Electrostatics

Content

1. Introduction of Electrostatics
2. Properties of charges
3. Coulomb’s Law
4. Electric Field
5. Electric Filed lines and its properties

6. Electric potential energy

Equipotential Curve
7. Gauss’s Law and its application
8. Properties of conductor
9. Electric Dipole
10. Capacitor
11. Van de Graaff Generator

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1. Introduction of Electrostatics
Electrostatics is the branch of Physics, which deals with static electric charges or charges at rest or slow-
moving. Electrostatics: Properties of Stationary Charge
Magnetism: Properties of Moving charge

2. Properties of charge
“Object is charged to indicate that it has a charge imbalance.”
Electric Charge is an intrinsic property of matter (like mass) which causes it to experience a force when near
other electrically charged matter. There are two types of charge, positive and negative.

Electric Charge
SI Symbol Q or q
Si units Coulomb
Other units e
Derivation from other quantities Q  It

Electron e Negative 1.6 1019 C

Proton p Positive 1.6 1019 C
Neutron n Neutral Zero

When a glass rod is rubbed with silk, the transfer of electrons takes place. Glass rod loses some electrons and
hence it becomes positively charged and silk gains those electrons and it becomes negatively charged.

Electron Transfer
e
+ _

Thus, there are two types of charges namely positive charge and negative charge.

Note: Charge produces Electric field (Stationary Charge) and Magnetic field (Moving Charge), and radiates energy.

“Charge can be transferred from one part of the system to another system, but net charge will have a constant
value” or “charge can never be created nor be destroyed”
Properties of electric charge:
1. Like charges repel each other whereas unlike charges attract each other.
2. Law of conservation of charge: The algebraic sum of total charges on a system is always constant.
3. It is electron which is responsible for charging of a body and not the proton.
4. The charge on a body cannot be a fraction of electron charge. (Charge is quantized)
q ne
5. Charge is always associated with mass. In Charging, the mass of a body changes. If electrons are removed from the
body, the mass of the body will decreases and the body will becomes positively charged. On the other hand, if
electrons are added to a body, the mass of the body will increase and the body will acquire a net negative.
6. Accelerated charge radiates energy.

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For the point of view of electrostatic, there are two type of materials; Conductors and Insulators

In conductor electric charges free to move, the outer electrons of each atom or molecule are only weakly bound
to it. These electrons are almost free to move throughout the body of the material and called free electrons (conduction
electrons). When such a materials is placed in an electric field, the free electrons move in a direction opposite to the field.
Such materials are called conductors. (Example: Metal, human body and Earth)

Insulator, in which all the electrons are tightly, bound their respective atoms or molecule. There are no
free electrons. When such material is placed in an electric field, the electrons may slightly shift opposite to the
field but they cannot leave their parent atoms and hence can’t move through long distance. Such materials are
called dielectrics. (Example: Glass, rubber and plastic)

Methods of charging conductors

i. By rubbing
ii. By conduction (By contact)
iii. By Induction (From a distance)
1. By rubbing (Frictional electricity): When a glass rod is rubbed with a silk cloth the glass rod acquires some
positive charge and the silk cloth acquire negative charge by the same amount.

Comb is passed through dry hair. Cloud also becomes charged by friction.

2. By conduction (Charging by contact): After conduction charge becomes equally Distributed between A & B, if
A and B are exactly same in shape, size material and finishing, Otherwise unequally.

Uncharged Gets Charged

+ q + + ++++ q/2
+ + + + + + +
+ + ++ + + +
q/2
+ A + A +
B Charged A
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3. By Induction (From a distance): It is also possible to charge a conductor in a way that does not involve
contact. A positively charged rod brought close to metal sphere. In the sphere free electrons close to the rod
move close to this side.
+
+ + - - Grounding wire + - - - - - -
+ + -
- + + - + + -
+ + - -
+ + + + - +
+ -- -
- -
Insulated Rod + ++
Earth-

3. Coulomb’s Law:
r
q1 q2
“The force between two point charges is directly proportional to product of their magnitude q1 &q2 , and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance ‘r’ between them. The direction of forces is along the line
joining the two point charges.”
F q1q2 ……………………. (i)

