Running - Wikipedia

5/23/2018 Running - Wikipedia
Running
Running is a method of terrestrial locomotion allowing humans and other
animals to move rapidly on foot. Running is a type of gait characterized by
an aerial phase in which all feet are above the ground (though there are
exceptions[1]). This is in contrast to walking, where one foot is always in
contact with the ground, the legs are kept mostly straight and the center of
gravity vaults over the stance leg or legs in an inverted pendulum
fashion.[2] A characteristic feature of a running body from the viewpoint of
spring-mass mechanics is that changes in kinetic and potential energy
within a stride occur simultaneously, with energy storage accomplished by
springy tendons and passive muscle elasticity.[3] The term running can Marathon runners at Carlsbad
refer to any of a variety of speeds ranging from jogging to sprinting. Marathon, USA, 2013
It is assumed that the ancestors of humankind developed the ability to run

for long distances about 2.6 million years ago, probably in order to hunt
animals.[4] Competitive running grew out of religious festivals in various
areas. Records of competitive racing date back to the Tailteann Games in
Ireland in 1829 BCE,[5] while the first recorded Olympic Games took place
in 776 BCE. Running has been described as the world's most accessible
sport.[6]
Video of human running action
Contents
History
Running kinematic description
Footstrike
Midstance
Propulsion phase
Swing phase
Upper extremity function
Footstrike debate
Stride length, hip and knee function
Elements of good running technique
Upright posture and a slight forward lean
Stride rate and types
Benefits of running
Cardiovascular benefits
Weight loss benefits
Mental Health
Running injuries
High impact
Chafing
Running events
Limits of speed
Running speed over increasing distance based on world record
times
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Running 1/14
Events by type
Events by distance
Sprints
Middle distance
Long distance
See also
References
External links
History
It is thought that human running evolved at least four and a half million
years ago out of the ability of the ape-like Australopithecus, an early
ancestor of humans, to walk upright on two legs.[7]
The theory proposed considered to be the most likely evolution of running

is of early humans' developing as endurance runners from the practice of
persistence hunting of animals, the activity of following and chasing until a
prey is too exhausted to flee, succumbing to "chase myopathy" (Sears A scene depicting long distance
2001), and that human features such as the nuchal ligament, abundant runners, originally found on a
sweat glands, the Achilles tendons, big knee joints and muscular glutei Panathenaic amphora from Ancient
maximi, were changes caused by this type of activity (Bramble & Greece, circa 333 BCE
Lieberman 2004, et al.).[8][9][10] The theory as first proposed used
comparative physiological evidence and the natural habits of animals when
running, indicating the likelihood of this activity as a successful hunting method. Further evidence from observation of
modern-day hunting practice also indicated this likelihood (Carrier et al. 1984). [10][11] According to Sears (p. 12)
scientific investigation (Walker & Leakey 1993) of the Nariokotome Skeleton provided further evidence for the Carrier
theory.[12]
Competitive running grew out of religious festivals in various areas such as Greece, Egypt, Asia, and the East African
Rift in Africa. The Tailteann Games, an Irish sporting festival in honor of the goddess Tailtiu, dates back to 1829 BCE,
and is one of the earliest records of competitive running.[5] The origins of the Olympics and Marathon running are
shrouded by myth and legend, though the first recorded games took place in 776 BCE.[13] Running in Ancient Greece
can be traced back to these games of 776 BCE.
...I suspect that the sun, moon, earth, stars, and heaven, which are still the gods of many barbarians,
were the only gods known to the aboriginal Hellenes. Seeing that they were always moving and running,
from their running nature they were called gods or runners (Thus, Theontas)...
— Socrates in Plato – Cratylus [14]
Running kinematic description

