95 m m .
 318

H
<
0H
FIGURES, TABLES AND PLATES
CHAPTER 5
 319

Figure 5.1. Variation in R v m a x for samples from the Bukit A s a m Coalfield.

(a) 263 data points
(b) 161 data points
 ••• 320

(a) A2 S E A M

50 -.

O — :
Z 30 :
UI
3
a
!H 20 :
10 \
n -
0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 27
Rvmax (%)

(b) B1 SEAM

20
p
15-
>- i
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Z
UI

3 10: 1
£ :
u.
f ^
—i—f—r—f i r" n T r 7 l_ V ll l
5- 0 3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7
0-
Rvmax (%)

(c) B2 SEAM

15-
FREQUENCY
3
en
o

t I T T —i—r—i—r
0.3 0.6 OB 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7
Rvmax (%)

Figure 5.2. Variation in R v m a x of each seams in Bukit A s a m area.

(a) 50 data points
(b) 37 data points
(c) 15 data points
 321

5500 6000 6500 7000 7500 8000 8500 9000

CV(kcal/kg)

2.5 -r

(b)
&

2.0

A
A A

1.5 -

X
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£
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0.5 -
AA* a.^

0.0 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I l l I l l |
10 20 30 40
Inherent Moisture(^)

Figure 5.3. (a) R v m a x vs calorific value

(b) R v m a x vs inherent moisture
 322

fi\

a o-

!.t S i i H 6 °
y=-0.0462:<+Z.' .ho
i—i—r—j—i—;—i—r—i—r- -i r i f i i i r
10 20 30 40 50
Volatile matter(sg—d.a.f)

Figure 5.4. R v m a x vs volatile matter

 323

B5

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as£1
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a a sS,
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 324

Figure 5.6. Effect of the intrusion near Balong Hijau.

 325

Rvmax (56)
3
100- J I I I I I I I I I I l I I I I I 1 1 I L -|_J

\
\
\ 2 . Other Locations.
80-- -V \
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Q naaaa RC10
••••• SBA11
SBA2
0<><Xx> SBB1 V*
AAAAA SBA12
ttt&tlti SBA13
***** SBA15
20 SBA14

0-1-

Suban Sil

Figure 5.7. Plot of R v max and distancefromthe intrusion.

1. Drill hole R C 10
2. Other locations.
 326

364500 364750 365000

364000 364250
9585500
9585500

958525Q

9585000

95B4750

SOBAH AREA
9584500

9584250

9584000
364000 364250 364500 364750 36i>000

Figure 5.8. Structure contours for the top of the Suban Sill.
 '327

EC

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 328

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 329
362000 363000 364000 365000 366000
590000 i 590000

589000 589000

588000 588000

587000

586000

585000

584000 84000
362000 363000 364000 365000 366000

Figure 5.11. Isopach map of A 2 seam showing thinner seam thicknesses in a heated
zone.
 330

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m
•
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r- m
j w

Z
3 | z
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 •331

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 332

362000 363000 365000 366000

9590000 9590000

9&S90U0
ssssooo

9588000 — 9588000

95S7000 — 9587000

356S0UO — 9565000

9585000 =— 95850M

9584000 9534000
362DD0 363000 364000 365000 366000

Figure 5.14. Lateral variation in R v m a x for Al seam.

333

CO
en

«
c
co
E
CO
93

X
co
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+->
CO

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CO
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 334

Rvmax(%) Rvmax(s)
0.00 0.20 0.4O 0.60 0.80 1.00
0.00 0.20 0,40 0.60 0.80 1.00 I I t I I I < I
0_| 1 . I ,t l" .1 1 1 L

KTA21

+c-
200-
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8-+
200-•
i

400-

600

£
o 800-
CL

1000 - •

1200-
KTA1

1400-

*T-

Figure 5.16. Intraseam variation in R v m a x values for samples from boreholes in

nonheated zones.
 335

Rvmax(s)
0.30 0.70 0.90 1.10 1.30 1.50 1.70 1.90 2.10 2.30 2.50
I I t I I I I I i I i I i I i I I I i

40-+
+04-
-tEH-
SBA12
-I 4-Q-r

7.00-

u
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600

Rvmcx(s)
1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.30 2.00 2.20 2.40
0- . I i 1 • 1 I . I . I i
— i

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«
200-

C •+o—
0) +C— =
Q
-
-
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SBA11

Figure 5.17. Intraseam variation in R v max values for samplesfroma heated

zone (Suban).
 336

Rvmax(ss) Rvmax(>s)
0.00 0.20 0.4O 0.60 0.50 1.00 0 00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
J L_! 1 I I L_ 50 | | i l l I 1 {

RC-39

70-

A1
40^- 90-T
A1 ~ U
A2
A2
110-

x: B1
130-
B1 *• a
B2 ^ B2

150-1

170 J
C

RC-27A 190-

Figure 5.18. Interseam variation in R v m a x values for samples from

nonheated zone.
 337

Rvmax(<s)

too-r

ALE-47

Figure 5.19. Interseam variation in R v m a x values in a heated zone.

Location ALB-47.
 338

Rvrmax($)

body

RC-10

Figure 5.20. Interseam variation in R v m a x values in a heated zone.

Location RC-10.
 339

Rvmax(%)
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
-J 1 1 1 U_J L

Rvrnax(<s)
0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20
-I 1 1 L
200-•

20-

400-

40-

A1
600
CL

Q
60-
A2

800-

80-I
B1
HTB2
f
(a) (b)
1000'
100 -L

ALB-48
ALB11

Figure 5.21. Negative trend of vertical variation of R v m a x in

(a) one seam and (b) between seams.
 340

VIT
90/10 ,90/10

80/20 o o,<? e ,80/20

70/30 JO/30
A
60/10, .60/10
7s
50/50, ,50/50

10/60 v«0/60

30/70, 30/70
/

20/80 . ,20/80

10/90, 10/90
/'
V V V V V V V V V
10/90 20/80 30/70 10/60 50/50 60/10 70/30 80/20 90/10

IR INERT
Figure 5.22. Maceral composition of the Bukit Asam coal, show
the abundances of maceral groups.
 341

DV

Figure 5.23. Proportional distribution of the three submaceral groups of vitrinite.

 342

>
o
CD HHR C
HMHBJ .2
!S

B R 8
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fe

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 343

Figure 5.25. Average liptinite content of Bukit A s a m coal.

The average liptinite content of Bukit Asam coal is 5.3%.
 A1SEAM A2SEAM B1 SEAM B2 SEAM

• LIPTINITE • INERTINITE BMIN. MATTER"

VITRINITE

100.0 -
90.0 -

80.0 -
>
£^ 70.0 -
60.0 -

aU.U T -
A1SEAM A2 SEAM B1 SEAM B2 SEAM

•H

Figure 5.26. Average of maceral composition of the seams in Bukit Asam.

 345

R D

Figure 5.27. T h e D - W - R and T-F-D facies triangles

( W = fusinite + semifusinite + telinite + telocollinite
D = alginite + sporinite + inertodetrinite
R = remaining macerals
T = telinite + telocollinite
F = fusinite + semifusinite) (Diessel, 1982)
 346

internal drainage

SAPRIC v L N
^ a=2-10
| s=0.4
CLAYEY PEAT
:a>10
s=2.8

Figure 5.28. Generalised cross section of (A) the Baram peat, Sarawak and (B) Jambi peat, Indonesia
showing the distribution of peat types, ash (a) and sulphur (s) contents. (Esterle and Ferm,
1994)
 347

limno-t^lmatic telmotic
-r-
i
! • *

Jt & i
100 ^;;; i!? ^;5lr::£:::s:c::::::^::::::r:::
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KBA1 1<Sc2
AL-N
AL-S
—SWAMP"—i" MSA 12

terrestrial
o.i T — i — r -|—i—i—i—r

TPI

Figure 5.29. TPI versus G I of A l seam,

Bukit A s a m coal.

100-f

INUNbATED INUNDATED
10-: — _MABSh... EORESI
::;<_:

-•-LtistNie-
« • !

SWAW1F SWAMP FOREST ALA-2

.&_
O -**"_£: JE.EfpE:.:: o o o o o
G a a a a
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l A.^-
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$-
0.01 1 I I I I I I -t- T T | l l I I 1l l l l | I l l l -t-r ~ i ir I i l i i
marginal aquatic 4 Treed
herbaceous VI

Figure 5.30. G W I versus V I plot of the A l seam,

Bukit A s a m coal.
 348

362000 363000 364000 365000 366000

9590000 9590000

9589000 — - 9589000

9588000 958800Q

9587000 1 9587000

9586000 9556000

9585000 -> 95 55000

9584000 95S4000
362000 363000 364000 365000 •y — /- —. f-•• r\

Figure 5.3/. Distribution of pyrite in the shaly coal at the top of A l

seam.
 349

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3
 Table 5.2. R v m a x and distance datatothe intrusion for Figure 5.7
POINT SEAM SAMPLE ELEV. EL. Int. D Rvmax CV REMARKS
(m) (m) (m) (%) (kcal/kg)

RC10 A1 19399 41.5 -17 58.5 0.7 7357 Rvmax data

86.81m A2 19400 33 I 50 0.61 7833 from Daulay
B1 19401 13.5 30.5 1.34 7930 -1985
B2 19402 8.5 25.5 1.97 7707

SBA11 A1 25101 86.6 i 15 71.6 1.28

87m 25102 86.35 71.35 1.35
25103 | 86.15 71.15 1.26
25104 85.15 70.15 1.45
25105 84.15 69.15 1.42
25106 83.65 68.65 1.51
25107 83.3 68.3 1.51
25108 82.65 67.65 1.68
i 25109 82.45 67.45 1.73
25110 82.3 67.3 1.84
25111 82.15 67.15 1.94

SBA2 A2 I 25185 66.6 8 58.6 2.31

67m 25186 65.6 57.6 2.29
25187 63.85 55.85 2.33
25188 62.95 54.95 2.4

SBB1 B1 I 25189 i 61.4 8 53.4 2.67

62m 25190 i 60.78 52.78 2.79
j 25191 | 60.02 52.02 2.76
25192 59.27 51.27 2.68
25193 58.68 50.68 2.68
25194 58.05 50.05 2.75

SBA12 A1 25112 43.95 -20 63.95 0.62

44m 25113 43.75 63.75 0.63
25114 43.55 \ 63.55 0.65
25115 43.35 63.35 0.66
25116 43.1 63.1 0.63
25117 42.85 62.85 0.67
25118 42.65 62.65 0.64
25119 42.05 62.05 0.64
25120 41.45 61.45 0.66
25121 41.25 61.25 0.64
25122 39.95 59.95 0.65
25123 38.65 58.65 1.95

SBA13 A1 25374 71.95 12 59.95 2.37

72m 25375 71.8 59.8 2.44
25376 71.6 59.6 2.37
25377 71.42 59.42 2.37

SBA14 A1 25378 66 10 56 1.18

66m
SBA15 A1 25379 65 0 65 1.21
65 m
I
 351

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 352

Table 5.5. Average of maceral composition of the coal seams

in Bukit Asam
VITRINITE LIPTINITE INERTINITE MIN. MATTER
A1 SEAM 88.6 5.0 4.1 2.3
A2SEAM 88.5 4.6 4.7 2.2
B1 SEAM 90.5 4.2 3.3 2.0
B2 SEAM 88.0 5.1 5.5 1.3
 353

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Table 5.7 Tropical peat classification (Esterle and Ferm, 1994)

Peat types Description Humification

Fibric yellow to orange-brown peat with>66% fibbers;
mostly long slender roots and rootlets embedded
in fibrous watery matrix from which clear water
can be extracted
Coarse Hemic orange to red brown peat with 3 3 % to 6 6 %
fibbers, mostly medium grained peat with
abundant long slender roots and rootlets
embedded in compact granular matrix from which
clear to murky water can be extracted
Hemic reddish-brown peat with 3 3 % to 6 6 % fibbers;
medium grained fragments of wood, root and
rootlets, bark and leaf fragments embedded in
compact granular matrix from which clear to
murky water can be extracted
Fine Hemic reddish to dark brown peat with 3 3 % to 6 6 %
fibbers, medium to fine grained fragments of plant
material embedded in compact fine granular to
colloidal matrix from which httle water and some
paste can be extruded
Sapric dark brown to black peat with < 3 3 % fibbers;
mostly fine granular material and colloidal matrix
from water can not be extruded and deform as
paste upon squeezing
Clayey Peat peat (usually fine hemic or sapric) containing >
2 5 % ash yield
Woody modifier for peat containing abundant wood
fragments less than 10 c m
 355
Table 5.8. Summary of the relationship between coal facies indices
and condition of coal formation (Diessel, 1992)
High TPI
Coal type:
Bright to banded bright; wood and bark
derived telovitrinite
Origin:
In forested peat lands (telmatic swamps).
High GI w h e n relatively high in coal ash and/or
interbedded with epiclastic stone bands. In
forested continuously wet raised bogs.
when low in ash. Mild humification and
strong gelification of plants tissues due to
high rate of subsidence
Coal type:
Banded dull; wood derived telo-inertinite
LowGI
Origin:
In intermittently dry forested swamps
when high in ash, or in forested raised
bogs, when coal ash is low or moderate.
Mild humification and gelification of
plant tissues.
L o w TPI
Coal type:
Banded bright ; tissue derived detrovitrinite plus
some gelovitrinite
Origin:
1. In forested peat lands from strongly decomposed
wood under conditions of slow subsidence in
telmatic setting (high ash and epiclastic band).
2. From herbaceous plants in tree-less marshes
(high ash and epiclastic bands)
3. From herbaceous plants in continuously wet
raised bogs (low ash no bands). Telmatic or
limnotelmatic. Advance humification and strong
gelification of plant tissues.
Coal type:
Dull to banded dull; tissue derived inertodetrinite
Origin:
1. In slowly subsidising , intermittently dry swamps
from aerobically decomposed autochthonous plants.
2. Redistributed as subaqueous sediments
3. In slowly subsidising relatively dry raised bod
 356

Plate 5.1

a. Telinite derived from angiosperm wood showing cell walls and multiseriate
rays (R)filledwith corpocollinite derived from gelified material (tannin).
Sample 25409. R v m a x = 0.42%. Reflected white light. Field width
0.41mm.

b. Telocollinite from heated coal, showing three cutinite layers (Cu) were
recognised. Sample 25108. Rvmax = 0.68%. Reflected white light. Field
width 0.35mm.

c. Telocollinite from heated coal, associated with semifusinite. Sample

25418. Rvmax = 1.97%. Reflected white light. Field width 0.41mm.

d. Telocollinite derived from woody tissue. Sample 25495. Rvmax = 0.43%.

Reflected white light. Field width 0.35mm.

e. Detrovitrinite associated with degraded suberinite; consider the scattered

suberinite cells in detrovitrinite indicate an attrital process before
compaction. Sample 25256. R v m a x = 0.46%. Reflected white light. Field
width 0.35mm.
*_-
f. Detrovitrinite associated with semifusinite. The coal is from faulted zone
and exsudatinitefillsthe fractures. Sample 25246. R v m a x = 0.71%.
Reflected white light. Field width 0.35mm.

g. Detrovitrinite associated with sporinite, sclerotinite, resinite,

inertodetrinite and liptodetrinite. Sample 25091. R v m a x = 0.40%.
Reflected white light. Field width 0.41mm.

h. S a m efieldbut in thefluorescencemode.
 357
PLATE 5.1

?__**&
P ^ T ' V ^ ^ T ^;«_> '
;
_t -m---m- _*.'--___<
 358

Plate 5.2

a. Suberinite associated with corpocollinite Sample 25091. R^max = 0.40%.

Reflected white light. Field width 0.41mm.

b. Cutinite derived from leaf tissue, with well preserved palisade cells.
Sample 25496. R v m a x = 0.45%. Reflected white light. Field width 0.41
mm.

c. Fluorinite (Fl) filling the cell lumen in a leaf tissue and associated with
cutinite (Cu). Sample 25417. R v m a x = 0.69%. Reflected white light. Field
width 0.41mm.

d. Same field but in fluorescence mode. The fluorinite is orange and cutinite
is weakly fluorescing.

e. Detrital resinite (R) associated with detrovitrinite (Dv) and sclerotinite.

Sample 25162. Rvmax = 0.46%. Reflected white light. Field width
0.41mm.

f. Same field but under fluorescence excitation. Spotted bright yellow colour
in the resinite indicates a lighter hydrocarbon fraction. Oil cut can be
recognised at the edge of the grain.

g. Brown autofluorescing resinite (R) associated with thin vitrinite layers an

sclerotinite. Sample 25251. R v m a x = 0.55%. Reflected white light. Field
width 0.41mm.

h. Same field but in fluorescence mode. Resinite shows a yellow to orange

fluorescence. Sporinite (Sp) in the middle of thefieldis bright yellow.
 359

PLATE 5.2

_$W-/?r_r
 360

Plate 5.3

a. Detrital resinite associated with detrovitrinite, inertodetrinite and

O n e grain of resinite show oxidation rim at its margin indicating it has
been exposed to the air before being redeposited again. Sample 25240
from a claystone band in the middle of B l seam. R v m a x = 0.46%.
Reflected white light. Field width 0.41mm.

b. Same field but in fluorescence mode. Consider the difference in fluore

colour from resinite that indicate variation in the length of the
hydrocarbon chain within resinite. Sample 25240. R v m a x = 0.46%.
Fluorescing light. Field width 0.41mm.

c. Exsudatinite filling in telovitrinite. Sample 25492. Rvmax = 0.77%.