F 1 …………………… (ii)
r 2
Combined two equations
qq
F k 1 2

r2
1
Where k is a constant k  9 109 Nm2 / C 2  and 0 = permittivity of the free space.
4 0
(r) Fk
q q
12 (r)
 ^  

Vector Form: F  k q1q2 2

r r3
Important Points Regarding Coulomb’s law
1. Charges are assumed to be rest.
2. Charges are assumed to be point particle.
3. Magnitude of the force
qq
F k 1 2

r2
4. Direction of the force between two charges:
Force between two Force between two Force between two
positive charges opposite charges negative charges
F F F F

Q Q  QF F Q Q Q
Repulsive Force Attractive Force Repulsive Force

(i). “Same charges push each other in the opposite direction (Force is repulsive) and opposite charges pull
each other in the direction of towards each other (Force is attractive) and this force always along the straight
line joined both charges.”

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(ii). If force is negative  force is attractive

If force is positive  force is repulsive

(iii). Force on the both charge is equal in magnitude

(iv). There is no any force exerted on any point charge by self.

5. Effect of the medium on the force between two charges: When a dielectric medium is completely filled in
between charges rearrangement of the charges inside the dielectric medium takes place and the force between
the same tow charge decreases by a factor of K known as dielectric constant or specific inductive capacity (SIC)
of the medium, K is also called relative permittivity of the medium (relative means with respect to free space).
1 q1q2
Hence in the presence of the medium: F  4 0 r r 2
 r  K = Dielectric constant/ relative permittivity of the medium.

F F/K
q1 q2 q1 q2
In Vacuum In Medium

Relative Permittivity of the medium: Dielectric constant is the ratio of the force of attraction or repulsion
between the two similar point charges in the air to the ratio of the force of attraction or repulsion between
point charges separated by same distance in the medium.
F
K air

F
Medium

6. Principle of Superposition of electric force: Total force on a given charges is the vector sum of all the
individual force exerted on it by all other charges, each individual force being calculated by Coulomb’s law.
    

F F
F1  F12  F13  14  15  ......
q3

q1 q q5
q2
q4

7. Force on a test charge due to continuous distribution of charges.

qo
 q0 dq ^
F .r
dq Q
r
4 0  r 2

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8. Charge densities:
Linear Charge Density: Charge per unit length,
Q
 
C
l
m
Surface Charge density: Charge per unit area
 Q

C
A
m2
Volume Charge Density: Charge per unit volume.
4. Electric Field
A field of force surrounding a charged particle.
Electric field strength: - The strength of electric field at a point is defined as the force experienced by one
coulomb of positive charge placed at that point. It is a vector quantity and its direction is the direction in which
the force acts on positive charge placed at that point.


E  Limit qF
0
q0 0

Where, F is the force on charge q0 due to electric field due to charge Q.

Hence, electric field due to a point charge Q is given by

E 1 Q
4 0 r 2
Electric filed due to system of n charges (use vector addition)
    
E1  E12  E13  E14  E15  ......

Electric field due to continuous distribution of charge (use integration)

E  dE
P  1 dq ^

r E .r
dq 4 0  r 2
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5. ELECTRIC FIELD LINES/ ELECTRIC FORCE LINES: Graphical Representation

Electric filed in a region can be graphical represented by drawing certain curves known as lines of electric force
or electric field lines. Electric field provides a means for visualizing the direction and magnitude of electric field.
Electric
field lines

+Q

The following points should be remembered:

1. Lines of force diverge out from a positive charge and converge at a negative charge or Electric field lines extend
away from positive charge (where they originate) and towards negative charge (where they terminate)
2. The tangent to a line of force at any point gives the direction of electric field at that point.
3. There is no physical existence of electric field lines.
4. Lines must lie along the radii.
5. Lines of force never intersect.
6. In a uniform field, the filed lines are straight parallel and uniformly spaced.
7. Electric field line always flow from higher potential to lower potential.
8. Filed lines never exist inside a conductor and start or end normally from the surface of a conductor.
9. Electric field lines also give the indication of equipotential surfaces.
10. The number of lines of force originating from or ending on a charge is proportional to the magnitude of
the charge.
Important figure:

+ ─
+ ─

Positive Charge Negative Charge

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+
+ ─

Positive Charge Positive Charge

-Q
Electric field is zero everywhere
insideB. a metal (conductor). Field
B lines do not enter a metal plus
A. these are perpendicular to metal
surface.
EA  EB