Running gait can be divided into two phases in regard to the lower extremity: stance and swing.[15][16][17][18] These can
be further divided into absorption, propulsion, initial swing and terminal swing. Due to the continuous nature of
running gait, no certain point is assumed to be the beginning. However, for simplicity it will be assumed that
absorption and footstrike mark the beginning of the running cycle in a body already in motion.
Footstrike
Footstrike occurs when a plantar portion of the foot makes initial contact
with the ground. Common footstrike types include forefoot, midfoot and
heel strike types.[19][20][21] These are characterized by initial contact of the
ball of the foot, ball and heel of the foot simultaneously and heel of the foot
respectively. During this time the hip joint is undergoing extension from
being in maximal flexion from the previous swing phase. For proper force
absorption, the knee joint should be flexed upon footstrike and the ankle
should be slightly in front of the body.[22] Footstrike begins the absorption
phase as forces from initial contact are attenuated throughout the lower
extremity. Absorption of forces continues as the body moves from
footstrike to midstance due to vertical propulsion from the toe-off during a Eadweard Muybridge photo
previous gait cycle. sequence
Midstance
Midstance is defined as the time at which the lower extremity limb of focus is in knee flexion directly underneath the
trunk, pelvis and hips. It is at this point that propulsion begins to occur as the hips undergo hip extension, the knee
joint undergoes extension and the ankle undergoes plantar flexion. Propulsion continues until the leg is extended
behind the body and toe off occurs. This involves maximal hip extension, knee extension and plantar flexion for the
subject, resulting in the body being pushed forward from this motion and the ankle/foot leaves the ground as initial
swing begins.
Propulsion phase
Most recent research, particularly regarding the footstrike debate, has focused solely on the absorption phases for
injury identification and prevention purposes. The propulsion phase of running involves the movement beginning at
midstance until toe off.[16][17][23] From a full stride length model however, components of the terminal swing and
footstrike can aid in propulsion.[18][24] Set up for propulsion begins at the end of terminal swing as the hip joint flexes,
creating the maximal range of motion for the hip extensors to accelerate through and produce force. As the hip
extensors change from reciporatory inhibitors to primary muscle movers, the lower extremity is brought back toward
the ground, although aided greatly by the stretch reflex and gravity.[18] Footstrike and absorption phases occur next
with two types of outcomes. This phase can be only a continuation of momentum from the stretch reflex reaction to
hip flexion, gravity and light hip extension with a heel strike, which does little to provide force absorption through the
ankle joint.[23][25][26] With a mid/forefoot strike, loading of the gastro-soleus complex from shock absorption will serve
to aid in plantar flexion from midstance to toe-off.[26][27] As the lower extremity enters midstance, true propulsion
begins.[23] The hip extensors continue contracting along with help from the acceleration of gravity and the stretch
reflex left over from maximal hip flexion during the terminal swing phase. Hip extension pulls the ground underneath
the body, thereby pulling the runner forward. During midstance, the knee should be in some degree of knee flexion
due to elastic loading from the absorption and footstrike phases to preserve forward momentum.[28][29][30] The ankle
joint is in dorsiflexion at this point underneath the body, either elastically loaded from a mid/forefoot strike or
preparing for stand-alone concentric plantar flexion. All three joints perform the final propulsive movements during
toe-off.[23][25][26][27] The plantar flexors plantar flex, pushing off from the ground and returning from dorsiflexion in
midstance. This can either occur by releasing the elastic load from an earlier mid/forefoot strike or concentrically
contracting from a heel strike. With a forefoot strike, both the ankle and knee joints will release their stored elastic
energy from the footstrike/absorption phase.[28][29][30] The quadriceps group/knee extensors go into full knee
extension, pushing the body off of the ground. At the same time, the knee flexors and stretch reflex pull the knee back
into flexion, adding to a pulling motion on the ground and beginning the initial swing phase. The hip extensors extend
to maximum, adding the forces pulling and pushing off of the ground. The movement and momentum generated by
the hip extensors also contributes to knee flexion and the beginning of the initial swing phase.
Swing phase
Initial swing is the response of both stretch reflexes and concentric movements to the propulsion movements of the
body. Hip flexion and knee flexion occur beginning the return of the limb to the starting position and setting up for
another footstrike. Initial swing ends at midswing, when the limb is again directly underneath the trunk, pelvis and
hip with the knee joint flexed and hip flexion continuing. Terminal swing then begins as hip flexion continues to the
point of activation of the stretch reflex of the hip extensors. The knee begins to extend slightly as it swings to the
anterior portion of the body. The foot then makes contact with the ground with footstrike, completing the running
cycle of one side of the lower extremity. Each limb of the lower extremity works opposite to the other. When one side is
in toe-off/propulsion, the other hand is in the swing/recovery phase preparing for footstrike.[15][16][17][18] Following
toe-off and the beginning of the initial swing of one side, there is a flight phase where neither extremity is in contact
with the ground due to the opposite side finishing terminal swing. As the footstrike of the one hand occurs, initial
swing continues. The opposing limbs meet with one in midstance and midswing, beginning the propulsion and
terminal swing phases.
Upper extremity function