Reflected white light. Field width 0.56mm.

d. Exsudatinite associated with inertodetrinite, detrovitrinite; filling

between detrovitrinite. Sample 25492. Rvmax = 0.77%. Reflected white
light. Field width 0.65mm.

e. Brecciated vitrinite caused by exsudatinite. Sample 25247. Rvmax =

0.69%. Reflected white light. Field width 0.41mm.

f. Same field but with fluorescence mode, showing very weak fluorescence
of exsudatinite.

g. Exsudatinite and cutinite in a slightly heated coal. Sample 25250. Rvma

0.58%. Reflected white light. Field width 0.41 m m .

h. Vitrinite with exsudatinite in fractures. Sample 25117. Rvmax = 0.67%.

Reflected white light. Field width 0.35mm.
 361
PLATE 5.3
 362

Plate 5.4

a. Fusinite in detrovitrinite mass. Sample 25248. Rvmax = 0.66%. Reflected

white light. Field width 0.41mm.

b. Semifusinite in detrovitrinite mass. Sample 25495. Rvmax = 0.43%.

Reflected white light. Field width 0.41mm.

c. Teleutospores in detrovitrinite. Sample 25248. Rvmax = 0.66%. Reflecte

white light. Field width 0.41mm.

d. Fungal tissues (stromata) in layers of detrovitrinite. Sample 25253.

= 0.55%. Reflected white light. Field width 0.35mm.

e. Fungal tissue in a cutinite layer (leaf tissue). Sample 25247. Rvmax =

0.69%. Reflected white light. Field width 0.41mm.

f. Sclerotites sp. with an individual spore separates from it. Sample 252
R v m a x = 0.58%. Reflected white light. Field width 0.35mm.

g. Teleutospores inside the sporangium. Sample 25491. Rvmax = 0.74%.

Reflected white light. Field width 0.65mm.

h. Detrovitrinite with inertodetrinite and sporinite. Sample 25495. Rvmax

0.43%. Reflected white light. Field width 0.35mm.
 363
PLATE 5.4

Srrv
 364

Plate 5.5

a. Lamalginite in tuffaceous claystone immediately above Al seam, shows

orange fluorescence colour. Mineral fluoresce weak yellow. Sample
25520. Fluorescence mode. Field width 0.41mm.

b. Same spot but in the white light mode.

c. Tuff grains in the Bl seam. Sample 25242. Rvmax = 0.46%. Reflected

white light. Field width 0.41mm.

d. Boundary between brown claystone (C) and white tuff band (T) below A
seam. Sample 25519. Reflected white light. Field width 0.41mm.

e. Claystone below Al seam in heat affected area, showing a sedimentary

structure. Sample ALA111. R v m a x = 1.3%. Reflected white light. Field
width 0.35mm.

f. Rootlet tissues in claystone below Al seam, sample from heat affecte

area. Sample ALA111. R v m a x = 1.3%. Reflected white light. Field width
0.35mm.

g. Subrounded quartz grain in the top most tonstein of Bl seam. Sample

25236. R v max = 0.47%. Reflected white light. Field width 0.41mm.

h. Angular shape of detrital quartz associated with tuff and claystone

the ply immediately below the lowest tonstein in A l seam. Location
Muara Tiga Selatan. Sample 25097. R v max = 0.41%. Reflected white
light. Field width 0.36mm.
 365
PLATE 5.5
 366

Plate 5.6

a. Claystone at the top of Al seam, consisting clay minerals, detrital

cutinite and liptodetrinite. Location A L A 1 6 , Sample 25409. R v m a x =
0.42%.Reflected white light. Field width 0.41mm.

b. Same field but with fluorescence mode.

c. Vein of calcite, in a heated sample. Location BH. ALB44 seam A2.

Polarised light. Sample 25491. Rvmax = 0.74%. Reflected white light.
Field width 0.41 m m .

d. Same field but in fluorescence mode.

e. Calcite in fractures in coal. Sample 25491. Rvmax = 0.74%. Reflected

white light. Field width 0.41mm.

f. Calcite replacing the cell wall in leaf tissue. Sample 25491. Rvmax =
0.74%. Reflected white light. Field width 0.41mm.

g. Calcite in heat affected area, showing dendritic pattern. Sample 2511

from location S B All, Suban. R v m a x = 1.42%. Reflected white. Field
width 0.41mm.

h. Calcite in heated coal. Some calcite degraded the host fusinite. Samp
25105. R v m a x = 0.40%. Reflected white light. Field width 0.41mm.
 367
PLATE 5.6
 368

Plate 5.7

a. Pyrite in top ply of A l seam; occurs parallel to bedding and indicating a

brackish water influx to the mire. Sample 25384. R v m a x = 0.46%.
Reflected white light. Field width 0.41mm.

b. Secondary pyrite replacing the textinite in fusinite-dominated layer.

Sample 25411. Rvmax = 0.43%. Reflected white light. Field width
0.35mm.

c. Amorphous silica (opal A). Sample 25229. Rvmax = 0.45%. Reflected

white light. Field width 0.41mm.

d. Same field but in fluorescence mode.

e. Vein of silica, in a zone which has abundant claysized quartz. Sample

25222. R v m a x = 0.49%. Reflected white light. Field width 0.41mm.

f. Silica replacing the cell walls. Sample of the heated coal. Sample 25
R v m a x = 2.3%. Reflected white light. Field width 0.45mm.

g. Quartz grains in bark tissue (suberinite and corpocollinite). Sample

Rvmax = 0.48%. Field width 0.41mm.

h. Silt-sized quartz deposited with vitrinite grains. Sample 25222. Rvma

0.49%. Reflected white light. Field width 0.41mm.
 369
PLATE 5.7

&G+M •:-.;. V-
FIGURES AND TABLES
CHAPTER 6
 370

GSI (1978), Bukit A s a m

80.0 -i

JKW MflO

M C S Consultants (1980), Bukit A s a m

DM
SA2
BB1
HB2
• C

***=P I,-' i- _*-=•—-r-f^HT-lprefa-n r-f^Tmrx

MgO

Kinhill-Ottogold (1986), Banko

Fe203 MgO

Figure 6.1 Histogram of major elements in the Bukit A s a m coalfields, compiled from Geological
Survey Indonesia (1978), M C S Consultant (1980), compared to those from Banko
area as reported by Kinhill-Ottogold (1986)
 371

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• ••••HEAT AFFECTED COALS (Rvmbx=0.62*-0.67:1
AAAflANON HEAT AFFECTED COALS (Rvmax= 0.37s -0.46*)
30- I I II (I I I I I I I I "I r r rIn rmTTTT
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AFRECTED COALS (Ri/mox=1.2l!S- 1.94*)

II I I I HEAT
HEAT AFFECTED COALS IRwnax=0.62*- ).67«)
& iAAAANON HEAT AFFECTED CWLS (Rvmax = 37*-0.46s)
m
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ASH (56)

(b)

Figure 6.2.a. Plot of acid oxides versus ash content

b. Plot of basic oxides versus ash content
 372

400-

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300-

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1 | I II I II I | I I I I I I I II | I I I I I II I I | I I I I I I I H M ' ' ' ' ' ' " I ' ' ' ' ' ' ' "
50 100 150 200 250 300
XRF (ppm)

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II I I I I I I | I I I I I I I I I | I I I I I I I I I | I I I I I I I I I I I I I M I I I I | I I I I I I I I I |
10 20 30 40 50 60
XRF (ppm)

Figure 6.3.a. Correlation between Th contents for X R F and I N A A

b. Correlation between Zn contents for XRF and INAA
 373

-0.0681 0.1246 0.3172 0.S098 0.7024 0.8950

-0.1644 0.0283 0.2209 0.4135 0.6061 0.7987 0.9913
j 1 1 1 1 1 1— < -+- -+- 1 1 1-

MM 0.9485 ,

c Ash
- Si02
0.4839
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- K20 0.0881
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- Ni 0.1868 j
Group B
- Mn03 -0.0249 1
- Zn 0.3874 1
- Pb 0.5100 CI
• Pe203 0.24S0 1
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C2
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y 0.5209 1 Grouo D
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644 0.0283 0.2209 0.4135 0.6061 0.7987 0 9913
-0.0681 0.1246 0.3172 0.5098 0.7024 0.8950

DEDRCGRAH - VALUES ALONG X-AXIS ARE SIMILARITIES

Figure 6.4. Dendogram for X R F data, Al seam

 '-' 374

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-0.2320 -0.0188 0.1944 0.4076 0.6208 0.8340 1.0471
+ 1 L. + 1 1~~ -+ 1 ^ 1- -l y 1-
Rnaac 0.2046—

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U 0.7144 1

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Co 0.8497

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Ce 0.9546—1

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DENDROGRM - VALUES ALOHG X-AXIS ARE SIMILARITIES

Figure 6.9. Dendogram for I N A A data, A 2 seam

 379

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• Pb 0.0177

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- Mn03 0.8693

- CaO 0.9832

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•Zn 0.7856 GROUP C

•Zr 0.4079 ^

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DENDROGRAM - VALOES ALONG X-AXIS ARE SIMILARITIES

Figure 6.11 R-mode dendrogram of X R F data, A 2 seam

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DENDROGRAM - VALUES ALONG X-AXIS ARE SIMILARITIES

Figure 6.14 R-mode dendrogram of I N A A data, B1 seam

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DENDROGRAM - VALUES ALONG X-AXIS ARE SIMILARITIES

Figure 6.18 R-mode dendrogram of X R F data, Bl seam

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-0.1081 0.1011 0.3104 0.5196 0.7289 0.9381

0.2128 -0.0035 0.2057 0.4150 0.6243 0.8335 1.0428
^—.1 1 .) +—+ 1 1- 1-—+ 1- —| +
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DEMOGRAH - VALUES ALONG X-AXIS ARE SIMILARITIES

Figure 6.21 R-mode dendrogram of I N A A data, B 2 seam

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A1203 0.8154

Pb -0.3070 —'

Ni 0.7282 —,

Cu 0.5431

Zr 0.8297

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Sr 0.9981 -i

CaO 0.9921

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Ha20 0.8118

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DENDROGRAM - VALUES ALONG X-AXTS ARE SIMILARITIES

Figure 6.24 R - m o d e d e n d r o g r a m o f X R F data, B 2

seam
 .0.0079 0.1B28 0.3736 0.5644 0.7552 0.9460 394
0 1033 0.0875 0.2782 0.4690 0.6598 0.B506 1.0414
I + 4- + 1 -I h 1 -I 1 —I 1 1-
• AIA111 0.9986 ,

SBA111 0.9970

A1A1S1 0.9951
1. Roof
ALA131 0.9958

MSA111 0.9973

SBA121 0.9939

SBA1217 0.982 2 1

AIA1111 0.9960

ALA1112 0.9976

AIA1217 0.9967 2. Floor

HSA1114 0.9975

SBA1117 0.9756

ALA114 0.9979

ALA149 0.9961 ,

AIA129 0.9977
3. Second dirtband
ALA139 0.9968

MSA119 0.9990

SBA115 0.9938 ,

ALA125 0.9949

ALA135 0.9969 4. First dirtband

KSA11S 0.9960

SBA125 0.9934

ALA117 0.9987 ,

ALA1313 0.9962

SBA1213 0.9953
5. Second and third dirtbands
SBA129 0.9949

ALA1413 0.9914

ALA1213 0.9738

ALA1317 0.9918 1

ALA1417 0.9628 1
rA SBA112 0.9429

SBA1113 0.9272
7. Coaly shale at the top and floor
AIA141 0.9021

MSA1113 0.2174

ALA127 0.5521 r

ALA146 0.3261

ALA121C 0.4442 | above and below the 2nd DB.

ALA1310 0.2786 1

ALA128 0.7654 r

AIA1211 0.9573

AIA1215A 0.8022

ALA137 0.6441 9. clean coal

KSA1111 0.8585

HSA1112 0.5335

ALA1315A 0.4945

ALA1214 0.6466 r

ALA1314 0.8256 10. lOcn coal below 3th DB

ALA1410 0.1013

B AIA113 0.9285 ,

ALA118 0.7470

ALA115 0.7830 11. 10cm coal below 2nd DB

ALA116 0.5952

ALA1212 0.3423

SBA114 0.7693

SBA1115 0.7559

SBA1111 0.5336

SBA127 0.3154

3BA117 -0.0219

Figure 6.25 Dendogram of Q-mode analysis

 395

ALA112 0.7260-
ALA122 0.8821

ALA133 0.7856

ALA132 0.8926

ALA142 0.6644 13. coaly ahale

ALA1216 0.3112

• AIA1315B 0.6417
• ALA1316 0.8836

• ALA1416 0.5001

- SBA1114 0.7451

- SBA1116 0.1340 1

- ALA1110 0.4061-

- ALA1215B 0.5468

- ALA1311 0.8521

- ALA1411 0.8120 14. clean coal

- ALA147 0.7077

- SBA1212 0.6771

- AIA1415 0.3763

- ALA123 0.5933 1

- HSA112 0.7393 15. clean coal, coal below the roof

- HSA113 0.2238 '

- SBA113 2
0.5992-

- SBA122 0.0807 J 16. coal below the roof

- ALA124 7
0.6058- '

- SBA123 0.3482 17. clean coal above the 1st DB

- SBA1215 -0.0609-

- ALA119 0.0110

- ALA126 0.6825 1

C - AIA136
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0.7652
0.5357 '
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— AIA1414 0.8165
— KSA114 0.7638
— SBA124 0.8712
19. IOCB coal above the dirtband
— SBA126 0.7253
— SBA11B 0.7911
— SBA1110 0.8796
D — SBA1214 0.3587-
— ALA134 0.7037-
— ALA1412 0.5598
— ALA138 0.5050
20. 10c» coal above the dirtbands
— HSA118 0.6704
SBA12B 0.7453
SBA1211 0.2740-
KSAlllO 0.7338-
SBA1210 0.5138 21. lOcn coal below the DB
SBA116 0.1399-
SBA119 0.3703-
SBA1112 0.6439 22. dirtbands and floor
SBA1216 -0.1033-

3.1033 0.0875 0.2782 0.4690 0.6598 0.8506 1.0414

-0 0079 0.1828 0.3736 0.5644 0.7552 0.9460
DENDROGRAM - VALUES ALONG X-AXIS ABB SIMILARITIES

Figure 6.25 (cont.)

 396

-0.0045 0.1855 0.3755 0.5655 0.7556 0.9456

-0.0996 0.0905 0.2805 0.4705 0.6606 0.8506 1.0406
H 1 1 1 1 1 1 -I 1 1 1 1 K

MM 0.9984

•TO 0.8841

Ash 0.5077

Si02 0.3324

Rb 0.7970

K2Q 0.1426

Mn03 0.3588

Flo 0.0320

Hi 0.3059

Exu 0.0489

Mic -0.0194

Dv 0.6704

Gv 0.5863

Res 0.7783

Lipt. 0.4511

Sub 0.3891

F 0.5513

SF 0.8455

I 0.3050

Ld 0.4487

ID 0.2875

Scl 0.2593

Mac -0.0573

Rmax 0.7971

Tv 0.3440
r
Vit 0.1737

Ga 0.4303

Ti02 0.6760

A1203 0.2714

Y 0.5209

Zr 0.8450

Nb 0.6964

Th 0.0628

Zn 0.3775

Pb 0.2417

Fe203 0.6193

Py 0.0425

Sr 0.5907

P205 0.4870

CaO 0.8757

S03 0.7245

MgO 0.6229

Na20 0.3188

Cut 0.1308

Sp -0.0996

-i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 -i 1 1 y
0.0996 0.0905 0.2805 0.4705 0.6606 0.8506 1.0406
-0.0045 0.1855 0.3755 0.5655 0.7556 0.9456

DENDROGRAM - VALUES ALONG X-AXIS ARE SIMILARITIES

Figure 6.26 R-mode dendrogram of geochemical and petrological data,

A l seam
 397

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Geochemical separation of important elements on the
basis of ionic radii
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FIGURES AND TABLES
CHAPTER 7
 408

8
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 409

INITIAL ASH-OXIDE-ANALYSIS
5yi = tysi02+yAl203*i'Fe203+yCaO+i'MgO","i,'s03",-yAlk + y
R«st " '
SULPHUR-CONTENTS (ELEMENTARY ANALYSIS)

CORRECTED ASH-OXIDE-ANALYSIS
° SiO? corr ,,». _
Si0 2 -"|-(iC s i 0 2 -y s i 0 2 ; 3 r r ) "' 1^>'si0:,"i'si02cofr)

5X = WWW^O^^sV^V £„. -1
SLAGGING AND FOULING INDICES

(F-exp - [5 ^lk/(fs*0.3)]

I
0 < f < 1
1 4- HEAVY SLAGGING/FOULING FUEL VALUATION
1 NOT SLAGGING/FOULING FUEL
Note: y = Weight Fraction Ash

Figure 7.2. Statistical prediction of slagging and fouling behaviour

of solid fuels (Altmann, 1986).
 410

Volatile Swelling
Matter Index
a. 40-, Rm s
- 35^

1
</> ™
J, 30^
24.5 9 r.25- 131 0,063
^ 20-
15-
^ 10-
3- 5-
20-
25,2

24,2
9

71/2
_J i 15 -, 1,26
10-
5-

10-
5- 1,31
0,117

0,234
I
10-
24,2 4V2 ^ 5- 1,26 (0,372)
15-
25,0

•
1 -

i
A
i 1 1
QS 0,6 OyB 10 12 1,4 h,6
i .k
1,8 2p
io-
5-
1,41 (0,553)