FORCE ON A CHARGE q IN ELECTRIC FIELD

 
FqE
6. Electric potential energy:
The electrostatic potential energy of a system of point charges is the work required to assemble this
system of charges by bringing them in form an infinite distance.
Electrostatic Potential energy of the system of two particles:
r2
Q P dr
R
O r S
r1
Assumptions:
First, we assume that the test charge q is so small that it does not disturb the original configuration, namely the
charge Q at the origin (or else, we keep Q fixed at the origin by some unspecified force). Second, in bringing the
charge q from R to P, we apply an external force Fext just enough to counter the repulsive electric force FE (i.e,
Fext FE ). This means there is no net force on or acceleration of the charge q when it is brought from R to P, i.e.,
it is brought with infinitesimally slow constant speed.
Work done by the external force is the negative of the work done by the electric force, and gets fully stored
in the form of potential energy of the charge q.
Thus, work done by external forces in moving a charge q from R to P is

P  

 FE  dr
P 
WR Fext  dr
P
R R
This work done is against electrostatic repulsive force and gets stored as potential energy.
P kQq r1 1  1 r  1 1
1
W 
RP  2 dr kQq 2 dr kQq   kQq  
r r r
R r r2 r   r 2  1 2 
If point R at the infinite then r2 
 kQq
U
r1
Electrostatic Potential:
Electric potential is a property of an electric field, regardless of whether a charged object has been
placed in that field; it is measured in joules per coulomb, or volts.

The Electric potential at a point in an electric field is the energy required (Work to be done by an
external force) per unit charge to bring a small positive charge from infinity to that point without any
acceleration to it.” Electric potential due to a point charge
r
Q P VP  W  kQ
q r

Note: i. Most important is potential difference.

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ii. The potential at a point due to a positive source charge is positive and that due to negative source
charge is negative.

Relationship between E and V:

f  P 

1. If electric field is given V  E .dl V  E .dl

i 

Where


E  Ex i  Ey j  Ez k

dl  dx i  dy j  dz k

 dV dV dV 
2. If potential is given then E  i j k
 

 dx dy dz 
3. Potential due to a group of charges
V  V1 V2 V3  .............
4. Potential due to continuous charge distribution

V  dV
Electric potential energy: - “Potential Energy of a system of point charges is defined as the amount of
work done to assemble this system by bringing them in from an infinite distance.”
Potential Energy of two point charges
1 qq
U 1 2

4 0 r
Change in potential energy of a point charge in moving it from one point A to another B in fixed uniform field:
U  q(VB VA ) W

Equipotential Surface:

Equipotential Surface Equipotential Surface

- -----------

Electric filed lines

Properties of Equipotential Surface:

i. There is no electric field in any direction lying on or along the equipotential surface. (Because there is
no potential difference)
ii. Electric field and hence lines of force are always perpendicular to the Equipotential surface.
iii. No work is required to be done in moving a charge from one point to another on an equipotential
surface.
 Electrost
7. Gauss’ law atics
Electric Flux of an electric field through a surface: The electric flux
 the net number of electric field lines passing through that through a Gaussian surface is proportional to
surface. Or

Electric Flux: - The electric flux linked with the surface are the product of the surface area and the component
of electric intensity taken perpendicular to the surface of the field.

   E .dS
Direction of surface is perpendicular to the surface pointing outwards.
The flux of the net electric field through a closed surface equals the net charge enclosed by the surface
divided by 0 .

 E .dS  qin



0
 ^ ^
Applications of Gauss’s law:

1. Charged Conductor: An electric conductor has a large number of free electrons and when placed in an electric field,
these electrons redistribute themselves to make the field zero at all the points inside the conductor.
If a charge is injected anywhere in the conductor, it must come over to the surface of the conductor so that the
interior is always charge free. Also, if the conductor has a cavity, the charge must come over to the surface.

Earthing a conductor
All conductor which are not given any external charge, are also very nearly at the same potential.
The potential of the earth is often taken to be zero.
If a conductor is connected to the earth, the potential of the conductor becomes equal to that of the earth, i.e.
zero. If the conductor was at some other potential, charge will flow from it to earth or from earth to it to bring
its potential to zero.