Upper extremity function serves mainly in providing balance in conjunction with the opposing side of the lower
extremity.[16] The movement of each leg is paired with the opposite arm which serves to counterbalance the body,
particularly during the stance phase.[23] The arms move most effectively (as seen in elite athletes) with the elbow joint
at an approximately 90 degrees or less, the hands swinging from the hips up to mid chest level with the opposite leg,
the Humerus moving from being parallel with the trunk to approximately 45 degrees shoulder extension (never
passing the trunk in flexion) and with as little movement in the transverse plane as possible.[31] The trunk also rotates
in conjunction with arm swing. It mainly serves as a balance point from which the limbs are anchored. Thus trunk
motion should remain mostly stable with little motion except for slight rotation as excessive movement would
contribute to transverse motion and wasted energy.
Footstrike debate
Recent research into various forms of running has focused on the differences, in the potential injury risks and shock
absorption capabilities between heel and mid/forefoot footstrikes. It has been shown that heel striking is generally
associated with higher rates of injury and impact due to inefficient shock absorption and inefficient biomechanical
compensations for these forces.[19] This is due to forces from a heel strike traveling through bones for shock
absorption rather than being absorbed by muscles. Since bones cannot disperse forces easily, the forces transmitted to
other parts of the body, including ligaments, joints and bones in the rest of the lower extremity all the way up to the
lower back.[32] This causes the body to use abnormal compensatory motions in an attempt to avoid serious bone
injuries.[33] These compensations include internal rotation of the tibia, knee and hip joints. Excessive amounts of
compensation over time have been linked to higher risk of injuries in those joints as well as the muscles involved in
those motions.[25] Conversely, a mid/forefoot strike has been associated with greater efficiency and lower injury risk
due to the triceps surae being used as a lever system to absorb forces with the muscles eccentrically rather than
through the bone.[19] Landing with a mid/forefoot strike has also been shown to not only properly attenuate shock but
allows the triceps surae to aid in propulsion via reflexive plantarflexion after stretching to absorb ground contact
forces.[24][34] Thus a mid/forefoot strike may aid in propulsion. However, even among elite athletes there are
variations in self selected footstrike types.[35] This is especially true in longer distance events, where there is a
prevalence of heel strikers.[36] There does tend however to be a greater percentage of mid/forefoot striking runners in
the elite fields, particularly in the faster racers and the winning individuals or groups.[31] While one could attribute the
faster speeds of elite runners compared to recreational runners with similar footstrikes to physiological differences,
the hip and joints have been left out of the equation for proper propulsion. This brings up the question as to how heel
striking elite distance runners are able to keep up such high paces with a supposedly inefficient and injurious foot
strike technique.
Stride length, hip and knee function

Biomechanical factors associated with elite runners include increased hip function, use and stride length over
recreational runners.[31][37] An increase in running speeds causes increased ground reaction forces and elite distance
runners must compensate for this to maintain their pace over long distances.[38] These forces are attenuated through
increased stride length via increased hip flexion and extension through decreased ground contact time and more force
being used in propulsion.[38][39][40] With increased propulsion in the horizontal plane, less impact occurs from
decreased force in the vertical plane.[41] Increased hip flexion allows for increased use of the hip extensors through
midstance and toe-off, allowing for more force production.[23] The difference even between world class and national
level distance runners has been associated with more efficient hip joint function.[42] The increase in velocity likely
comes from the increased range of motion in hip flexion and extension, allowing for greater acceleration and velocity.
The hip extensors and hip extension have been linked to more powerful knee extension during toe-off, which
contributes to propulsion.[31] Stride length must be properly increased with some degree of knee flexion maintained
through the terminal swing phases, as excessive knee extension during this phase along with footstrike has been
associated with higher impact forces due to braking and an increased prevalence of heel striking.[43] Elite runners tend
to exhibit some degree of knee flexion at footstrike and midstance, which first serves to eccentrically absorb impact
forces in the quadriceps muscle group.[42][44][45] Secondly it allows for the knee joint to concentrically contract and
provides major aid in propulsion during toe-off as the quadriceps group is capable of produce large amounts of
force.[23] Recreational runners have been shown to increase stride length through increased knee extension rather
than increased hip flexion as exhibited by elite runners, which serves instead to provide an intense braking motion
with each step and decrease the rate and efficiency of knee extension during toe-off, slowing down speed.[37] Knee
extension however contributes to additional stride length and propulsion during toe-off and is seen more frequently in
elite runners as well.[31]
Elements of good running technique
Upright posture and a slight forward lean