2,2 2,4 *'o Reflectance

=10 Vot- % 1 i I I
I0 35 30 25 20 15 10 7.Vol. Matter Vh finite

Figure 7.3. Comparison of the reflectogram of 5 coal blends with their

swelling indices and other properties (Stach et al., 1982).
 411
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 414

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 415

Table 7.5. Summary of common slagging and fouling indices

Index Formula Slagging or Fouling Propensity

Low Medium High Severe
Slagging Indices
Ash Fusion Sphere (softening) temperature under reducing above 1350 below 1350
Temperaturs(C) conditions
Base - Acid Fe?Ch + CaO + M g O + Na,0 + K,0
Ratio S1O2 + AI2O3 + Ti02 < 0.4 or > 0.7 0.4 to 0.7
weight percent of ash normalised so that total
base + total acid = 100%
Slagging Factor Base x Sulphur in coal (d%) for bituminous
Acid
coal ash (Fe203 > CaO + M g O )
Attig,R,C. andDuzy, A.F. Coal ash deposition <0.6 0.6 to 2.0 to >2.6
studies and application to boiler design. 2.0 2.6
Proceedings of the American Power
Conference, V 31,1968
T250 (M,10')_c
Temperature(C) 2.398
Temperature for where M = 0.00835 Si02 + 0.00601 A1 2 0 3
an ash viscosity -0.109
of 250 poise and C = 0.0415 SiQ, + 0.0192 Al203 + >1275 1400 1245 <1120
0.276 Fe 2 0 3 + 0.0160 CaO - 3.92 to to
Perry,R.H., Perry's Chemical Engineers' 1150 1120
Handbook, McGraw-Hill Book Company, p
9.5, 1984.
Iron/ Calcium Fe70„ < 0.3 or > 3.0 0.3 to 3.0
Ratio CaO
Iron in ash(%) Determined as Fe203 content of ash from
pulverized coal sinking in afluidof specific <45 45 55 65
gravity of 2.7.
Slagging Index Cmax H T + 4 x min IT)
(C) 5
for lignite ash (Fe203< C a O + M g O )
where max H T is the highest value of >1340 1340 1230 <1150
hemisphere ash fusion temperature under to to
reducing or oxidising conditions and min IT is 1230 1150
the lowest initial deformation temperature
under reducing or oxidising conditions.
Fouling Indices
Fouling Factor Base
xNa 2 Ornash <0.2 0.2 to 0.5 to >1.0
(1) Acid 0.5 1.0
Fouling Factor Hose <0.1 0.1 to 0.25 to >0.7
(2) + Na 2 0 (water soluble sodium oxide in
Acid 0.25 0.7
low temperature ash)
Chlorine in Test Measurement <0.2 0.2 to 0.3 to >0.5
Coal (%) 0.3 0.5
Ash Sintering Based on boilerflyash samples sintered at <7 7 to 35 > 110
35 to
Strength M P a 925° C for 15 hours.
l
110
from Queensland CoalBoard (1990)
 416

CM 5 X _l :> X 5 CO _l
CQ ^1
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CM o> IO
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CO d
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cn
CQ d p CO <* to
d d
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 417

o o O a o o o o

Total
3
(%)
o o O o
o o o o 5 o o o o
o o o o a
o p p p p o p
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i- T—
c q p
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to lO a
SOZd

CM CO CO o
00 CN o o 10 o
(%)

o
CM CO IO O
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d d d d CM o o o
a.
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d o
a d d d
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co —. 00 oCM CO co "M-
CO CO CO o
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d o d d 0 d o o d
CO —' d CO d CO d
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*: 8
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CO IO IO
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CO LO CO CO CM CO
JZ
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 418

Table 7.8. Emission standards for n e w coal-fired

power plant, 300 M W in industrial countries
(Paulson, 1993)

Country SOappm NOx ppm Particulates

mg.m-3

Australia none 500 250

Austria 90% 800+ 50
Belgium 400 650 50
Canada 740 740 125
Denmark 860 1150 57
EEC 400 650 50
Germany (FRG) 400 200 50
Finland 400 200 57
France none none 90-130
Greece none none 100
Italy 400 650 50
Japan 170 411 50
Netherlands 400 400 50
N e w Zealand none none 125-500
Spain 2400 none 200
Sweden 260 430 43
Switzerland 400 none 115
UK 90% none 115
USA 740 860 62
 419

to tO IO iO oo
CO CO CO Tt-
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%(a.d.b)

O
Calorific

o o o o
Value

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to IO
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s
co I - 00 I -
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CO to 00
CM co
CO IO
*^ o •*-
•4-*
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o
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p Tf
%(a.d.b)

CO
Sulphur

v- CO
IO X 00
X >o X co
d to
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CO
d d
%(a.d.b)

to to CN CO Is-
Carbon
Fixed

IO CO 00 IO to p T—
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o o o o «o d d d -* CO d d
to to o> -4—« CO CO
to o "M-
CO
%(a.d.b)

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to CN 00
Matter

to CO CO
o o> to p to to
o
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d
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CO
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%(a.d.b)
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to
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s
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Moisture
%(a.d.b)
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to Is- co Is-
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00 to CO
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Total

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CO
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 420

Table 7.10. Capital expenditure for fuels (pers. c o m m . Cook, 1996)

(cost/daily barrel)

No. Name Cost ($ US)

A. Oil:
1 Old Middle East < 1,000
2 N e w Middle East 1,000- 2,000
3 Minas < 1,000
4 Duri 3,000 - 6,000
5 Other Indonesias 2,000- 5,000
6 North Sea 4,000- 6,000
7 Gippsland 2,500- 4,000
8 Kutubu, P N G 6,071
9 Gobe, P N G 7,000
10 Alaska app. 15,000
11 B. Coal Liquifaction 29,000 - 100,000
12 C. E L E C T R I C I T Y from:
a. Coalfiredpower station 250,000
b. Oilfiredpower station 200,000
4PPENDIX 5.1 MACERAL COMPOSITION
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c c c c
c c c
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d
to
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cb
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2
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CM «T o GO
8 co CM <- o>CO o 2 8 in CO
8 CM o o CO o s 8 o to CM o 2 ^r
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cn
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CO
to
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CM CM
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d
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to
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a)

1 0 o O o O o o o o
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APPENDIX 5.2 REFLECTANCE DATA
 Rvmax data from Bukit Asam
Base on 30 measurement each sample
Gm. No. F.No. Depth (cm) Rvmax (%) R v m a x Min. R v m a x Max. Sd.
24863 ALA113 40-100 1.21 1 1.32 0.088
24864 ALA115 110-120 1.3 1.18 1.39 0.045
24865 ALA116 120-220 1.3 1.2 1.38 0.039
24866 ALA118 230-240 1.3 1.23 1.38 0.037
24867 ALA119 240-440 1.31 1.24 1.4 0.043
24868 ALA1110 440-540 1.29 1.24 1.39 0.036
24869 ALA122 0-10 0.41 0.39 [ 0.5 0.023
24870 ALA123 00-70 0.41 0.37 0.46 0.026
24871 ALA124 70-80 0.43 0.39 0.46 0.023
24872 ALA126 90-100 0.41 0.34 0.47 0.037
24873 ALA127 100-260 0.41 0.39 0.45 0.023
24874 ALA128 260-270 0.4 0.36 0.46 0.032
24875 ALA1210 280-290 0.42 0.38 0.47 0.024
24876 ALA1211 290-530 0.42 0.39 0.44 0.016
24877 ALA1212 530-540 0.42 0.37 0.53 0.039
24878 ALA1214 550560 0.43 0.4 0.48 0.024
24879 LA1215A 560-790 0.42 0.37 0.48 0.028
24880 LA1215B 790-960 0.42 0.39 0.48 0.022
24881 ALA1216 960-980 0.41 0.37 0.48 0.030
24883 ALA132 0-40 0.41 0.38 0.43 0.019
24884 ALA133 40-80 0.4 0.37 0.42 0.020
24885 ALA134 80-90 0.37 0.31 0.41 0.022
24886 ALA136 100-110 0.37 0.3 0.4 0.024
24887 ALA137 110-270 0.4 0.35 0.47 0.024
24888 ALA138 270-280 0.4 0.36 0.49 0.028
24889 ALA1310 290-300 0.4 0.38 0.48 0.023
24890 ALA1311 300-590 0.4 0.37 0.43 0.019
24891 ALA1312 590-600 0.41 0.36 0.47 0.026
24892 ALA1314 610-620 0.42 0.33 0.53 0.039
24893 LA1315A 620-850 0.4 0.36 0.43 0.019
24894 LA1315B 580-1090 0.43 0.4 0.52 0.029
24895 ALA1316 1090-1120 0.42 0.38 0.47 0.022
25082 ALA142 0-30 0.39 0.35 0.42 0.026
25083 ALA147 90-230 0.41 0.38 0.47 0.020
25084 ALA148 230-240 0.41 0.39 0.45 0.021
25085 ALA1410 250-260 0.41 0.38 0.43 0.016
25086 ALA1411 260-500 0.41 0.4 0.44 0.016
25087 ALA1412 500-510 0.43 0.4 0.5 0.033
25088 ALA1414 520-530 0.46 0.41 0.53 0.030
25089 ALA1415 530-900 0.44 0.4 0.49 0.022
25090 ALA1416 900-920 0.44 0.4 0.47 0.023
25091 MSA112 0-30 0.4 0.36 0.43 0.018
25092 MSA113 30-60 0.4 0.37 0.47 0.025
25093 MSA114 60-70 0.38 0.32 0.44 0.030
25094 MSA116 80-90 0.41 0.35 0.46 0.025
25095 MSA117 90-240 0.41 0.37 0.43 0.018
25096 MSA118 240-250 0.41 0.37 0.45 0.020
25097 MSA1110 260-270 0.4 0.38 0.44 i 0.018
25093 MSA1111 270-520 0.41 0.37 ! 0.45 0.018
25099 MSA1112 5204310 0.45 0.41 0.48 0.020

Page 1
25101 SBA113 20-60 1.28 1.25 1.36 0.030
25102 SBA114 60-70 1.35 1.27 1.37 0.029
25103 SBA116 80-90 1.26 1.22 1.33 0.023
25104 SBA117 90-280 1.45 1.4 1.56 0.042
25105 SBA118 280-290 1.42 1.39 1.48 0.025
25106 SBA1110 300-310 1.51 1.48 1.57 0.022
25107 SBA1111 310-430 1.51 1.43 1.62 0.047
25108 SBA1112 430-440 1.68 1.64 1.74 0.030
25109 SBA1114 450-450 1.73 1.67 1.8 0.032
25110 SBA1115 j460-480 1.84 1.75 1.95 0.064
25111 SBA1116 480-490 1.94 1.87 2.01 0.033
25112 SBA122 0-10 0.62 0.58 0.66 0.018
1
25113 SBA123 0-40 0.63 0.6 0.67 0.021
25114 SBA124 4050 0.65 0.62 0.68 0.018
25115 SBA126 60-70 0.66 0.64 0.7 0.019
25116 SBA127 70-110 0.63 0.57 0.68 0.028
25117 SBA128 110-120 0.67 0.63 0.71 0.024
25118 SBA1210 130-140 0.64 0.6 0.68 0.021
25119 SBA1211 140-250 0.64 0.6 0.68 0.024
25120 SBA1212 250-260 0.66 0.6 0.7 0.030
25121 SBA1214 270-280 0.64 0.6 0.67 0.020
25122 SBA1215 280-530 0.65 0.63 0.7 0.018
25123 SBA1216 530-540 1.95 1.85 2.02 0.052
25229 ALA232 0-30 0.47 0.45 0.52 0.015
25230 ALA233 30-150 0.48 0.45 0.51 0.017
25231 ALA234 150-250 0.46 0.41 0.48 0.021
25232 ALA235 250-680 0.45 0.41 0.48 0.016
25233 ALA236 680-780 0.45 0.41 0.49 0.020
25234 ALA237 780-990 0.47 0.45 0.52 0.020
25235 ALA238 990-1010 0.47 0.42 0.52 0.030
25171 ALA211 0-70 0.47 0.45 0.5 0.013
25172 ALA212 70-170 0.47 0.44 0.5 0.016
25173 ALA213 170-270 0.49 0.47 0.5 0.013
25174 ALA214 270-370 0.48 0.44 0.51 0.018
25175 ALA215 370-470 0.47 0.44 0.5 0.016
25176 ALA216 470-570 0.48 0.45 0.5 0.015
25177 ALA217 570-580 0.44 0.5 0.016
25178 ALA217B 580-680 0.49 0.46 0.54 0.019
25179 ALA218 680-980 0.49 0.46 0.54 0.017
25180 ALA219 980-990 1.74 1.69 1.81 0.030
25222 ALA222 0-40 0.49 0.48 0.51 0.012
25223 ALA223 40-60 0.49 0.47 0.54 0.018
25224 ALA224 60-300 0.49 0.47 0.51 0.011
25225 ALA225 300500 0.49 j 0.48 0.52 0.013
25226 ALA226 500-870 0.48 0.46 0.51 0.014
25227 ALA227 870-980 0.48 0.45 0.52 0.017
25228 ALA228 980-1000 0.49 0.46 0.52 0.015
25236 ALB122 0-10 0.47 0.45 0.51 0.017
25237 ALB123 0-30 0.48 0.46 0.51 0.013
25238 ALB124 30-35 0.47 0.46 0.5 0.018
25239 ALB125 35-115 0.45 | 0.42 0.48 0.017
25240 ALB126 115-125 0.44 0.4 0.53 0.040
25241 ALB127 125-425 0.45 0.42 0.48 0.016
25242 ALB128 425-435 0.46 0.42 0.49 0.021
25243 ALB129 435-535 0.47 0.43 0.5 0.016

Page 2
 25245 ALB1210 535-700 0.46 0.43 0.49 0.018
25244 ALB1211 700-1000 0.46 0.43 0.49 0.025
25365 KTA113 30-40 0.45 0.43 0.5 0.018
25366 KTA115 50-60 0.44 0.42 0.48 0.016
25367 KTA116 60-170 0.44 0.41 0.46 0.012
25368 KTA117 170-180 0.44 0.41 0.47 0.016
25369 KTA119 190-200 0.44 0.38 0.48 0.026
25370 KTA1110 200-410 0.45 0.42 0.48 0.014
25371 KTA1111 41O420 0.46 0.44 0.5 0.018
25372 KTA1113 430-440 0.48 0.44 0.5 0.018
25373 KTA1114 440-850 0.48 0.44 0.5 0.020
25206 KTA212 050 0.48 0.45 0.52 0.018
25207 KTA213 50-300 0.452 0.42 0.47 0.012
25208 KTA214 300-750 0.463 0.44 0.49 0.015
25209 KTA215 750-1000 0.47 0.45 0.51 0.025
25210 KTA216 1000-1510 0.49 0.46 0.54 0.020
25211 KTA217 1510-1530 0.486 0.46 0.53 0.017
25358 KTB112 O40 0.45 0.41 0.5 0.019
25359 KTB113 40-240 0.467 0.46 0.49 0.012
25360 KTB114 240-250 0.47 0.41 0.5 0.027
j 25361 KTB115 250-420 0.47 0.41 0.51 0.025
25362 KTB117 430-750 0.48 0.44 0.51 0.022
25363 KTB119 790-1050 0.47 0.42 0.53 0.024
25364 KTB1111 1060-1160 0.48 0.45 0.5 0.017
25212 KBA115 45-65 0.44 0.42 0.47 0.013
25213 KBA116 65-185 0.42 0.39 0.47 0.018
i 25214 KBA117 185-195 0.44 0.42 0.49 0.016
25215 KBA119 205-215 0.46 0.44 0.49 0.017
; 25216 KBA1110 215-445 0.46 0.45 0.49 0.013 |
25217 KBA1111 445-455 0.46 0.44 0.5 0.017
25218 KBA1113 465-475 0.45 0.43 0.48 0.014
25219 KBA1114 475-655 0.48 0.46 0.52 0.017
25220 KBA1115 655-995 0.48 0.45 0.5 0.017
j 25221 KBA1116 995-1010 0.43 0.41 0.46 0.014
25256 KBA212 0-50 0.46 0.44 0.48 0.014
25257 KBA213 50-360 0.45 0.43 0.49 0.019
25258 KBA214 360-710 0.45 0.43 0.5 0.017
25259 KBA215 710-930 0.48 0.46 0.52 0.017
25260 KBA216 930-1230 0.49 0.46 0.55 0.023
25261 KBA217 120-1260 0.49 0.47 0.55 0.024
25195 KTB212 0-20 0.46 0.45 0.5 0.012
25196 KTB213 20-180 0.47 0.45 0.47 0.014
25197 KTB214 180-190 0.47 0.45 0.49 0.012
25198 KTB216 200-210 0.47 0.46 0.52 0.014
25199 KTB217 210-360 0.48 0.46 0.5 0.014
25200 KTB218 360-370 0.47 0.45 0.49 0.010
25201 MTA212 0-40 0.44 0.41 0.47 0.018
25202 MTA213 40-390 0.45 0.41 0.48 0.021
25203 MTA214 390-750 0.44 0.41 0.48 0.028
25204 MTA215 750-1040 0.45 0.42 0.52 0.026
25205 MTA216 1040-1080 0.45 0.41 0.5 0.220 |
25181 ALB212 0-15 0.46 0.43 0.5 0.026
25182 ALB213 15-215 0.46 0.44 0.51 0.025
25183 ALB215 225-625 0.47 0.44 | 0.51 0.020
25184 ALB216 625565 0.44 0.41 0.48 0.018