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Conductor Conductor
+
+ +
¯ ¯
¯ -q + ¯ -q
+ ¯ ¯ .+q ¯
¯
.+q ¯ .+q ¯
+ ¯ R ¯ + ¯ R ¯
¯
+ ¯ ¯ C2+ ¯
¯
¯
+

kq
The potential due to the charge at the centre V  r
kq
The potential due to the charge at the inner surface V  r
kq
The potential due to the charge at the outer surface V  r
kq
Net potential = V  r
After earthing, the charge at outer surface flows to earth and potential of the sphere becomes zero.

2. Electric field due to a uniformly charged Sphere: Here is a spherical geometry, where the charges are evenly
distributed throughout the volume. If the total charge in the sphere is Q, and the sphere has a radius R, then the
volume charge density is
Q
 4 3 C/m3
3 R
By symmetry, the E field is everywhere radial from the center of the sphere.
(i). If point is inside the Sphere: Use a spherical Gaussian surface,
 
which is perpendicular to E everywhere. The area vector S is parallel to

E , and the total area is 4r 2 so when the Gaussian surface radius is r
 R , then  E .dS 
q
in

 

0 4
0EdA 0 E4r 2   r 3 R
S
E
3 r
 E  r
30
Q
 E Q r  1 r
4  3 3 0 4 0 R3
3R

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(ii). If point is outside the Sphere: Use a spherical Gaussian surface,
 
which is perpendicular to E everywhere. The area vector S is parallel

to E , and the total area is 4r 2 so when the Gaussian surface
radius is r  R , then  E .dS 
q
in S E


0 4 r
0EdA 0 E4r 2   R3

3 R

E  R
3

30 r 2
1 Q

E 4
0 r2

(iii). Electric field on the surface:

Put r  R , in any result
1
E
Q

4 0 R 2
Potential due to Solid sphere
kq
Potential at an outside point: V  r
kq kq  3 r 2 
Potential on the surface: V  R Potential: V    2

 kqr
Potential at the inside point: E R 2 2R 
R3
3. Field due to an infinite long straight charged wire: Consider a long charge with linear charge density  .
Calculate the electric field at a point P which is at a distance x from the line charge.

The electric flu x (  ) through curved surface = Eds cos 

 l
Eds  E(2rl) 
 0

(∵   0
0
and the surface area of the curved part is 2rl )
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2k 
E r
Note: The line charge is assumed infinitely long because this alone would ensure the direction of electric field
radially outward at all points around it.

4. Electric field due to a plane Sheet of Charge: Consider a large plane sheet of charge with surface charge
density (Charge per unit area) .

E 2 0
Does not depend upon the distance from the charge sheet. (Class Notes)

5. Electric field due to a thick charged conducting plate:


E
 0
Electric field inside the conductor E  0

6. The electric field outside a spherical shell of charge with radius R and total charge q is directly radially and has
magnitude
k k
V q
Outside point E  q rR Potential: 
2

r r
E= kq
Inside Point 0 r<R Potential at inside and surface V 
R
Exercise: Derive an expression for electric field and potential due to
(i). Point charge (ii). Linear charge distribution (iii). Ring (iv). Disc
(v). Shell (vi). Sphere (vii). Charge sheet (viii). Bulk sheet
Use Gauss’s law or Coulomb’s law for it.

8. Properties of conductor

1. Excess charge on a conductor resides on its outer surface: The interior of a conductor can have no excess
charge in the static situation.
q ++++
 E  ds  in E0 + +
 0S + +
Because qin  0 + Conductor +
+ E=0 +
+ +
Gaussian surface + +
+ +
+
2. Inside a conductor, electric field is zero.

3. Electrostatic potential is constant throughout the volume of the conductor and has same value (as inside) on
its surface.