Leaning forward places a runner's center of mass on the front part of the foot, which avoids landing on the heel and
facilitates the use of the spring mechanism of the foot. It also makes it easier for the runner to avoid landing the foot in
front of the center of mass and the resultant braking effect. While upright posture is essential, a runner should
maintain a relaxed frame and use his/her core to keep posture upright and stable. This helps prevent injury as long as
the body is neither rigid nor tense. The most common running mistakes are tilting the chin up and scrunching
shoulders.[46]
Stride rate and types

Exercise physiologists have found that the stride rates are extremely consistent across professional runners, between
185 and 200 steps per minute. The main difference between long- and short-distance runners is the length of stride
rather than the rate of stride.[47][48]
During running, the speed at which the runner moves may be calculated by multiplying the cadence (steps per second)
by the stride length. Running is often measured in terms of pace[49] in minutes per mile or kilometer. Fast stride rates
coincide with the rate one pumps one's arms. The faster one's arms move up and down, parallel with the body, the
faster the rate of stride. Different types of stride are necessary for different types of running. When sprinting, runners
stay on their toes bringing their legs up, using shorter and faster strides. Long distance runners tend to have more
relaxed strides that vary.
Benefits of running
Cardiovascular benefits
While there exists the potential for injury while running (just as there
is in any sport), there are many benefits. Some of these benefits
include potential weight loss, improved cardiovascular and
respiratory health (reducing the risk of cardiovascular and
respiratory diseases), improved cardiovascular fitness, reduced total
blood cholesterol, strengthening of bones (and potentially increased
bone density), possible strengthening of the immune system and an
improved self-esteem and emotional state.[50] Running, like all forms
of regular exercise, can effectively slow[51] or reverse[52] the effects of
aging. U.S. Army soldier running to maintain his
health
Although an optimal amount of vigorous aerobic exercise such as
running might bring benefits related to lower cardiovascular disease
and life extension, an excessive dose (e.g., marathons) might have an
opposite effect associated with cardiotoxicity.[53]
Weight loss benefits

Running can assist people in losing weight, staying in shape and
improving body composition. Research suggests that for the person of
average weight, they will burn approximately 100 calories per mile
they run.[54] Running increases your metabolism even after you have A woman running in a speedsuit
finished running. You will continue to burn an increased level of
calories for a short time after the run.[55] Different speeds and
distances are appropriate for different individual health and fitness levels. For new runners, it takes time to get into
shape. The key is consistency and a slow increase in speed and distance.[54] While running, it is best to pay attention to
how one's body feels. If a runner is gasping for breath or feels exhausted while running, it may be beneficial to slow
down or try a shorter distance for a few weeks. If a runner feels that the pace or distance is no longer challenging, then
the runner may want to speed up or run farther.[56]
Mental Health
Running can also have psychological benefits, as many participants in the sport report feeling an elated, euphoric
state, often referred to as a "runner's high".[57] Running is frequently recommended as therapy for people with clinical
depression and people coping with addiction.[58] A possible benefit may be the enjoyment of nature and scenery, which
also improves psychological well-being[59] (see Ecopsychology § Practical benefits).
In animal models, running has been shown to increase the number of newly created neurons within the brain.[60] This
finding could have significant implications in aging as well as learning and memory. A recent study published in Cell
Metabolism has also linked running with improved memory and learning skills.[61]
Running injuries
High impact
Many injuries are associated with running because of its high-impact nature. Change in running volume may lead to
development of patellofemoral pain syndrome, iliotibial band syndrome, patellar tendinopathy, plica syndrome, and
medial tibial stress syndrome. Change in running pace may cause Achilles Tendinitis, gastrocnemius injuries, and
plantar fasciitis.[62] Repetitive stress on the same tissues without enough