Page 3
 25246 ALB111A 0-200 0.71 0.69 0.75 0.018
25247 ALB111B 200-440 0.69 0.61 0.77 0.042
25248 ALB112 440-450 0.66 0.62 0.69 0.015
25249 ALB114 460-470 0.61 0.55 0.67 0.031
25250 ALB115 I 470-710 0.58 0.56 0.6 0.013
25251 ALB116 710-720 0.55 0.53 0.6 0.020
25253 ALB118 730-740 0.55 0.51 0.59 0.024
25254 ALB119 740-900 0.56 0.51 0.59 0.022
25255 ALB1110 90OS10 0.57 0.51 0.6 0.022
25153 ALA1-10-1 0-20 0.44 0.4 0.46 0.019
25154 ALA1-10-2 20-70 0.42 0.4 0.43 0.009
25155 ALA1-10-3 7050 0.45 I 0.42 0.51 0.021
25156 ALA1-14-1 0-10 0.43 0.41 0.45 0.012
i 25157 ALA1-14-2 0-30 0.45 0.43 0.48 0.012
25158 ALA1-14-3 3055 0.43 0.4 0.48 0.019
25159 ALA1-14-4 65-75 0.44 0.42 0.48 0.018
25160 ALA1-13-1 0-20 0.37 0.34 0.43 0.026
25161 ALA1-13-2 20-40 0.44 0.42 0.48 0.016
25162 ALA1-13-3 40-70 0.46 0.43 0.54 0.025
25163 ALA1-13-4 7050 0.44 0.41 0.47 0.016
25164 ALA1-12-1 0-10 0.44 0.41 0.5 0.026
25165 ALA1-12-2 0-40 0.46 0.43 0.48 0.017
25166 ALA1-125 40-70 0.45 0.42 0.49 0.019
25167 ALA1-12-4 7050 0.44 0.4 0.47 0.018
25168 ALA1-11-1 0-10 0.46 ! 0.43 0.48 0.023
25169 ALA1-11-2 050 0.47 0.45 0.49 0.013
25390 ALA1-115 3050 0.47 0.44 0.53 0.033
25391 ALA1-11-4 60-70 0.44 0.41 0.47 0.016
25384 ALA1-15-1 0-10 0.46 0.43 0.51 0.018
25385 ALA1-15-2 050 0.46 0.43 0.49 0.019
25386 ALA1-15-3 30-70 0.45 0.42 0.5 0.029
25387 ALA1-15-4 7050 0.44 0.42 0.48 0.017
25388 KBA1-2-1 0-10 0.39 0.38 0.41 0.014
25389 KBA1-2-2 0-40 0.39 0.36 0.43 0.015
25392 ALA15-1 0-40 0.35 0.3 0.39 0.030
25393 ALA15-2 4050 0.45 0.43 0.49 0.017
25394 ALA1-5-3 60-110 0.46 0.44 0.49 0.017
25395 ALA1-5-4 110-120 0.43 0.4 0.46 0.014
25396 ALA1-9-1 0-10 0.58 0.51 0.67 0.038
25397 ALA1-9-2 050 0.67 0.6 0.75 0.034
25398 ALA1-9-3 30-70 0.8 0.78 0.8 0.012
25399 ALA1-9-4 7050 0.74 0.7 0.8 0.071
25400 ALA1-8-1 050 0.63 0.6 0.67 0.020
25401 ALA1-8-2 3050 0.64 0.6 0.69 0.027
25402 ALA1-85 50-110 0.62 0.59 0.67 0.023
25403 ALA1-8-4 110-120 0.63 0.6 0.67 0.020
25404 ALA1-7-1 0-40 0.41 ! 0.36 0.48 0.031
25405 ALA1-7-2 050 0.46 0.45 0.51 0.013
25406 ALA1-7-3 60-120 0.52 0.5 0.56 0.018
25407 ALA1-7-4 120-130 0.56 0.55 0.6 0.014
25408 ALA1-6-1 050 0.42 0.4 0.47 0.018
25409 ALA1-6-2 3050 0.42 0.4 0.44 0.011
25410 ALA1-65 60-130 0.42 0.4 0.45 0.015
25411 ALA1-6-4 130-140 0.43 0.4 0.46 0.015
25412 MSA1-2-1 0-10 0.43 0.4 0.48 0.020

Page 4
 25413 MSA1-2-2 0-30 042 0.4 0.44 0.013
25414 M S A 1 - 2 5 30-70 0.41 0.4 0.45 0.013
25415 MSA1-2-4 7050 0.43 0.4 0.45 0.015
25416 BHA1-1 top of A1 0.48 0.46 0.55 0.011
25417 BHA1-2 top of A1 0.69 0.66 0.72 0.022
25418 BHA1-3 top of A1 1.97 1.94 2.01 0.019
25419 BHA1-4 top of A1 2.36 2.3 2.4 0.029
25185 SBA212 0-40 2.31 2.28 2.37 0.025
25186 SBA213 40-240 2.29 2.2 2.43 0.044
25187 SBA214 240590 2.33 2.26 2.44 0.037
25188 SBA215 390-420 2.4 2.26 2.49 0.062
25189 SBB112 0-120 2.67 2.53 2.72 0.075
25190 SBB113 120-125 3.08 2.79 3.76 0.270
25191 SBB114 125-270 2.76 2.66 2.84 0.040
25192 SBB115 270-275 2.68 2.61 2.75 0.052
25193 SBB116 275590 2.68 2.61 2.75 0.050
25194 SBB117 390-400 2.75 2.67 2.85 0.048
25378 SBA1-4 composite 1.18 1.08 1.24 0.047
25379 SBA1-5 composite 1.21 1.18 1.27 0.025
25380 CP-1 top of A1 2.13 2.08 2.21 0.032
25381 CP-2 top of A1 2.24 2.21 2.29 0.021
25382 CP-3 top of A1 2.33 2.3 2.39 0.024
25383 CP-4 top of A1 2.62 2.6 2.7 0.034
25374 SBA1-3-1 0-20 2.37 2.27 2.49 0.052
25375 SBA15-2 2050 2.44 2.41 2.55 0.036
25376 SBA1-35 30-40 2.37 2.32 2.43 0.026
25377 SBA15-4 40-45 2.37 2.27 2.55 0.060
25490 ALB44A1 47.7 0.8 0.68 0.94 0.068
25491 ALB44A2 60.6 0.74 0.66 0.87 0.052
25492 ALB44B1 86.1 0.77 0.66 0.85 0.044 |
25493 ALB44B2 95.1 0.84 0.76 0.96 0.048
25981 ALB47A1 24.3 1.29 1.2 1.35 0.045
25482 ALB47A2 30 1.3 1.24 1.36 0.025
25483 ALB47B1 53.2 1.77 1.69 1.81 0.038
25484 ALB47B2 61.7 1.83 1.77 1.97 0.045
25485 ALB47C 104.4 2.16 2.11 2.24 0.035
25486 ALB48A1 45.3 0.88 0.83 1 0.042
25487 ALB48A2 57.2 1.02 0.86 1.18 0.010 I
25488 ALB48B1 82.6 0.86 0.77 1.17 0.080
25489 ALB48B2 na 0.79 0.72 0.86 0.028
25494 ALP12A1 na 0.45 0.4 0.51 0.028
25495 ALP12A2 na 0.43 0.38 0.48 0.026
25496 ALP12B1 na 0.45 0.4 0.5 0.024
25497 ALP12B2 na 0.44 0.4 0.5 0.031
25498 ALP13A1 na 0.45 0.4 0.5 0.027
25499 ALP13A2 na 0.46 0.4 0.53 0.032
25500 ALP13B1 na 0.46 0.41 0.54 0.033
25501 ALP13B2 na 0.48 0.44 0.54 0.030

Page 5
APPENDIX 5.3 REFLECTANCE DATA FROM
DAULAY (1988)
AND
KINHILL-OTTOGOLD JOINT VENTURE (1986)
 . Rvmax data of the Bukit Asam Coals from Daulay (1988)
and Kinhill - Ottogold (1986)

GM. No. Location Rvmax. Min. Max. SD Source

19327 H D 55 Tapuan 0.38 0.35 0.45 0.028 Daulay (1988)

19343 H D 54 Tapuan 0.42 0.38 0.48 0.026
19411 Banko 0.41 0.37 0.46 0.021
19417 0.36 0.3 i 0.41 0.027
19418 0.38 0.34 0.43 0.022
19285 Air Laya o/c 0.49 0.43 0.54 0.031
19287 0.47 0.4 0.52 j 0.033
19289 0.46 0.4 0.51 0.029
19290 S.E. Balong Hijau o/c 0.41 0.36 | 0.47 0.03 |
19292 0.41 0.36 0.52 0.042
19294 0.4 0.36 0.45 0.024
19297 1.73 1.67 1.77 I 0.025
19298 1.61 1.52 1.66 0.033
19299 Muara Tiga o/c 0.42 0.37 0.49 0.032
19301 0.38 0.35 0.42 0.021
19303 0.4 0.36 0.44 0.021
19315 H D 17 Air Laway 0.37 0.33 0.41 0.021
19319 H D 40 Air Laway 0.37 0.33 0.43 0.027
19323 H D 17 Air Laway 0.42 0.38 0.46 0.019
19328 H D 55 Tapuan 0.45 0.41 0.51 0.031
19331 H D 61 Air Laway 0.41 0.38 0.47 0.022
19336 H D 62 Air Laway 0.43 0.39 0.47 0.022
19340 H D 63 Air Laway 0.43 0.39 0.47 0.021
19344 H D 54 Tapuan 0.43 0.39 0.48 0.022
19346 H D 51 Air Laway 0.39 0.35 0.42 0.018
19352 H D 43 Air Laway 0.35 0.31 0.4 0.023
19355 H D 01 Air Laway 0.36 0.32 0.39 0.02
19359 H D 12 Air Laway 0.4 0.36 0.44 0.02
19368 Suban o/c 2.34 2.29 2.44 0.036
19369 2.32 2.21 2.42 0.06
19370 Air Laya o/c 0.41 0.37 0.47 0.027
19371 R C 63 Air Laya 0.44 0.39 0.5 0.027
19376 R C 60 Air Laya 1.44 1.39 1.49 0.025
19381 R C 39 Air laya 0.43 0.39 0.47 0.023
19386 R C 14 Suban 0.84 0.77 0.91 0.035
19390 R C 12 Bukit A s a m 1.99 1.85 2.06 0.053
19394 R C 27A Air Laya 0.45 0.4 0.52 0.033
19399 R C 10 Tapuan 0.77 0.7 0.87 0.051
19403 R C 50 Air Laya 0.42 0.38 0.46 0.021
19408 R C 62A Air Laya 0.42 0.37 0.5 0.035
_19412 Banko 0.44 0.41 0.49 0.024
19413 0.4 0.36 0.44 0.022
19414 0.37 0.33 0.42 0.024
JI9422 0.42 0.37 0.48 0.032
J 9423 0.41 0.35 0.47 0.027
J 9424 0.43 0.38 0.47 0.024
_19425 0.45 0.39 0.52 0.033
_I9295 S.W. Balong Hijau o/c 1 0.93 1.04 0.028
J9296 S.w. Balong Hijau o/c 0.98 0.93 1.03 0.024
LJ9304_^ Muara Tiga 0.41 0.36 0.45 0.027

Page 1
 Location Rvmax. Min. Max. SD Source
GM. No.
19306 Muara Tiga 0.4 0.37 0.44 0.019
19307 0.4 0.36 ! 0.45 0.022
19308 0.4 0.36 0.47 0.026
19316 HD 37 Air Laway 0.42 0.37 0.47 0.025
19320 HD 40 Air Laway 0.38 0.35 0.41 0.018
19324 H D 17 Air Laway 0.44 0.39 0.48 0.023
19329 HD 55 Tapuan 0.46 0.39 0.51 0.031
19332 H D 61 Air Laway 0.43 0.38 0.48 0.026
19337 HD 62 Air Laway 0.41 0.38 0.45 0.021
19341 HD 63 Air Laway 0.45 0.4 0.48 0.022
19345 H D 54 Tapuan 0.42 0.38 0.47 0.024 .
19347 Ha 57 Air Laway _j 0.39 0.36 0.42 0.018
19353 HD 43 Air Laway 0.39 0.36 0.42 0.014
19356 H D 51 Air Laway 0.41 0.35 0.44 0.022
19360 H D 12 Air Laway 0.4 0.36 0.44 0.021
19366 Suban o/c 2.32 2.24 2.45 0.048
19367 2.18 2.1 2.23 0.036
19372 R C 63 Air Laya 0.44 0.37 0.5 0.031
19377 R C 60 Air Laya 1.26 1.12 1.32 0.043
19382 R C 39 Air Laya 0.43 0.38 0.49 0.028
19387 R C 14 Suban 0.89 0.8 0.95 0.04
19395 R C 27A Air Laya 0.48 0.43 0.55 0.031
19400 R C 10 Tapuan 0.69 0.61 0.75 0.035
19404 R C 50 Air Laya 0.44 0.4 0.49 0.024
19309 Muara Tiga o/c 0.43 0.38 0.47 0.027
19310 Muara Tiga o/c 0.44 0.39 0.49 0.026
19311 0.4 0.36 0.45 0.022
19317 HD 37 Air Laway 0.39 0.36 0.42 0.016
19321 HD 40 Air Laway 0.43 0.38 0.47 0.024
19325 HD 17 Air Laway 0.42 0.38 0.49 0.027
19330 H D 55 Tapuan 0.44 0.39 0.51 0.033
19338 HD 62 Air Laway 0.41 0.38 0.46 0.023
19348 HD 51 Air Laway 0.4 0.37 0.44 0.018
19350 HD 44 Air Laway 0.4 0.37 0.45 0.019
19354 HD 43 Air Laway 0.39 0.31 0.4 0.023
19357 HD 01 Air Laway 0.41 0.37 0.45 0.025
19361 HD 12 Air Laway 0.41 0.37 0.47 0.028
19333 H D 61 Air Laway 0.43 0.39 0.48 0.027
19363 Suban o/c 2.6 2.5 2.7 0.051
19364 2.41 2.3 2.53 0.053
19365 2.55 2.47 2.63 0.042
19373 R C 63 Air Laya 0.43 0.39 0.49 0.025
19378 RC 60 Air Laya 1.7 1.64 1.75 0.028
19383 R C 39 Air Laya 0.43 0.39 0.49 0.024
19388 R C 14 Suban 1.07 1.01 1.13 0.034
19391 RC 12BUkitAsam 2.19 2.09 2.29 0.054
19396 R C 27A Air Laya 0.48 0.41 0.59 0.039
19401 R C 10 Tapuan 1.4 1.34 1.52 0.041
19405 RC 50 Air Laya 0.44 0.4 0.49 0.028
19415 Banko 0.42 0.38 0.49 0.028
_19416 0.53 0.43 0.64 0.059
19334 HD61 AirLawav 0.43 0.39 0.49 0.025
19374 R C 63 Air Laya 0.49 0.42 0.56 0.036
19379 R C 60 Air Laya 1.72 1.66 1.78 0.029

Page 2
~GM. No. Location Rvmax. Min. Max. SD Source
19384 RC 39 Air Laya 0.44 0.39 0.51 0.031
19389 RC 14 Suban 1.25 1.2 1.33 0.031
19392 RC 12 Bukit Asam 2.25 2.17 2.35 0.044
19397 RC 27A Air Laya 0.51 0.44 0.57 0.032
19402 RC 10 Tapuan 2.05 1.97 2.12 0.039
19406 RC 50 Air Laya 0.45 0.4 0.52 0.033
19409 RC 62A Air Laya 0.42 0.38 0.47 0.024
19312 Muara Tiga o/c 1.46 1.4 1.54 0.049
19313 Muara Tiga 1.55 1.46 1.62 0.053
19314 1.53 1.48 1.58 0.025
19318 HD 37 Air Laway 0.42 0.37 0.48 0.026
19322 HD 40 Air Laway 0.43 0.38 0.47 0.026
19326 HD 17 Air Laway 0.44 0.39 0.48 0.023
19335 HD 61 Air Laway 0.47 0.41 0.54 0.033
19339 HD 62 Air Laway 0.45 0.4 0.5 0.028
19342 HD 63 Air Laway 0.89 0.81 0.97 0.04
19349 HD 51 Air Laway 0.42 0.38 0.47 0.024
19351 HD 44 Air Laway 0.41 0.35 0.48 0.029
19358 HD 01 Air Laway 0.45 0.39 0.5 0.024
19362 HD 12 Air Laway 0.42 0.39 0.47 0.021
19375 RC 63 Air Laway 0.45 0.4 0.51 0.032
19380 RC 60 Air Laya 1.78 1.66 1.85 0.04
19385 RC 39 Air Laya 0.45 0.39 0.5 0.03
19393 RC 12 Bukit Asam 2.28 2.19 2.36 0.044
19398 RC 27A Air Laya 0.51 0.46 0.58 0.031
19407 RC 50 Air Laya 0.47 0.4 0.54 0.039
19410 RC 62A Air Laya 0.43 0.38 0.5 0.033
19419 Banko 0.41 0.36 0.5 0.034
19420 0.41 0.37 0.47 0.026
19421 0.41 0.37 0.45 0.02

HD 043 - A1 0.37 na na na Kinhill-Ottogold, 1986

HD 043 - A2 0.4 na na na
HD 046 - A1 _j 0.35 na na na
HD046-A2 0.35 na na na
HD 046 - B 0.37 na na na
HD 046 - C 0.39 na na na
HD 047 - B 0.39 na na na
HD 048 - C 0.44 na na na
_ HD 054 - H 0.37 na na na
. HD 054 - A1 0.4 na na na
HD 054 - A2 0.4 na na na
HD 055 - H 0.35 na na na
. HD055-A1 0.4 na na na
HD 055 - A2 0.39 na na na
HD 055 - B 0.41 na na j na