4. Electric field at the surface of charged conductor:

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  ^ ^
Electric field is given E  n , where  the surface charge density is and n is unit vector normal to the
0
surface in the outward direction.
It is perpendicular to the surface and it is not constant value through total surface it depends upon
surface charge density.
For a non uniform conductor charge density  varies inversely as the radius of curvature R of that part of
the conductor,

 1
R

R1  R2  1   2 + ++++ +
+ 2 +
E1  E2 + +
+ +
+ 1 +
+ +
+ +
+

5. Electrostatic shielding: Consider a conductor with cavity, with no charge inside the cavity. A remarkable result is that the
electric field inside the cavity is zero, whatever is the size and shape of the cavity and whatever is the charge on the
conductor and the external fields in which it might be placed. This is known as electrostatic shielding.

qin  0
-
So, electric field inside
- the cavity is zero.
- +q -
- - -

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9. Electric Dipole
“When two equal & opposite electric charge, +q and – q (small in magnitude) are separated by a small distance
2a, then this system is known as electric dipole”
2a
q -q

Electric dipole Moment:

 
p  q2 a

Direction of p from negative to the positive charge. (Along the axis of dipole).

Electric potential and Electric field intensity due to dipole:

P
Potential V  kpcos
r 2
θ k r
q Electric field E  p 3cos2  1
2a -q r 3

Important points should be remembered

1. When   00 (P is on the axis of dipole)
k
V p and E  2kp (direction is parallel to p)
r2 r3
Point P is called an “end point on position”.

2. When   900 (P is on the equator of dipole )

kp
V0 and E  (direction is antiparallel to p)
r3
Point P is called a “broad side-on position”.

3. Electric dipole in uniform electric field

E
P
q F

θ
2a O
E -q
F

Torque on an electric dipole placed in an electric field

    
  p E  2q(a E)

4. Work done in rotating an electric dipole in a uniform electric filed

f

W   pE sind  pE[cosi  cos f ]

i

If dipole is placed along the direction of the electric field initially, then i  0 and  f   , in such case
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W  pE[1  cos f ]
Work done by external force, if the dipole is rotated from an angle 1 to 2 ,
W W pE(cos  cos )
external force elctric force 1 2
5. Potential energy of a dipole placed in a uniform electric field
 f

dU  U (i ) U ( f )   pE sind
i

6. Equilibrium of dipole
When an electric dipole is placed in a uniform electric field net force on it is zero for any position of the dipole in the
electric field. But torque acting on it is zero only at   00 and1800 . Thus, we can say that at these two positions of
the dipole, net force or torque on it is zero or the dipole is in equilibrium. Of this   00 is the stable equilibrium
position of the dipole because potential energy in this position is minimum U  pE and when displaced from this
position a torque starts acting on it which is restoring in nature and which has a tendency to bring the dipole back in
its equilibrium position. On, the other hand, at   1800 , the potential energy of the dipole is maximum U  pE and
when it displaced from this position, the torque has tendency to rotate it in other direction. This torque is not
restoring in nature. So, this equilibrium is known as unstable equilibrium position.

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10. Capacitor
Capacitor: Storehouse for potential energy”
A combination of two conductors placed close to each other is called capacitor one of the conductor is given a
positive charge and the other is given an equal negative charge.
The charge on a positive plate is called the charge on a capacitor and the potential difference between them is
called the potential difference between them is called the potential of the capacitor.

‒Q 
+Q

V
V 

Charge on a capacitor does not mean that the total charge given to capacitor. Total charge = Q  Q
 0 “Capacitor stores the electrostatic energy in the form of electric charge.”
Even a single conductor can be used as a capacitor by assuming the other at infinity.

Any conductor can store some amount of charge; this capacity to store charge is called capacitance of
conductor. For example a spherical conductor of radius R, has maximum potential at surface
kQ
V R
Where Q is charge given to conductor
Capacitor and capacitance: - The charge Q given to an isolated conductor is proportional to its electrical potential V,
Q  V or Q  CV
Q
or C  V coulomb/volt or farad.
Where ‘C’ is the constant of proportionality and known as capacity or capacitance of a
Q R
conductor. So, capacity of spherical capacitance C  V  k  4 0 R
Capacitance depends upon, Medium and geometrical parameter.
In case of Earth, R = 6400km, C  711F , so we have to take a conductor of size of earth’s size to make a
capacitance of 711F .

The unit of capacitance is farad = coulomb/volt.

6
One microfarad F  10 farad and
12
One micro-micro farad F( pico farad ) 10 farad.
 We cannot give infinite charge to any conductor, it has limit. In another word, capacity of storing
charge is called capacitance of conductor. At this amount of charge it has maximum potential.
Q
 CV , this does not mean that capacitance will depend upon charge given and potential,
capacitance will depend on the geometry of capacitor and medium.