time for recovery or running with improper form can lead to many of the
above. Runners generally attempt to minimize these injuries by warming
up before exercise,[22] focusing on proper running form, performing
strength training exercises, eating a well balanced diet, allowing time for
recovery, and "icing" (applying ice to sore muscles or taking an ice bath).
Some runners may experience injuries when running on concrete surfaces.

The problem with running on concrete is that the body adjusts to this flat
surface running, and some of the muscles will become weaker, along with
the added impact of running on a harder surface. Therefore, it is advised to
change terrain occasionally – such as trail, beach, or grass running. This is
more unstable ground and allows the legs to strengthen different muscles.
Runners should be wary of twisting their ankles on such terrain. Running
downhill also increases knee stress and should, therefore, be avoided.
Reducing the frequency and duration can also prevent injury.
Barefoot running has been promoted as a means of reducing running Person with a bad running form.
related injuries,[63] but this remains controversial and a majority of Heel striking and leaning forward
professionals advocate the wearing of appropriate shoes as the best method are some of the most common
mistakes and cause of injuries
for avoiding injury.[64] However, a study in 2013 concluded that wearing
among beginners.
neutral shoes is not associated with increased injuries.[65]
Chafing
Another common, running-related injury is chafing, caused by repetitive rubbing of
one piece of skin against another, or against an article of clothing. One common
location for chafe to occur is the runner's upper thighs. The skin feels coarse and
develops a rash-like look. A variety of deodorants and special anti-chafing creams
are available to treat such problems. Chafe is also likely to occur on the nipple.
Chafing of skin following a
There are a variety of home remedies that runners use to deal with chafing while
marathon run
running such as band-aids and using grease to reduce friction. Prevention is key
which is why form fitting clothes are important.[66]
Running events
Running is both a competition and a type of training for sports that have running or endurance components. As a
sport, it is split into events divided by distance and sometimes includes permutations such as the obstacles in
steeplechase and hurdles. Running races are contests to determine which of the competitors is able to run a certain
distance in the shortest time. Today, competitive running events make up the core of the sport of athletics. Events are
usually grouped into several classes, each requiring substantially different athletic strengths and involving different
tactics, training methods, and types of competitors.
Running competitions have probably existed for most of humanity's history and were a key part of the ancient
Olympic Games as well as the modern Olympics. The activity of running went through a period of widespread
popularity in the United States during the running boom of the 1970s. Over the next two decades, as many as 25
million Americans were doing some form of running or jogging – accounting for roughly one tenth of the
population.[67] Today, road racing is a popular sport among non-professional athletes, who included over 7.7 million
people in America alone in 2002.[68]
Limits of speed
Footspeed, or sprint speed, is the maximum speed at which a human can run. It is affected by many factors, varies
greatly throughout the population, and is important in athletics and many sports.
The fastest human footspeed on record is 44.7 km/h (12.4 m/s, 27.8 mph), seen during a 100-meter sprint (average
speed between the 60th and the 80th meter) by Usain Bolt.[69]
Running speed over increasing distance based on world record times

(see Category:Athletics (track and field) record progressions)
Distance metres Men m/s Women m/s