Page 3
APPENDIX 5.4 VERTICAL VARIATION DIAGRAMS
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 Appendix 5.5 Proxiiate Analysis Data

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ALfll 364395.1 587818.9 55.6 61.1 0 0.8 29 67.5 2.7 8268 no

AL02 364374.8 587506.6 57.4 62.4 0 0.6 38.1 58.3 3 7940 nd
AL03 364094 587333.3 53.56 61.76 0 8.2 45 43.8 3 6781 nd
AL04 363970.5 586684 50.3 55.53 0 4 42.2 44.6 9.2 6582 nd
AL05 364362.4 586340.4 31.7 37.2 0 9 44.3 39.3 7.6 6279 nd
ALC6 364190.2 586743.8 33.7 37.6 0 1 22 64.5 12.5 7338 nd
AL07 364262.1 586732.4 30.6 37.5 0 1.1 24.1 72.4 2.4 8314 nd
AL08 364002.5 587010.4 61.1 67.7 0 0.5 33.2 57 9.3 7566 nd
AL09 364196 587013.7 39.65 47.65 0 1 22.7 62.5 13.8 7768 nd
ALII 363760 586691.9 62.6 68.6 0 18 41.3 37.8 2.9 5827 nd
AL12 363920.4 586371 23.1 31.4 0 18.8 36.7 40.7 3.8 5880 nd
AL13 364200.9 586257.7 27.25 34.75 0 15.1 41 41.3 2.6 6086 nd
AL14 364013.2 586955.5 55.25 57.25 0 0.9 35.5 63.3 2.3 8150 nd
AL15 363965.1 586857.1 58.5 64 0 0.9 34.3 61.4 3.4 7900 nd
AL17 364669.3 587760.1 56.3 62.6 0 1.8 40.4 52.6 5.2 7285 nd
AL24 364371.4 587286.5 44.36 50.66 0 0.6 24.9 70.7 3.8 8197 nd
AIB13 364714.2 586555.2 5.4 12.7 0 10.47 35.93 36.01 6.41 5465 0.25
ALB2C 364413.5 586313.5 9.6 18.05 0 11.22 43.9 43.54 12.56 6443 0.74
ALB24 362416.4 585032.9 12.4 15 0 12.36 43.02 47.3 9.68 6628 0.31
ALB25 364155 587144.3 40.8 45.8 0 0.86 24.6 67.28 8.12 7856 0.75
ALB30 365018.9 587402.5 37.8 46.8 0 10.99 44.46 46.41 9.13 6665 1.09
AIB32 364978.4 587104.5 2 2.53 0 12.47 44.21 49.68 6.11 6865 0.22
ALB43 364307.7 587251.2 20.3 25.3 0 1.5 23.9 66.1 10 7580 1.03
AIM4 364182.5 587415.2 43.8 51.55 0 2.5 38.5 51.3 10.2 7135 0.44
ALB45 364499.4 587523.9 24.15 29.8 0 1.4 27.6 65.7 6.7 7825 0.56
ALB47 364172.7 587164 21.51 27 0 1.1 24.2 60.6 15.2 7210 0.44
ALB48 363961.3 586872.8 41.65 49 0 1.8 33.09 52.74 14.15 7077 0.51
ALB50 363886 586305.4 9.5 18.46 0 10.7 44.7 44.9 10.4 6640 0.39
ALB51 364260.3 585998.6 41 48.85 0 10.2 44.6 44.7 10.7 6635 0.66
ALB52 363946.4 586039.7 39.4 46.8 0 10.2 43.1 46 10.9 6820 0.88
ALB53 363807.6 586572.5 31.4 41.3 0 13 44.3 43.3 12.4 6400 0.68
ALB55 363565.3 586108.6 5.7 7.9 0 1.3 16.9 73 10.1 7609 1.72
ALB56 363671.2 585924.5 40.6 47 0 2.7 38.4 51.3 10.3 7329 1.03
ALB57 363655 585642.6 18.1 22.6 0 1 27.8 64.2 8.2 7720 0.26
ALB58 363791.7 585646.4 65.5 71.05 0 2.4 39.7 55.9 4.4 7730 0.38
ALB62 363800.5 585888.4 58.44 65.4 0 5.4 42.2 48 9.8 6965 0.54
AP15 364032.4 585492.3 58.6 64.1 0 3.7 35.8 58.5 2 7872 nd
AP21 364254.6 585337.1 78.5 85 0 3.7 41.3 53.7 1.3 7656 nd
AP22 364259.3 585561.3 53.2 60.2 0 7.5 40.5 51 1 7238 nd
BD02 364993.1 587344.6 38 48.4 0 11.8 42.7 41.9 3.6 5974 nd
BD03 364831.1 587767.7 54.6 66.3 0 15.1 40.7 41.6 2.6 6091 nd
BD05 364902 586712.2 63.9 72.1 0 18.2 43.1 35.8 2.9 6208 nd
ED06 364768.4 586602.2 44.5 55.05 0 20.7 39.3 37.7 2.3 5600 nd
BD07 364668.8 587746.4 56.4 64.15 0 6.2 41.4 49.6 2.8 6957 nd
DAL21 364350.1 586824.2 6.35 10.6 c 1.4 20.5 75 4.9 8205 0.62
DAL30 364005.6 586981.6 24.2 30.6 0 1.7 33.1 63 3.9 7996 0.51
DG27 363264 586581.2 20.82 29.87 0 18.8 44.9 47.5 7.6 6967 nd
GP02 364014.5 587156.8 72.63 80.4 0 17.48 45.6 51.21 3.19 7283 0.92
GP03 364261.6 587444.6 62 68.75 0 3.54 30.52 67.57 1.91 8222 0.84
GP04 364079.5 586132.5 30.7 39.25 0 16.9 44.15 50.16 5.69 7167 0.53
GP05 364310 586044.9 46.27 54.1 0 16.77 44.31 51.83 3.86 7238 0.76
GP06 363977.1 585940.8 67 75.3 0 12.06 42.27 52.47 5.26 7295 1.08
BHID EASTING NORTHING

49.3 0 4.44 39.89 57.85 2.26 8042 0.83

GP07 363732.2 585811.5 43.95
56.75 60.65 0 1.36 32.5 65.42 2.08 8214 0.59
GPC8 363750.7 585575.8
62.4 0 9.48 43.14 55.4 1.46 7645 0.64
GP10 364135.2 585677.9 54.7
50.8 0 11.68 40.78 52.97 2.25 7311 0.43
GP11 364395.6 585901.1 42.9
44.1 49.25 0 13.72 44.2 53.62 2.18 7309 0.53
GP13 364935.5 586129.4
233.4 245 0 9.4 44.2 43.4 12.4 6892 0.99
RP01 365118.9 587952.2
93.6 0 6.5 43.9 46.3 9.8 6663 0.16
KP02 364881.2 587943.2 84.05
14.6 23.1 0 9.7 44.8 48.5 6.7 6984 0.47
KP09 364493.6 587387.1
LBG01 364918.6 587544.7 2.3 8 0 15.3 45.7 50 4.3 7161 0.21
LBG04 364803.8 587655.3 17.01 24.81 0 11.2 46.2 47.7 6.1 6937 0.56
28.7 35.5 0 2.9 38.8 55.7 5.5 7705 0.55
LBG06 364551.2 587741.9
80.7 90.33 0 10.6 44.5 44.9 10.6 6555 D.54
LBG10 364356.4 587871.2
20.55 26.15 0 1.8 24.1 65.3 10.6 7551 0.55
LBG15 364321.1 587427
26.4 33.4 0 2.4 36.6 58.6 4.8 7869 0.66
LBG19 364019.4 587034.7
LBG20 363936 587426.3 82.9 92.75 0 14.7 46.4 49.1 4.5 7186 0.35
11.65 19.85 0 1C.5 42.8 40.8 16.4 6134 0.72
LBG21 364464.1 586228.1
fflOl 363449.8 586786.5 93.8 102.85 0 11.3 40.19 42.08 6.43 6111 0.61
ffi02 363026 586712 94.6 104.1 0 14.68 39 39 3.34 6101 0.74
M03 363276.7 586629.9 40.45 48.6 0 12.87 40.44 41.87 4.82 6486 0.46
HH05 362947.9 586628.3 56.55 66.05 0 J3.99 40.42 41.09 4.5 5936 0.69
NSB02 364554.3 585322.4 32.8 39.9 0 4.3 43.1 48.27 8.2 7500 0.86
RC07 364435.5 587767.9 69.8 79.4 0 6.78 44.47 45.66 9.87 6604 1.02
RC11 364133 585331.4 84.15 90.25 G 0 32 68 0 8140 nd
RC12 363730.4 585405.8 77 81.1 0 3 30 70 0 8400 nd
SC12A 363729.1 585444.7 67.75 68.6 0 1.37 23 77 0 8389 nd
RC14 364725.2 585399 21 23.8 0 0 41 59 0 8178 nd
RC45 364142.8 586723.4 30.15 35.8 0 2.64 27 73 0 8279 nd
RC47A 365046.6 586593.9 107.4 116.8 0 14.96 51 49 0 7459 nd
SC47 365010.1 586604.7 95.45 104.75 0 16.89 49 51 0 nd nd
RC48 364177.7 586805.8 17.2 22.4 0 1.51 23 77 0 8287 nd
RC51 364137.6 586897.6 43.05 48 0 2.31 22 78 0 8375 nd
RC53 364167.7 586994.5 30.7 36.15 0 1.3 19 81 0 nd nd
RC55 365144.4 586923.2 108.3 117.6 0 15.03 49 51 0 nd nd
RC58 364184.6 587089.1 32.05 38 0 1.24 22 78 0 7403 nd
RC59 365115.9 587156.5 118.25 125.25 0 14.48 50 50 0 6173 nd
S2 364369.4 584867.2 33.2 38.1 0 0 11.51 0 0 nd nd
S5 364293.2 585815.4 35.23 40.17 0 0 11.15 0 0 nd nd
S7a 364296 585097 34.65 41.14 0 0 37.13 0 0 nd nd
TA25 364646 586144 54.29 61.7 0 15.16 44.82 47.88 7.3 7073 0.5
TA29 364329 585648 54.32 62 0 9.61 44.88 48.92 6.2 7032 0.47
TA30 363958 585988 66.1 73.6 0 9.66 44.45 48.95 6.6 6939 0.71
TA41 364101 586898 50.5 54.16 0 2.46 23.19 72.36 4.5 8255 0.65
TA65 364254.6 584877.6 36.4 38.9 0 1.3 18.4 78.4 3.2 8323 0.4
TA59 363912 585729 71.2 78.46 0 3.79 42.51 49.99 7.5 7383 0.5
TA64 364394.2 584942.7 36.1 38.8 0 1.5 10.6 81.7 7.7 7765 1.95
TA66 364224.3 587031.2 23.8 29.2 0 1.6 17.4 73.6 9 7679 0.46
HOI 364617.4 586240.8 55.27 63.04 0 13.63 13.64 35.05 1.95 6202 nd
BB01 363994 585804.6 60,6 68.1 0 7.88 41.41 55.93 2.66 7416 0.9
WB05 364729.1 585260.7 5 8.1 0 1.8 34.6 63.4 2 8255 0.46
HB08 364646.2 585935.8 69.92 77.98 0 6.8 42.6 49.5 7.9 7150 0.87
RB11 364395.5 587454.1 56.8 62.7 0 2.1 25.6 57.6 16.8 6885 0.6
SB12 364646.3 587634.6 42.7 50.6 0 2.8 39 53.8 7.2 7540 0.54
WB15 363971.4 587376.3 80.1 89 0 14.3 42.4 45.8 11.9 6485 0.57
HB16 364231.5 587243.9 35.3 40 0 2.1 16.9 69.9 13.2 7425 0.77
RB18 363731.3 587123.7 108.9 117.5 0 15.2 44.1 47.3 8 6825 0.51
WB25 364923.1 586640.7
BHID EASTING NORTHING FROM TO TM IM VH FC ASH CV S

133 364556.3 587718.7 64.7 72 0 3.3 37.9 53.8 9.4 7311 0.32
WB36 365037.1 586862.6 83.4 92 0 13.6 43.8 46.2 10 6643 0.25
WB43 363039.9 586619.6 47.7 58 0 18.9 44.9 48.5 6.6 6936 0.6
ALB08 364856 586695 22.9 , 32 23.45 16.6 29.68 32.87 1.35 4598 0.15
ALB11 364868.6 586765.6 12.45 21.95 22.75 13.19 42.92 42.13 1.76 6617 0.10
ALB14 364752.6 586621 5.3 14.1 21.4 11.08 41.62 40.96 6.34 6183 0.86
ALB22 364298.3 586224.5 13.03 22 21.8 11.91 31.43 34.35 3.10 4998 0.44
SSB01 364225.7 585225 70.5 76.3 8.2 2.7 38.23 53.90 18.87 7184 0.83
NSB03 364566.2 585216.7 16.3 18.2 3.8 0.8 20.24 25.93 56.41 3812 0.15
NSBQ4 364182.3 585135.4 59.9 66.7 7.9 1.5 38.21 59.16 9.41 8267 0.94
NSB06 364391 585316.5 62.5 67.7 8.8 3.5 42.86 49.12 13.33 7483 0.78
RC02 364138.5 586642.6 35.4 41.6 5.83 2.31 34.20 58.82 10.49 7090 na
RC10 364461.1 585208.3 41.95 48.4 6.2 3.2 42.00 51.96 9.25 7592 0.66
RC21 363596.9 585797.6 9.5 13.75 9.23 3.65 14.53 43.61 48.00 3665 1.92
RC34 364494.5 586238.5 8.3 9.4 20.87 15.22 43.00 46.57 17.57 6677 0.75
RC46A 364207.1 586740.5 7.7 11.7 7.36 1.48 26.87 55.80 13.68 7737 0.64
RC51A 364136.2 586902.9 44.15 47.85 8.03 1.99 21.29 71.28 13.99 7508 0.67
RC60 364179.4 587273.7 47.6 53.85 8.54 2.21 23.01 59.04 14.87 7564 0.78
RC61 364501.1 587413.8 18.9 24.65 6.67 1.6 29.58 62.86 12.99 7612 0.96
SB02 363988.4 585333.9 88.4 94 3.5 1.4 33.92 60.79 7.46 7903 0.45
BB13 364900.4 587511.5 44.6 54.3 3.9 12.7 40.06 44.42 6.45 6209 0.58
 A2 SEAM