100 10.44 9.53
200 10.42 9.37
400 9.26 8.44
800 7.92 7.06
1,000 7.58 6.71
1,500 7.28 6.51
1,609 (mile) 7.22 6.36
2,000 7.02 6.15
3,000 6.81 6.17
5,000 6.60 5.87
10,000 track 6.34 5.64
10,000 road 6.23 5.49
15,000 road 6.02 5.38
20,000 track 5.91 5.09
Maximum human speed [km/h] and
20,000 road 6.02 5.30 pace [min/km] per distance
21,097 Half marathon 6.02 5.29
21,285 One hour run 5.91 5.14
25,000 track 5.63 4.78
25,000 road 5.80 5.22
30,000 track 5.60 4.72
30,000 road 5.69 5.06
42,195 Marathon 5.69 5.19
90,000 Comrades 4.68 4.23
100,000 4.46 4.24
303,506 24-hour run 3.513 2.82
Events by type
Track running
Track running events are individual or relay events with athletes racing over
specified distances on an oval running track. The events are categorised as
sprints, middle and long-distance, and hurdling.
Road running
Road running takes place on a measured course over an established road (as
opposed to track and cross country running). These events normally range from
distances of 5 kilometers to longer distances such as half marathons and
marathons, and they may involve scores of runners or wheelchair entrants.
Cross-country running
Cross country running takes place over the open or rough terrain. The courses
used for these events may include grass, mud, woodlands, hills, flat ground and
A man running with a baton
water. It is a popular participatory sport and is one of the events which, along
during a relay race.
with track and field, road running, and racewalking, makes up the umbrella
sport of athletics.
Mountain running
Events by distance
Sprints
Sprints are short running events in athletics and track
and field. Races over short distances are among the
oldest running competitions. The first 13 editions of the
Ancient Olympic Games featured only one event – the
stadion race, which was a race from one end of the
stadium to the other.[70] There are three sprinting events
which are currently held at the Olympics and outdoor
World Championships: the 100 metres, 200 metres, and
400 metres. These events have their roots in races of International level women athletes competing in 100 m
imperial measurements which were later altered to sprint race at ISTAF Berlin, 2006
metric: the 100 m evolved from the 100-yard dash,[71]
the 200 m distances came from the furlong (or 1/8 of a
mile),[72] and the 400 m was the successor to the 440 yard dash or quarter-mile race.[73]
At the professional level, sprinters begin the race by assuming a crouching position in the starting blocks before
leaning forward and gradually moving into an upright position as the contest progresses and momentum is gained.[74]
Athletes remain in the same lane on the running track throughout all sprinting events,[73] with the sole exception of
the 400 m indoors. Races up to 100 m are largely focused upon acceleration to an athlete's maximum speed.[74] All
sprints beyond this distance increasingly incorporate an element of endurance.[75] Human physiology dictates that a
runner's near-top speed cannot be maintained for more than thirty seconds or so as lactic acid builds up, and leg
muscles begin to be deprived of oxygen.[73]
The 60 metres is a common indoor event and it an indoor world championship event. Other less-common events
include the 50 metres, 55 metres, 300 metres and 500 metres which are used in some high and collegiate competitions
in the United States. The 150 metres, is rarely competed: Pietro Mennea set a world best in 1983,[76] Olympic
champions Michael Johnson and Donovan Bailey went head-to-head over the distance in 1997,[77] and Usain Bolt
improved Mennea's record in 2009.[76]
Middle distance
Middle distance running events are track races longer than sprints up to 3000 metres. The standard middle distances
are the 800 metres, 1500 metres and mile run, although the 3000 metres may also be classified as a middle distance
event.[78] The 880 yard run, or half mile, was the forebear to the 800 m distance and it has its roots in competitions in
the United Kingdom in the 1830s.[79] The 1500 m came about as a result of running three laps of a 500 m track, which
was commonplace in continental Europe in the 1900s.[80]
Long distance
Examples of longer-distance running events are long distance track races, marathons, ultramarathons, and multiday
races.
See also
Level and incline running
Outline of running
Trail running
Ultra Running
Skyrunning
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5/23/2018 Running - Wikipedia

It is assumed that the ancestors of humankind developed the ability to run

The theory proposed considered to be the most likely evolution of running

— Socrates in Plato – Cratylus [14]

Running kinematic description

Upper extremity function

Stride length, hip and knee function

Elements of good running technique

Upright posture and a slight forward lean

Stride rate and types

Weight loss benefits

plantar fasciitis.[62] Repetitive stress on the same tissues without enough

Some runners may experience injuries when running on concrete surfaces.

Running speed over increasing distance based on world record times

Distance metres Men m/s Women m/s

55. "4 Ways Running is Best for Weight Loss" (http://www.runnersworld.com/weight-loss/4-ways-running-is-best-for-w

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