BHID Easting Northing Thick FROM TO CV TH IM VH FC ASH

ALC4 363970.5 586684 9.5 60.13 69.63 7285 nd 5.1 42.4 50.8 2.1
AL05 364362.4 586340.4 10.5 41.6 52.1 6068 nd 16 41.2 40.7 2.1
AL06 364190.2 586743.8 8.3 43.6 51.9 7519 nd 0.5 22.9 66 10.6
AL07 364262.1 586732.4 9.00 42.3 51.3 8037 nd 0.7 26.1 66.6 6.6
AL08 364002.5 587010.4 7.6 71.6 79.2 7706 nd 0.5 33.1 58 8.4
AL09 364196 587013.7 8.9 53.05 61.95 7940 nd 0.3 19.8 73.7 6.2
ALII 363760 586691.9 9.00 71.95 80.95 5787 nd 18.7 42 37.5 1.8
AL12 363920.4 586371 8.95 35.4 44.35 6083 nd 12.4 42.9 41.4 3.3
AL13 364200.9 586257.7 9.30 39.25 48,55 6041 nd 15.1 39.8 42.6 2.5
AL15 363965.1 586857.1 7.8 67.9 75.7 7940 nd 0.6 31.5 64.3 3.6
AL24 364371.4 587286.5 8.95 53.66 62.61 8174 nd 0.6 24.1 70.2 4.1
ALB13 364714.2 586555.2 8.68 16.2 24.88 5534 nd 11.52 35.88 36.69 5.43
ALB20 364413.5 586313.5 10.55 19.8 30.35 7045 nd 12.11 44.26 50.05 5.69
ALB26 364262.4 587101.5 6.8 19.7 26.5 8110 nd 0.72 20.93 75.58 3.49
ALB27 364222.7 586912.2 8.7 15.3 22 8194 nd 1.21 14.71 81.08 4.21
ALB32 364978.4 587104.5 11.75 6.2 17.95 6795 nd 12.14 44.78 48.69 6.53
ALB41 364234.8 587298.8 7.12 41.1 48.22 8420 nd 1.25 21.98 76.14 1.88
ALB42 364328.9 587694.4 11.6 80.1 91.7 7310 nd 8 23.9 66.1 10
ALB43 364307.7 587251.2 6.3 30.3 36.6 8030 nd 1.4 19.4 75.5 6.1
ALB44 364182.5 587415.2 9.6 55.75 65.35 7525 nd 3.2 38.3 54.8 6.9
ALB45 364499.4 587523.9 7.3 33.5 41.8 7825 nd 2.3 38.4 56.5 5.1
ALB47 364172.7 587164 5.5 27.25 32.75 8250 nd 1.1 25.3 71.2 3.5
ALB48 363961.3 586872.8 8.1 53.25 61.35 6765 nd 1.7 30.72 58 10.68
ALB56 363671.2 585924.5 7.3 49.2 56.5 7888 nd 2 39.7 55.3 5
ALB57 363655 585642.6 5.8 27 32.8 8355 nd 0.8 26.4 70.2 3.4
ALB58 363791.7 585646.4 4.3 76 80.3 8095 nd 1.9 38.3 60.1 1.6
ALB62 363800.5 585888.4 8.5 68 76.5 7465 nd 5.6 41.5 52.1 6.4
ALP15 364105.3 586554.6 9.5 3.3 12.8 7872 nd 3.7 35.8 58.5 2
AP22 364259.3 585561.3 8.3 64.7 73 7214 nd 8.4 39.1 49.3 3.2
BD02 364993.1 587344.6 10.4 55 65.4 6068 nd 13.8 41 41.3 3.9
DAL21 364350.1 586824.2 8.10 11.95 20.05 8175 nd 1.8 20.3 76.5 3.2
DAL30 364005.6 586981.6 8.3 33.7 42 7823 nd 1.7 29.4 65.2 5.4
DG27 363264 586581.2 10.97 33.13 44.01 7156 nd 19.7 44.5 52.4 3.1
GPC1 364136.7 586993.7 5.31 39 44.31 7599 nd 15.29 43.82 54.88 1.3
GP02 364014.5 587156.8 9.55 83.1 92.65 7241 nd 16.59 43.71 50.02 6.27
GP03 364261.6 587444.6 8.59 73.01 81.6 8083 nd 4.85 36.92 61.62 1.46
GP05 364310 586044.9 9.6 56.2 65.8 7468 nd 16.23 43.65 53.68 2.63
GP06 363977.1 585940.8 6.95 77.9 84.85 7442 nd 10.48 43.16 53.63 3.21
GP07 363732.2 585811.5 7.51 52.14 59.65 8092 nd 5.18 37.36 61.17 1.47
GPC8 363750.7 585575.8 6.02 66.48 72.5 8067 nd 1.47 31.59 64.72 3.69
GP10 364135.2 585677.9 7.3 69.4 76.7 7318 nd 9.44 40.77 53.52 5.71
GPU 364395,6 585901.1 9.26 55.34 64.6 7322 nd 12.33 43.22 54.25 2.53
KP08 364691.4 587215.6 ND 8.8 11.7 6572 nd 5.1 38.9 46.7 14.4
LBG06 364551.2 587741.9 10.85 39.5 50.35 7575 nd 4.3 40.6 54.7 4.7
LBG07 364564.9 587924.4 11.38 66.25 77.63 7540 nd 5.5 43.4 53.4 3.2
LBG15 364321.1 587427 5.9 29.9 35.8 8198 nd 1.5 20.4 77 2.6
LBG18 364118.9 586737.7 7.55 1.31 8.86 8099 nd 1.1 26.6 70.4 3
LBG19 364019.4 587034.7 8.58 36.87 45.45 8037 nd 1.7 34.6 61.5 3.9
LBG20 363936 587426.3 8 96.25 104.25 7193 nd 15.2 44.7 51.5 3.8
LBG21 364464.1 586228.1 9.6 25.5 35.1 6690 nd 10.8 43.2 45.6 11.2
ffiOl 363449.8 586786.5 8.35 105.35 113.7 6430 nd 11.64 41.09 41.09 3
NK02 363026 586712 12.05 108.6 120.65 5659 nd 21.5 36.32 36.32 2.74
HH03 363276.7 586629.9 11.01 52.12 63.13 5901 nd 20.67 38.08 38.95 2.3
HM05 362947.9 586628.3 11.45 71 82.45 6130 nd 16.69 38.43 42.94 1.94
BHID Easting Northing Thick FROM TO CV ffl H VM FC ASH S

BCU 364133 585331.4 4.9 95.6 100.5 8380 nd nd 27 73 nd nd

RC12 363730.4 585405.8 2.15 83.6 85.75 8500 nd 2 28 72 nd nd
RC13 363941.4 585421.2 7.6 88.9 96.5 8191 nd nd 38 62 nd nd
RC14 364725.2 585399 4.15 28 32.15 7850 nd nd 38 62 nd nd
RC17 364007.7 585694.5 8.25 76.55 84.8 7792 nd 6.02 46 54 nd nd
RC22 364014.3 585864.3 7.85 62.8 70.65 7602 nd 9.64 49 51 nd nd
RC23 363908.8 585923.2 8.4 77.35 85.75 7917 nd 10.14 46 54 nd nd
RC26 363790.3 586035.6 8.25 44.3 52.55 7995 nd 9.09 48 52 nd nd
RC27 363959.8 586078 6.6 50.45 57.05 7076 nd 10.22 49 51 nd nd
RC27A 363939.3 586054.9 8.5 50.5 59 7178 nd 11.85 48 52 nd nd
RC28 364129.1 586020.2 9.3 53.5 62.8 7189 nd 10.38 50 50 nd nd
RC35 364808.7 586151.7 10.9 81.8 92.7 7361 nd 11.25 49 51 nd nd
RC37 363616.9 586433.5 10.05 12.95 23 7453 nd 16.08 50 50 nd nd
RC39 364844.3 586210.9 10.75 92.8 103.55 7503 nd 12.21 50 50 nd nd
RC41 365289.3 586310.6 11.1 67.55 78.65 nd nd 16.2 51 49 nd nd
RC42 364759.1 586479.5 10.1 62.8 72.9 7310 nd 18.56 49 51 nd nd
RC45 364142.8 586723.4 6.14 40.86 47 8089 nd 1.69 29 71 nd nd
RC47A 365046.6 586593.9 12.12 120.93 133.05 6916 nd 14.24 50 50 nd nd
RC47 365010.1 586604.7 11.25 109.2 120.45 nd nd 17.21 48 52 nd nd
RC48 364177.7 586805.8 7 26.3 33.3 8480 nd 1.68 22 78 nd nd
RC51 364137.6 586897.6 7 52.8 59.8 8733 nd 1.56 20 80 nd nd
RC53 364167.7 586994.5 6.5 49.5 56 nd nd 0.99 18 82 nd nd
RC55 365144.4 586923.2 12.45 121.9 134.35 nd nd 10.33 51 49 nd nd
RC57 364116.1 587117.6 8.0 58.8 66.8 8552 nd 1.18 26 74 nd nd
RC58 364184.6 587089.1 6.5 45.6 52.1 8052 nd 1.08 20 80 nd nd
S2 364369.4 584867.2 3.4 43.53 46.93 nd nd nd 10.5 nd nd nd
S7a 364296 585097 5.4 44.87 50.27 nd nd nd 29.35 nd nd nd
S5 364293.2 585815.4 5.27 45.56 50.83 nd nd nd 10.74 nd nd nd
TA16 364657.6 585135.5 7.1 2.6 9.7 8293 nd 1.3 26.6 70.3 1.8 nd
TA29 364329 585648 8 67.98 75.98 7356 nd 10.32 44.65 50.05 5.3 0.2
Mfl 363958 585988 8.95 76.15 85.1 7172 nd 9.79 44.59 50.41 5 0.26
TA38 364282 586731 5.43 5.5 10.93 8303 nd 1 26.4 71.6 2 0.39
TA39 363889 586712 9.73 70.27 80 7070 nd 13.06 44.04 51.26 4.7 0.27
TA41 364101 586898 5.14 58.17 63.31 8095 nd 1.9 23.8 73 3.2 0.54
TA42 364810 586877 11.4 14 25.4 6998 nd 15.51 44.39 50.31 5.3 0.23
TA45 364410 587253 6.7 15.5 22.2 8079 nd 2.06 24.71 70.99 4.3 0.37
TA59 363912 585729 8.04 82.9 90.94 7617 nd 3.62 43.25 52.35 4.4 0.24
TA64 364394.2 584942.7 2.2 39.9 42.1 6213 nd 1.9 8.5 69.9 21.6 0.54
102 363988.4 585333.9 6.6 101.8 108.4 8345 nd 1.4 28.5 68.5 3 0.3
TA65 364254.6 584877.6 4.2 43 47.2 7915 nd 1.5 13 79.5 7.5 C.52
TA66 364224.3 587031.2 4.2 37.8 42 6940 nd 1.6 16.9 66.6 16.5 0.54
HOI 364617.4 586240.8 10.42 65.38 75.8 6282 nd 12.2 41.78 41.51 2.16 nd
ffflOl 363994 585804.6 7.9 71.65 79.55 7482 nd 7.13 42.1 53.9 4 0.29
103 364652.4 585618.4 8.55 36.55 45.1 7610 nd 7.71 43.29 54.99 1.72 0.25
104 364426.7 585127.9 5.9 44.55 50.45 8235 nd 1.5 33.9 63.7 2.4 0.33
106 364534.3 586280.7 10.6 45.12 55.72 6945 nd 11 44.1 49.2 6.7 0.27
108 364646.2 585935.8 10.79 82.33 93.12 7345 nd 6.5 43 51.2 5.8 0.2
in 364395.5 587454.1 6.8 66 72.8 7545 nd 2 25.9 64.2 9.9 0.43
115 363971.4 587376.3 10.4 92.7 103.1 6975 nd 15.4 44.9 49.4 5.7 1.01
116 364231.5 587243.9 6.3 44.5 50.8 7750 nd 1.8 18.6 72.3 9.1 0.56
118 363731.3 587123.7 11.2 120.6 131.8 6905 nd 14.4 44.2 48.8 7 0.19
127 363888.4 586027 8 50 58 7173 nd 9.3 44.5 49.7 5.8 0.24
KB28 364556.9 585739.8 9.2 43.8 53 7061 nd 10.2 44.9 48.8 6.3 0.35
129 364054.1 585046.1 5.8 81.2 87 7960 nd 0.9 22.3 70.8 6.9 0.34
130 364046.5 585592.2 7.4 68.6 76 7570 nd 4.4 42.6 52.6 4.8 0.23
131 364301.4 585005.7 6.4 46.6 53 7965 nd 1.1 22.2 7C.2 7.6 0.3
 Thick FROM TO CV TM IM VM FC ASH
BHID Easting Northing
103 7830 nd 1.8 32.1 61.3 6.6 0.27
SB32 364180 585224.3 4.9 98.1
7509 nd 4.8 42.5 53.4 4.1 0.26
WB33 364556.3 587718.7 9.9 76.1 86 0.38
73.8 7535 nd 4.6 39.6 54.4 6
SB38 363951.8 586980.5 8.2 82 0.13
4512 14.4 16.11 24.03 32.74 1.66
AIBQ8 364856 586695 10.3 37.4, 47.7
6125 23.25 12.49 37.75 41.42 8.33 0.13
364868.6 586765.6 11.3 25.55 26.85
MB11
9.6 34.2 43.8 22.55 nd
ALB12 364026.5 586486.8 0.55
6408 19.05 6.69 41.54 45.06 6.71
ALB14 364752.6 586621 11.36 17.3 8.36
6430 23.02 9.45 41.85 39.79 8.90 0.56
ALB15 364763.8 586669.9 9.8 15.65 5.45
5345 24.25 10.47 31.30 32.48 3.53 0.12
ALB22 364298.3 586224.5 8.4 29.8 38.2
8145 20.4 11 52.77 55.90 3.13 0.38
ALB5C 363886 586305.4 11.35 23 24.35
8213 13.6 7 48.11 57.16 2.37 0.28
ALB60 364333 585570.7 8.9 69.65 78.55
363722.5 586254 7.7 8 15.7 19.3 nd
ALB63 1.76 0.26
82.2 8478 14.55 6.1 48.46 59.67
ALB61 364221.4 585510.3 8 74.2
87.4 8052 6.5 2.4 40.21 57.21 6.79 0.27
NSB01 364225.7 585225 7.35 80.05
7962 9.7 3.9 44.52 53.82 7.77 0.23
NSB02 364554.3 585322.4 8.8 43.45 52.25
28.8 5766 6.2 2.2 42.43 50.44 1.36 3.83
NSB03 364566.2 585216.7 4.6 24.2
78.8 8512 7.9 1.3 35.61 63.52 7.93 0.28
HSB04 364182.3 585135.4 7.07 71.73
77.8 8032 9.5 3.4 43.30 54.69 8.43 0.28
NSB06 364391 585316.5 7.5 70.3
70.6 8221 14.99 4.41 52.13 57.43 3.97 0.30
RC01 364208.8 585781 9 61.6
RC02 364138.5 586642.6 6.75 44.45 51.2 8621 7.54 1.1 36.21 65.95 4.81 na
57.3 8038 4.6 2.1 40.54 57.14 4.95 0.32
RC10 364461.1 585208.3 6.5 50.8
16.35 21.64 8513 5.63 1.01 26.00 74,00 4.89 0.73
RC46A 364207.1 586740.5 5.29
53.9 59.95 7656 3.82 0.91 18.25 72.98 11.80 0.68
RC51A 364136.2 586902.9 6.05
65.3 7028 4.36 1 21.26 63.77 18.49 0.30
RC60 364179.4 587273.7 7 58.3
8.95 28.7 37.65 8030 6.43 2.36 37.38 60.99 5.98 0.27
RC61 364501.1 587413.8
9.5 62.5 72 8082 24 13.2 52.42 56.88 4.91 0.25
WB39 364678.9 586357
10.9 127.1 138 7760 22.13 16.8 49.36 54.70 2.67 0.21
SB40 365218.7 587018.5
11 115 126 8082 26.5 17.6 50.34 55.72 6.05 0.27
KB41 363642.3 586972.1
10.6 54.6 65.2 7334 7.9 6.7 43.86 51.77 5.67 0.21
HB12 364646.3 587634.6
 Bl SEAM

BED EASTING NORTHING FROM TO H VM FC ASH CV S

AL06 364190.2 586743.8 56.1 61.1 0.5 24.4 52.9 22.2 6396 nd
ALIO 363813.6 587023.6 103.8 108.44 9.3 48.6 38.8 3.3 6466 nd
AL14 364013.2 586955.5 88.9 100.1 1 17.4 77.5 4.1 7963 nd
AL18 364457.5 587017.2 18.05 27.05 1 15.1 81.9 2 8314 nd
ALB27 364222.7 586912.2 39.8 47 1.08 17.93 75.73 6.34 8000 0.69
ALB35 364396.1 587076 11 18 1.46 14.99 75.01 10 7575 0.3
ALB39 364577.9 587169.6 14.61 21.6 2.1 34.29 60.85 4.86 8070 0.26
ALB4C 364638.4 587317.5 14.8 22.9 2.49 38.41 53.8 7.79 7505 0.23
AEB41 364234.8 587298.8 65.82 72.62 1.04 17.42 79.32 3.26 8230 1.46
ALB44 364182.5 587415.2 82.35 89.75 2.7 39.4 52.4 7.1 7685 0.16
ALB45 364499.4 587523.9 59.4 68.7 1.7 39 56.8 4.2 7935 0.3
ALB47 364172.7 587164 49.35 56.35 0.59 18.2 78 3.8 8370 0.53
ALB48 363961.3 586872.8 78.1 87.1 2.1 35.75 57.5 6.74 7622 1.45
ALB55 363565.3 586108.6 29.95 37.6 1 28.5 66.1 5.4 8131 0.4
ALB56 363671.2 585924.5 72.5 80.9 1.8 37.4 57.4 5.2 7680 0.28
ALB59 363498.8 585560 5.7 8.7 1 10.1 82.8 7.2 7930 0.87
ALB60 364333 585570.7 93.3 102.75 1 42.9 49.4 7.7 7285 0.32
ALB61 364221.4 585510.3 96.4 105.4 4.1 41.6 53.8 4.6 7650 0.16
ALB62 363800.5 585888.4 90.5 94.4 4.8 41.6 51.5 6.9 7460 0.28
ALB68 363537 585993 38 40.3 2 12.4 62 19.3 6602 nd
ALB69 363450.6 586171.4 5.6 11.6 0.9 30.47 64.88 4.64 7885 0.22
ALB71 363383.3 586024.5 36.8 39.2 2.5 8.5 57.2 31.8 4915 0.78
ALP10 364396.2 587076.1 14.6 21.6 1.46 14.99 75.01 10 7575 0.3
AP21 364254.6 585337.1 117.4 125.4 1.4 34 56.1 8.5 7684 nd
AP22 364259.3 585561.3 87.6 96.7 6.7 39.1 50 4.2 7238 nd
DAL06 364409.5 586896.1 6.15 13.65 1.59 13.94 78.67 7.39 7876 0.83
DAL07 364418.1 586786.1 12.9 18 1.16 27.3 65.17 7.53 7905 0.46
DAL08 364371.5 586685.1 17.1 24.5 1.75 25.79 59.86 14.35 7293 0.46
DAL09 364309.8 586843.8 19.85 27.25 1.12 14.24 77.26 8.5 7800 0.27
DAL10 364511.1 586844.8 1.4 8.55 3.44 40.65 53.61 5.74 7650 0.52
DAL11 364491.4 586792.2 1.3 10.8 3.01 43.04 51.28 5.68 7305 0.35
DAL16 364711.4 586978.8 1.4 13.6 12.1 43.7 48.1 8.2 6975 0.33
DAL17 364788.5 587271.9 7.9 20 9.4 43.8 47.5 8.7 6885 0.47
DAL21 364350.1 586824.2 34.55 41.2 1.3 17 76.6 6.4 7870 0.59
DAL30 364005.6 586981.6 60.2 66.5 2.4 40.6 57.9 1.5 8074 0.55
DAL31 364296.6 587043.7 6.3 13.3 1.3 14 77.9 8.1 7893 0.67
DAL32 364237.5 586748.3 4.3 11.2 1.5 15.7 77.5 6.8 7873 0.65
DG27 363264 586581.2 63.48 74.8 18.3 43.8 51.3 4.9 7110 nd
GP01 364136.7 586993.7 57.35 63.65 2.04 16.64 80.9 4.46 8143 0.66
GP02 364014.5 587156.8 109.65 116.68 12.37 43.07 54.25 2.68 7672 0.31
GP03 364261.6 587444.6 99.83 106.3 2.11 27.78 68.79 3.48 8237 0.36
GP04 364079.5 586132.5 64.15 74.1 15.66 44.52 52.49 2.99 7543 0.28
GP05 364310 586044.9 84.4 93.7 14.4 43.34 51.82 4.84 7304 0.6
GP06 363977.1 585940.8 93.21 94.4 9.93 42.22 55.87 1.91 7593 0.37
GP07 363732.2 585811.5 77.95 85.89 3.58 37.18 59.51 3.31 8069 0.34
GP08 363750.7 585575.8 81.54 87.92 1.02 25.07 66.32 8.61 7756 0.51
GP10 364135.2 585677.9 94.6 104.1 7.54 41.94 52.89 5.17 7473 0.29
GP11 364395.6 585901.1 80.87 90.8 11.47 42.74 53.57 3.69 7277 0.26
GP13 364935.5 586129.4 49.25 58.63 14.06 44.37 52.07 3.56 7104 0.31
KP08 364691.4 587215.6 31.4 40.6 4.1 42.2 50.7 7.1 7379 0.25
LBG06 364551.2 587741.9 66.5 77.45 4.8 43.1 50.4 6.5 7410 0.25
LK15 364321.1 587427 51.75 59.4 1.3 23.4 67.9 8.7 7796 0.43
LBG16 364213.3 586524.5 7.35 17.35 6.5 44.4 50.4 5.2 7257 0.6
LBG18 364118.9 586737.7 26.26 32.91 1.6 17.4 76.1 6.5 7292 0.61
BHID EASTING NORTHING FROM TO W VM FC ASH CV S

LBG19 364019.4 587034.7 61.84 69.77 1.3 32.2 64.1 3.7 8075 0.43
586786.5 133.3 145.8 10.74 40.87 40.87 4.35 6449 0.24
ffiOl 363449.8
586712 141.7 154.6 12.61 40.6 40.6 6.05 6030 0.18
ffl02 363026
363276.7 586629.9 82.5 94.65 11.82 41.09 43.11 3.98 6268 0.26
MMC3
362947.9 586628.3 104.3 116.65 14.68 38.66 42.23 4.43 5996 0.24
HM05
HSBOl 364225.7 585225 102.5 108.15 1.4 35.19 57.7 7 7991 0.38
NSB02 364554.3 585322.4 68.45 77.5 2.5 41.83 51.84 6.7 7620 0.38
NSB03 364566.2 585216.7 41.6 42.1 1.2 19.73 71.86 8.3 7930 0.4
NSB04 364182.3 585135.4 93.55 100.3 0.9 25.22 65.59 9.1 7911 0.44
NSB06 364391 585315.5 92.2 101.15 1.9 39.57 51.68 8.4 7573 0.41
R02 363123.7 586420 26.8 38.25 11.7 39.39 42.77 6.14 6331 0.35
RC02 364138.5 585642.6 68.6 76,4 0.86 20.23 62.21 0.86 7633 nd
RC07 364435.5 587767.9 112.8 122.4 2.32 40.61 44.28 13.79 6712 0.36
RC10 364461.1 585208.3 69.8 75.6 0.7 27.28 66.79 5.94 7930 0.5
RC11 364133 585331.4 116.6 123.4 13 87 nd 7740 nd
RC12 363730.4 585405.8 94.65 101.2 1.41 14 86 nd 8629 nd
RC12A 363729.1 585444.7 83.85 90.55 0.91 16 84 nd 8318 nd
RC13 363941.4 585421.2 112.25 120.35 32 68 nd 8300 nd
RC14 364725.2 585399 49.7 53.7 34 66 nd 8420 nd
RC17 364007.7 585694.5 101.9 110.7 3.54 47 53 nd 7470 nd
RC18 364847.1 585701.5 31.4 32.95 6.99 48 52 nd 7579 nd
RC21 363596.9 585797.6 31.8 38.85 1.15 25.27 61.86 12.87 6985 0.52
RC22 364014.3 585864.3 88.25 97.15 7.58 46 54 nd 7812 nd
RC23 363908.8 585923.2 100.3 109.15 7.53 47 53 nd 7891 nd
RC26 363790.3 586035.6 72 81.5 8.05 4? 53 nd 7491 nd
RC27 363959.8 586078 75.7 84.75 8.73 48 52 nd 7331 nd
RC27A 363939.3 586054.9 77.6 84.35 9.71 48 52 nd 7375 nd
RC28 364129.1 586020.2 80.65 90.8 7.7 51 49 nd 5964 nd
RC32 363506.9 586087.9 42.4 45.1 0.9 15.51 75.71 8.78 7750 0.66
RC35 364808.7 586151.7 110.3 121.4 9.65 52 48 nd 5672 nd
RC36 365083.6 596104.6 27.2 39.59 12.03 52 48 nd 7303 nd
RC37 363616.9 586433.5 42.5 53.6 15.04 51 49 nd 7517 nd
RC39 364844.3 586210.9 120.8 132.3 13.41 49 51 nd 7554 nd
RC40 365083.2 586334.9 91.5 103.7 16.5 44.49 46.3 9.21 6737 0.23
RC41 365289.3 586310.6 96.35 107.75 17.79 50 50 nd nd nd
RC42 364759.1 586479.5 91.6 102 16.62 51 49 nd 7320 nd
RC45 364142.8 586723.4 65.25 72.1 1.96 19 81 nd 8285 nd
RC46A 364207.1 586740.5 39 45.55 1.23 16.41 74.76 8.83 7411 0.49
RC47 365010.1 586604.7 139.65 153.5 17.42 50 50 nd nd nd
RC48 364177.7 586805.8 51.6 58.1 2.12 16 84 nd 8542 nd
RC51A 364136.2 586902.9 77.7 84.25 2.21 14.52 76.21 9.27 7739 0.85
RC53 364167.7 586994.5 70.5 77.4 1.37 14 86 nd nd nd
RC55 365144.4 586923.2 155.25 168.6 12.57 51 . 49 nd nd nd
RC57 364116.1 587117.6 83.1 89.1 1.4 21 79 nd 8387 nd
RC58 364184.6 587089.1 67.95 73.85 1.22 23 77 nd 8144 nd
RC60 364179.4 587273.7 82.75 89.8 2.04 17.46 69.85 12.69 7354 0.62
RC61 364501.1 587413.8 57.8 65.8 4.09 36.84 60.11 3.05 7790 1.49
TA29 364329 585648 90.48 100.7 8.32 43.32 50.28 6.4 7346 0.37
TA30 363958 585988 102.7 105.95 8.26 44.37 50.43 5.2 7192 0.39
1A31 363783 586179 54.06 64,38 9.58 44.84 46.66 8.5 7018 0.26
TA32 364119 586154 71.2 74.1 13.86 44.7 49 6.3 6970 0.3
TA35 364042 586531 84.75 94.1 9.1 44.7 51.9 3.4 7428 0.46
TA38 364282 586731 29.2 36,92 1 17.8 77.1 5.1 8142 0.7
TA39 363889 586712 97.6 108.45 10.36 44.65 49.15 6.2 6999 0.35
TA41 364101 586898 79.2 85.95 2.44 13.77 78.83 7.4 7960 0.69
TA43 364628 587068 26.6 35.16 4.22 42.33 51.17 6.5 7171 0.25
BHID EASTING NORTHING FROM TO H VM FC ASH CV

TA45 364410 587253 40.06 45.26 2.1 20.58 72.22 7.2 7835
TA59 363912 585729 108.2 116.16 2.67 41.9 52.2 5.9 7596
TA64 364394.2 584942.7 54.3 60 1.4 7.6 87.4 5 7990
TA65 364254.6 584877.6 58 .64.8 1.7 10.1 85 4.9 8059
TA66 364224.3 587031.2 58.4 65.2 1.6 14.2 79.3 6.5 7953
HOI 364617.4 586240.8 93.75 102.81 8.12 42.89 40.77 8.22 6200
W02 364437.3 586437.4 32.5 43.05 13.26 40.75 39.4 6.58 6035
H03 364477 586639.3 29.4 39.2 7.04 32.79 33.02 27.15 4725
WB01 363994 585804.6 97.2 105.5 6.09 41.21 54.45 4.34 7612
HB02 363988.4 585333.9 122.2 129.4 1.2 20.4 72.1 7.5 7974
103 364652.4 585618.4 59.95 70 6.62 40.71 54.17 5.12 7387
HB04 364426.7 585127.9 64.35 70.33 1.4 15.7 72.3 12 7440
HB05 364729.1 585260.7 56.65 62.55 0.9 23.6 60.7 15.7 7035
WB07 364599.3 585935.8 77.8 88.3 6 44.1 46.1 9.8 6940
111 364395.5 587454.1 92.2 99.4 2 28.5 63.5 8 7730
WB16 364231.5 587243.9 58.9 65.3 2 15.2 77.7 7.1 7945
HB20 364369.2 586870.1 21.8 28 2.3 15.6 77.6 6.8 7915
WB25 364923.1 586640.7 119.3 131 13.4 44.5 49.6 5.9 7081
HB27 363888.4 586027 76.3 83 7.57 42.9 48.8 8.3 7044
HB28 364556.9 585739.8 68.9 78 8.4 43.3 49.4 7.13 6998
130 364046.5 585592.2 93.7 102 3.4 42 51.2 6.8 7525
HB31 364301.4 585005.7 61.4 67 1.4 12 83.4 4.6 8220
131 364556.3 587718.7 102.5 113 5.3 41.5 51 7.5 7231
134 364357.5 588180.4 169.7 181 13.2 44.3 49.1 6.6 6930
137 364346 587666.2 109 115 4.7 39.5 53 7.5 7290
HB38 363951.8 586980.5 96.1 105 4.8 41 53.8 5.2 7535
WB39 364678.9 586357 89 99 11.4 44.3 46.6 9.1 6733
HB40 365218.7 587018.5 160.9 174 15.4 38.5 49.5 5.4 7284
141 363642.3 586972.1 146.3 158 15.4 44.7 48.7 6.6 6910
S7a 364296 585097 63.4 70.82 16.79
 B2 SEAM
BHID EASTING NORTHING FROM TO IM VM FC ASH CV S

AL06 364190.2 586743.8 68.4 77.8 0.4 22.5 53.7 23.4 6165 nd
ALIO 363813.6 587023.6 109.7 112.5 12 47 38.6 2.4 6373 nd
AL14 364013.2 586955.5 102.1 104.9 0.4 22.5 73.7 3.4 8080 nd
AL18 364457.5 587017.2 32.55 37.55 0.7 16.9 80.2 2.2 8221 nd
ALB27 364222.7 586912.2 48.8 51.1 1 17.63 78.59 3.78 8232 0.52
ALB35 364396.1 587076 19.35 22.6 1.36 13.4 79.75 6.35 7960 1.07
ALB38 364805.8 587020.6 25.8 29.5 10.8 44.84 44.11 11.05 6625 0.73
ALB39 364577.9 587169.6 24.95 26.65 1.3 26.22 72.19 1.59 8348 1.13
ALB40 364638,4 587317.5 26.4 28.25 1.2 32.78 59.54 7.68 7630 1.51
ALB41 364234.8 587298.8 76.42 77.82 1.59 15.06 74.18 10.06 7575 1.39
ALB44 364182.5 587415.2 93.35 96.85 1.6 36.2 60.6 3.2 7960 nd
ALB45 364499.4 587523.9 71.3 71.8 1.6 16.6 76.3 7.1 7955 1.67
ALB47 364172.7 587164 60.3 63.1 1.6 16.6 76.3 7.1 7955 1.67
ALB50 363886 586305.4 64.65 68.95 9 44.1 45.6 10.3 6800 1.12
ALB55 363565.3 586108.6 39.4 41.6 0.9 24.8 68.3 6.9 7931 1.09
ALB56 363671.2 585924.5 82.1 85.5 1.8 37.4 60.2 2.4 8106 0.38
ALB60 364333 585570.7 105.75 109.3 6.2 41 52.4 6.6 7255 1.1
AIM 364221.4 585510.3 108.6 112 4.1 40.9 55.1 3.6 7613 0.67
ALB62 363800.5 585888.4 95.6 99.3 4.6 42.6 55.2 2.2 7760 1.03
AM63 363722.5 586254 45.4 48.9 44.55 51.4 2.75 7365 1.3
ALB69 363450.6 586171.4 13 16 0.9 39.25 56 4.74 7199 0.5
ALB71 363383.3 586024.5 39.2 41 1.4 9.6 83.3 5.7 4790 0.53
ALP10 364396.2 587076.1 24.95 26.65 1.36 13.9 79.75 6.35 7960 1.07
AP22 364259.3 585561.3 100.2 104.2 3.5 36.4 47.5 10.6 6885 nd
DAL06 364409.5 586896.1 16.8 18.9 1.89 13.76 79.23 7.01 7926 1.34
DAL07 364418.1 586786.1 21 24 1.11 25.28 68.13 6.59 7939 0.63
DAL08 364371.5 586685.1 28 30.8 1.5 32.11 62.61 5.28 7935 0.58
DAL09 364309.8 586843.8 30.25 31.5 1.43 14.62 78.1 7.28 7889 0.27
DAL10 364511.1 586844.8 11.65 15.45 3.21 38.25 59.23 2.52 7936 1.14
DAL11 364491.4 586792.2 13.9 17.7 2.35 44.11 52.26 3.63 7455 0.51
DAL16 364711.4 586978.8 17.8 22.2 11.9 44.7 50.9 4.4 7235 0.82
DAL17 364788.5 587271.9 21.9 25.6 6.1 44.1 52.5 3.4 7500 0.96
DAL22 364350.6 586874.9 1.6 4.6 1.3 14.6 75 10.4 7345 1.78
QAL30 364005.6 586981.6 69.05 72.65 1.8 30.9 64.8 4.3 8238 1.34
DAL32 364237.5 586748.3 13.8 16.3 1.1 16.3 80.5 3.2 8325 1.51
DAL31 364296.6 587043.7 15.6 19.1 1.2 14 78.8 7.2 7880 1.07
DG27 363264 586581.2 77 81 17.7 44.2 52.2 3.6 7359 nd
GPOl 364136.7 586993.7 79.32 83.5 2.16 14.29 76.79 8.92 7740 1.81
GPC2 364014.5 587156.8 118.3 120.45 6.04 40.32 57.35 2.33 7995 2.11
GP04 364079.5 586132.5 75.45 79.25 14.03 43.99 52.89 3.12 7577 1.39
GP05 364310 586044.9 94.75 99.3 14.83 41.88 55.58 2.54 7346 1.68
GP07 363732.2 585811.5 86.99 90.72 3.11 35.29 61.57 3.14 8040 1.09
GP08 363750.7 585575.8 89.67 92.6 2.03 26.29 62.92 10.79 7770 1.02
GP10 364135.2 585677.9 105.3 109.05 7.4 40.14 57.83 2.03 7738 0.91
GPU 364395.6 585901.1 93.79 97.83 10.75 40.72 54.48 4.8 7211 0.99
GP13 364935.5 586129.4 61.6 66.1 14.62 42 54.04 3.96 7102 1.09
GTDOl 364548.5 586828,7 3.65 7.61 5.9 44.3 52.5 3.2 7910 1.28
GTD02 364392 586874.7 1.8 3 1.6 14.8 74.5 10.6 7300 2.12
GTDC3 364390 587005 0.45 2.35 1.6 14.4 79.5 6.1 7965 1.09
GTD05 364785.7 587004.3 8.3 12.7 8.5 44.5 51.8 3.7 7155 0.26
KP07 364189.1 588007.3 177.4 181.6 9.1 44.3 47.6 8.1 6998 1.28
KPQ8 364691.4 587215.6 43.6 47.1 1.8 39.8 53.9 6.3 7971 1.29
KP09 364493.6 587387.1 66.6 71 5.8 42 49.4 8.6 6700 1.07
LBG06 364551.2 587741.9 80.95 84.6 2.5 37.5 54.4 8.1 7385 0.68
BHID EASTING NORTHING FROM TO IM VM PC ASH CV S

LBG18 364118.9 586737.7 35.11 38.11 1.6 29.6 63.8 6.6 7866 1
LBG19 364019.4 587034.7 73.6 75.2 1.1 26.9 70.5 2.6 8306 1.62
fflOl 363449.8 586786.5 147.25 152 10.51 40.91 40.91 3.06 6416 0.26
102 363026 586712 154.75 159.6 13.81 39.12 39.12 3.95 6184 0.91
HM03 363276.7 586629.9 96.08 100.5 11.47 41.85 44.69 2.04 6390 0.85
HHC5 362947.9 586628.3 117.43 122.15 13.45 40.28 43.22 3.05 6357 0.69
NSB01 364225.7 585225 110.6 114.5 1.1 27.4 69.4 8.1 7785 1.26
NSB02 364554.3 585322.4 79.7 84.05 1.9 41.23 54.63 7 7645 0.74
NSB03 364566.2 585216.7 47.2 54.5 2 10.81 78.36 10.6 7668 0.98
NSBQ4 364182.3 585135.4 102.15 104.75 0.9 16.64 74.97 8.3 7916 1.2
NSB06 364391 585316.5 103.5 107 1.6 38.1 53.15 8.6 7581 1.63
PGT10 364416.5 586767.7 0.3 2.5 1.6 26 65.9 8.1 7891 1.23
R02 363123.7 586420 42.6 46.25 10.44 41.46 45.22 2.88 6411 0.83
RC01 364208.8 585781 99.8 103.6 3.17 42.79 51.13 5.07 7251 0.8
RC02 364138.5 586642.6 78.4 81.2 0.9 32.42 64.8 0.9 8225 nd
RC07 364435.5 587767.9 127.4 130.7 1.7 40 55.1 4.93 7692 2.39
RC10 364461.1 585208.3 77.55 80.05 0.8 12.55 77.12 10.33 7707 0.88
RC11 364133 585331.4 125.25 128.05 13 87 7890
RC12 363730.4 585405.8 103.15 105.36 1.63 13 87 8629
RC12A 363729.1 585444.7 91.95 94.45 1.18 15 85 8424
RC13 363941.4 585421.2 122.95 125.85 35 65 8385
RC14 364725.2 585399 56.1 58 29 71 8140
RC18 364847.1 585701.5 34.25 38.8 6.9 47 53 7371
RC22 364014.3 585864.3 99.35 103 8.83 48 52 7822
RC23 363908.8 585923.2 110.8 114.2 6.66 46 54 7892
RC26 363790.3 586035.6 83.5 B7 8.06 45 55 7773
RC27 363959.8 586078 86.05 90 8.68 48 52 7337
RC27A 363939.3 586054.9 85.5 87.95 8.15 49 51 7233
RC28 364129.1 586020.2 92.35 96.25 8.38 49 51 7259
RC30 364888.1 586000.9 41.15 46.4 15.47 43.88 47.54 8.58 6858 0.83
RC32 363506.9 586087.9 46.95 49.6 0.86 15.72 76.76 7.52 7942 1.09
RC35 364808.7 586151.7 125.55 129.6 9.6 49 51 7231
RC36 365083.6 596104.6 42.05 46.6 12.41 49 51 7368
RC37 363616.9 586433.5 55.25 59.45 14.4 51 49 7746
RC39 364844.3 586210.9 136.7 142 13.43 49 51 7392
RC41 365289.3 586310.6 112.3 116.75 17.29 50 50
RC42 364759.1 586479.5 105 108.7 15.57 50 50 7594
RC46A 364207.1 586740.5 47.6 50.1 0.92 17.13 57.33 25.54 5041 0.92
RC48 364177.7 586805.8 59.3 61.6 1.63 17 83 8552
RC49 364568.1 586790.8 43.05 47.3 13.66 44.35 48.04 7.61 7019 1.09
RC51A 364136.2 586902.9 85.95 88.3 1.84 13.89 78.69 7.42 7847 0.9
RC53 364167.7 586994.5 79.45 81.95 1.39 16 84
RC57 364116.1 587117.6 93 95.7 1.51 21 79 8493
RC60 364179.4 587273.7 94.4 97 2.67 18.46 73.84 7.7 7260 2.17
S7a 364296 585097 72.62 76.42 5.76
IA23 363305 586706 125.56 130.32 19.68 43.68 49.82 6.5 7046
TA24 363636 586684 118.82 123.5 17.24 44.9 46.7 8.4 6749 1.02
TA25 364646 586144 105.5 109.62 13.24 43.69 47.01 9.3 7101 1.42
TA29 364329 585648 103.32 107.08 7.93 42.85 51.85 5.3 7372 0.99
TA32 364119 586154 76 80.26 14.3 44.63 48.37 7 6836 1.03
TA35 364042 586531 96.05 98.9 8.5 43.6 52.1 4.3 6850 0.34
TA38 364282 586731 39.61 42.12 1.1 20.5 75.5 4 8286 1.58
TA39 363889 586712 109.6 113.35 11.74 44.52 50.69 4.8 7205 0.83
TA41 364101 586898 87.65 90.41 2.25 14.4 80.2 5.4 8172 1.26
IA42 364810 586877 57.54 62.09 13.69 44.69 47.81 7.5 6913 0.98
TA43 364628 587068 38.92 42.48 1.99 40.87 56.63 2.5 7762 1.54
BHID EASTING NORTHING

587253 48.4 51.2 1.93 17.9 77.2 4.9 7693

TA45 364410
585908 105.59 109.36 10.12 44.81 51.49 3.7 7454
TA56 364143
585383 98.16 101 3.5 42.7 53.4 3.9 7772
TA58 364456
585729 118.56 121.76 2.57 40.15 52.45 7.4 7494
TA59 363912
68.6 1.5 8.9 77.3 13.8 7975
TA65 364254.6 584877.6 66.2
587031.2 68 70 1.2 14.8 82.3 2.9 8280
TA66 364224.3
107.62 111.25 6.26 32.32 22.73 32.69 3711
801 364617.4 586240.8
41.23 44.7 10.57 41.38 42.94 5.09 6574
K03 364477 586639.3
363994 585804.6 108.6 112.3 5.78 40.89 56.51 2.6 7635
WB01
72.95 75.6 5.52 41.9 54.14 3.96 7563
BB03 364652.4 585618.4
364426.7 585127.9 73.95 77.5 1.3 7.9 89.3 2.8 8290
BB04
364599.3 585935.8 91.95 95.1 6.2 44.1 49.1 6.8 7230
WB07
364646.2 585935.8 121.8 126.09 10.8 44.8 50.9 4.3 7255
SB08
364646.3 587634.6 96.8 101 8 42.8 50.1 7.1 7025
BB12
SB15 363971.4 587376.3 137.9 141.8 13 44.2 48.7 7.1 6900

WB17 365050.9 587328.3 113.6 118.4 10.9 43.5 49.3 7.2 6990
HB19 363768.9 586913.9 140.4 145 12.8 43.4 47.5 9.1 6716
2.6 14.7 73.6 11.7 7490
WB20 364369.2 586870.1 32 34
SB21 365055.2 587126.8 106.5 111 12.9 44 50.6 5.4 7150
WB23 363770.3 586521.1 78 82 11.9 43.8 49.1 7.1 6960
84.6 86 8.5 44 51.4 4.6 7315
mn 363888.4 586027
7.3 6992
WB28 364556.9 585739.8 80.8 84 8.2 41.9 50.8
BB33 364556.3 587718.7 116.6 120 4.3 41.7 52.1 6.2 7408
KB34 364357.5 588180.4 185.9 190 13 44.3 49.4 6.3 6960
HB36 365037.1 586862.6 133.9 136 13.5 42.4 50.2 7.4 6885
KB37 364346 587666.2 118.6 121 3.3 37.3 58.6 4.1 7885
HB39 364678.9 586357 102 106 11.5 44.7 48.7 6.6 6990
 CSffl

BHID EASTING NORTHING FROM TO CV TM IM VH FC ASH

AL18 364457.5 587017.2 68.5 74.8 8361 nd 0.4 24,5 72.2 2.9 nd
ALB36 364505.7 586706.3 59.65 62.5 6959 nd 4.64 50,11 44.3 5.59 0.98
ALB37 364665.2 586891.8 64.9 65.6 7384 nd 12.03 46.52 52.12 1.36 0.8
AIM) 364638.4 587317.5 70.5 78.55 7450 nd 4.14 40.45 52.33 7.22 1.5
ALB47 364172.7 587164 101.55 107.2 8235 nd 1.3 13 82.8 4.2 1.34
ALB54 364876.3 585969.5 78.8 86.35 7285 nd 10.1 47,3 48.3 4.4 1.3
AP21 364254.6 585337.1 167.5 174.2 8084 nd 1.4 23.2 70.5 4.9 nd
AP22 364259.3 585561.3 143.3 150.5 7708 nd 4.1 36.1 56.1 3.4 nd
DAL11 364491.4 586792.2 55.5 61.7 7021 nd 2.45 45.34 49 6 1.01
DAL21 364350.1 586824.2 85.75 89.25 8110 nd 1.5 13.7 81.6 4.7 0.96
DAL22 364350.6 586874.9 43.1 48.5 7285 nd 0.6 20.2 75.6 4.2 1.7
DAL25 364215 586955 61 71 7270 nd 9.5 47.5 47.1 5.4 1.44
DAL30 364005.6 586981.6 108.1 111.9 7319 nd 2.1 36 55.4 8.7 0.79
DAL31 364296.6 587043.7 46 52.1 7837 nd 1.3 11.7 81.2 7.1 1.32
DAL32 364237.5 586748.3 54.2 60.8 7668 nd 0.8 20.6 71.7 7.7 2.62
DAL33 364042.1 586180 94 102.4 7524 nd 7.3 46.6 48.4 5 1.11
DG31 363080 586127.1 37.02 45.95 6571 nd 17 44 47.8 8.2 0.63
GID01 364548.5 586828.7 45.75 54.75 7295 nd 6.4 44.5 51 4.5 1.36
GTD02 364392 586874.7 41.2 47.8 6955 nd 1.7 25.1 57.7 17.2 2.32
GI003 364390 587005 38.8 44.8 8055 nd 0.9 23.1 72.7 4.2 0.79
GTD04 364536.4 587009.3 44.95 51.85 6950 nd 1.4 36.9 59 4.1 1.45
GTD05 364785.7 587004.3 52.3 62.8 7015 nd 7.2 43.9 48.9 7.2 0.28
KP02 364881.2 587943.2 191.5 201.55 6809 nd 1 46.4 45.4 8.2 0.74
KP03 365131.5 587675 185.4 195.1 7041 nd 7.8 47 43.8 9.2 1.36
KP04 364010.6 587760.7 199.6 210.2 7206 nd 9.2 49.7 45.8 6.3 0.61
KP05 363792.8 587615.4 225 235.2 7257 nd 8.4 46.4 47.3 6.3 0.42
KP08 364691.4 587215.6 86.9 95.2 7375 nd 4.5 43.6 46.2 10.2 1.28
KP09 364493.6 587387.1 110 120.2 6679 nd 4.3 42.9 48.9 8.2 0.77
LBG01 364918.6 587544.7 104 114 7195 nd 10.7 46.2 48 5.5 0.91
LBG04 364803.8 587655.3 118.31 120.8 7072 nd 9.7 47.2 45.5 7.3 1.84
LBG06 364551.2 587741.9 121 124 7320 nd 2 39.5 51.8 8.7 2.58
LBG08 364723.9 587514.3 89.1 99.1 7183 nd 8.6 45.7 49 5.3 0.69
LBG16 364213.3 586524.5 59.5 67.6 7359 nd 6.3 44.7 50.8 4.5 0.69
LBG18 364118.9 586737.7 75.76 82.51 7919 nd 1 25.7 67.7 6.6 1.8
101 363449.8 586786.5 191 200.3 6967 nd 9.58 41.13 41.13 5.5 0.72
102 363026 586712 201.75 210.6 6234 nd 12.16 39.83 39.83 5.35 0.64
103 363276.7 586629.9 139 148.8 6530 nd 11.66 41.12 43.69 4.13 0.7
105 362947.9 586628.3 163.95 176.8 6386 nd 13.29 39.97 43.12 3.62 0.48
HSBQ2 364554.3 585322.4 118.7 127.9 7686 9.8 2.1 40.76 52.2 6.9 1.6
PGI06 364520.1 587150.8 38.75 45.8 8004 nd 1.3 33.5 61.4 5.1 1.36
PGTC7 364521.4 587069 35.2 41.2 8399 3.3 1.3 33.7 62.8 3.5 2.01
PGI08 364469.2 586985.9 32.5 32.85 7183 nd 3.6 45.7 49 5.3 0.69
PGT09 364468.7 586907.7 35.5 42.5 7936 2 1.4 34 60.7 5 1.86
PGT10 364416.5 586767.7 39 46.6 7974 5.4 3 37.4 58.3 4.3 1.66
R02 363123.7 586420 85.4 95.1 6686 nd 8.61 43.09 44.3 4 0.69
HC02 364138.5 586642.6 116.6 124 7271 4.42 1.17 37.4 50.88 11.7 nd
EC07 364435.5 587767.9 167.2 175.2 7567 12.35 2.81 42.36 52.63 4.68 0.54
RC11 364133 585331.4 160.8 165.15 8220 nd nd 17 83 nd nd
RC12 363730.4 585405.8 139.25 143.8 8323 nd 1.65 15 85 nd nd
8C13 363941.4 585421.2 161.4 167.7 8394 nd nd 30 70 nd nd
RC17 364007.7 585694.5 152.7 160.3 8149 nd 3.26 47 53 nd nd
RC18 364847.1 585701.5 75.45 84.2 7828 nd 6.33 48 52 nd nd
RC21 363596.9 585797.6 59.4 64.95 7802 2.09 0.75 20.65 73.21 5.14 1.29
RC22 364014.3 585864.3 139.6 147.5 7941 nd 5.83 46 54 nd nd
BHID EASTING NORTHING FROM TO CV TM IM VM FC ASH S

RC26 363790.3 586035.6 121.8 130 8090 nd 5.42 46 54 nd nd

RC27A 363939.3 586054.9 117.95 124.1 7076 nd 7.14 49 51 nd nd
RC28 364129.1 586020.2 132.7 141.2 6833 nd 7.73 48 52 nd nd
136.05 140.35 6978 11.96 5.88 47.33 47.33 5.35 2.33
RC29A 364452.2 586007.7
RC30A 364859.7 585999.1 85.2 93.7 7128 18.24 12.09 46.34 46.34 7.31 1.2
RC32 363506.9 586087.9 84.35 89.9 7307 3.49 1.96 23.93 64.71 11.36 2.04
RC34 364494.5 586238.5 90 98.55 7066 14.87 10.17 45.81 45.81 8.39 1.73
RC36 365083.6 596104.6 90.4 100.3 7287 nd 13.38 49 51 nd nd
RC37 363616.9 586433.5 98 106.25 7789 nd 10.23 50 50 nd nd
RC38 363802.8 586359.7 100.4 109.25 7053 16.08 6.52 45.5 47.35 7.15 0.74
RC39 364844.3 586210.9 186.2 194 7635 nd 12.53 49 51 nd nd
RC40 365083.2 586334.9 153.6 163.9 6980 19.06 15.08 44.95 46.78 8.27 1.59
RC42 364759.1 586479.5 148 157.7 7382 nd 12.98 51 49 nd nd
RC45 364142.8 586723.4 114.65 121.2 8497 nd 0.83 28 72 nd nd
RC46A 364207.1 586740.5 88.75 94.45 7945 3.82 1.18 25.46 68.85 5.69 1.53
RC47A 365046.6 586593.9 161.9 172.95 7277 nd 12.32 52 48 nd nd
RC48 364177.7 586805.8 100.3 106.05 8554 nd 1.91 17 83 nd nd
RC49 364568.1 586790.8 86.55 95.7 7049 14.66 11.35 45.72 45.72 8.55 1.58
RC50 365027 586746.5 190.9 200.25 7000 19.08 15.2 44.71 46.53 8.76 1.1
RC51A 364136.2 586902.9 120.6 126.01 7927 5.86 2.54 12.91 79.33 7.75 1.1
RC53 364167.7 586994.5 106.9 112.05 nd nd 1.52 19 81 nd nd
RC54 364931.4 586923.3 128.2 138.1 7009 20.19 14.94 45.4 47.25 7.36 0.78
RC56A 363774 587276.8 206.7 217 7251 21.26 9.37 46.45 48.34 5.21 0.6
RC57 364116.1 587117.6 133.1 138.8 8498 nd 2.28 23 77 nd nd
RC58 364184.6 587089,1 108.5 114.3 8368 nd 1.41 15 85 nd nd
RC59 355115.9 587156,5 157,15 168 7334 nd 13.3 51 49 nd nd
RC61 364501.1 587413.8 105.2 113.7 7521 5.48 5.22 45.29 52,69 7.56 0.67
RC60 364179.4 587273.7 134.8 140.7 7817 5.43 1.95 17,37 74.07 8.55 0.94
RC62A 365112.8 587413.8 166 175.6 7007 19.78 14.02 44.75 44.75 10.5 1.41
RC63 364600.6 588000 177 186 7408 20.63 12.9 48.02 48.02 3.97 1.05
TA29 364329 585648 143.3 150.89 7477 nd 5.73 42.76 50.64 6.6 1.13
TA36 364953 586336 142.9 153.72 7029 nd 13.4 48.3 49.7 3 1.77
TA38 364282 586731 77.14 82.48 7893 nd 1.3 30 66.1 3.9 1.9
TA42 364810 586877 101.1 11.5 7064 nd 11.47 44.99 47.81 7.2 1.14
TA64 364394.2 584942.7 154.4 158.6 7915 nd 1.2 17.9 75.2 7 0.78
TA65 364254.6 584877.6 158.8 63.2 8375 nd 1.3 8.3 89.7 2 0.81
W02 364437.3 586437.4 90.1 98.25 6559 nd 9.6 43.36 42.64 4.39 nd
HB15 363971.4 587376.3 178.7 188.2 7043 nd 11.8 45.3 47.5 7.2 0.93
SB19 363768.9 586913.9 181.8 190.6 7254 18 11.5 46.1 50.1 3.8 0.61
KB25 364923.1 586640.7 175.5 183 7262 19.4 12.3 45.7 49.4 4.9 0.61
8B30 364046.5 585592.2 144 151 7665 nd 2.2 40 53.3 6.7 1.12
KB36 365037.1 586862.6 177.2 187 7154 nd 11.8 47.1 47.7 5.2 1.69
SB43 363039.9 586619.6 155 164 7218 nd 15.9 46.2 49.3 4.5 0.67
WB42 363532.9 586560.1 110.8 120 7350 nd 15.5 45.7 49.4 4.1 0.52

Note : data are presented in dry basis

 APPENDIX 6.1
MAJOR ELEMENT DATA
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 APPENDIX 6.2A
TRACE ELEMENT DATA

(XRF ANALYSES)
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 APPENDIX 6.2B
TRACE ELEMENT DATA

(INAA ANALYSES)
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