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 Electrostatics
Method to find capacitance
Step 1: Give a charge Q to the conductor
Step 2: Find the potential on it due to charge Q
Step 3: Then find the capacitance using the formula
C  Q /V

Parallel plate Capacitor

σ d -σ
   A
E   d qd q  0
V  Ed   C 
20 20 0 0 A0 V d

When the medium between two plates is an air, then the capacity of this capacitor is given by
A
C  0 d

Effect of dielectric
-q
K0 Aq V +
K = ∞ (Conductor)
C '  CK  d -
+
K = 1 (Vacuum)
+
- E'  E / K
- +
- +
-

If Cvacuum be capacity of a capacitor with vacuum or air between its plates and Cdielectric
C
K  dielectric
C
vacuum

Dielectric constant is also known as specific inductivity capacity of the dielectric.

Effect of dielectrics: by placing a solid dielectric plate between the plates of capacitor we can have

1. It solves the problem of maintaining two large metal sheets at a very small separation without actual
contact.
2. It increases the maximum possible difference which can be applied between the plates of the
capacitor without dielectric breakdown. Many dielectric materials can tolerate stronger electric field without
break down than can air.
3. It increases the capacity of the capacitor.

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Amount of charge induced on the dielectric slab placed in a capacitor

-qi +qi
+q ‒q
‒ +
‒ E +
‒ 0 +
‒ +
‒ +

‒ +
‒ E +
‒ i +
‒ +
‒ E +
‒ net +
‒ +
‒ +

E E E
net 0 i

E0 E0
  E0  Ei Where Enet 
K K
E0  1
Ei  E0   E0 1  
K  K
qi q  1
  1  
0 0  K
q  K 1 q
i
K
When area of slab AS is not equal to area of plate than

q 
A
s K1Q
i A K
In case of conductor K = ∞, then
A
qi  As Q

Spherical capacitor
The spherical capacitor consists of two concentric spherical conductors of radii a and b respectively (a<b). The
space between the two conductors is filled by a dielectric of dielectric constant K. A charge q is given to the
capacitance of spherical condenser is given by
 ab 
C  4 0 K  
ba
Cylindrical capacitor
The cylindrical capacitor consists of two coaxial cylindrical conductors of radii a and b respectively. The
space between the two is filled with a dielectric of dielectric constant K. The inner cylinder is given a positive
charge q per unit length and the outer cylinder is earthed. The capacitance capacitor is give by

C
2  Kl
0

log e (b / a)
Where l is the length of cylindrical capacitor?
AIM IIT 011 – 45769447 aim.iitj@gmail.com 33
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Combination of capacitors

Capacitors in series: When a number of capacitors having capacities C1 , C2 , C3 , etc are connected in
series, then the resultant capacitance C is given by
1 1 1
1     ....
C C1 C2 C3
Note: Charge flow through all the capacitors is always constant.

Capacitors in parallel: When a number of capacitors having capacities C1 , C2 , C3 , etc are connected in
parallel, then the resultant capacitance C is given by
C  C1  C2  C3  ....
Note: Potential at all the capacitors is always equal.

Note:

K C1 C2C3C4
K1 K2 3 K4
t1 t2 t3 t4

1  1 1  1 1  1  1  1  1
C CC C C K A/t K A/t K A/t K A/t
1 2 3 4 0 1 1 0 2 2 0 3 3 0 4 4

0 A 0 A 0 A 0 A
t / / / /
C K t K t K t K
1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
When a slab of thickness t is introduced, then the capacity is given by
0 A
C  (d  t  t / K )

Energy stored in a capacitor

It the capacitor is given a charge q coulomb so that its potential is raised by V volts, then the energy W
joules stored is given by
1
W  2 qV
1 1
 2 CV 2  2 q2 / C
Where C is in faraday.
Loss of energy: - When two capacitors are connected together, some potential energy is dissipated as heat.
Hence there is a loss of energy which is given by
 1 C1C2 (V V )2  1 C V 2
12 eq
2 (C1  C2 ) 2
 Electrost
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This loss is minimum; whenV1  V2 , since there is no flow of electric charge.

Kirchhof’s law:
First law: This is basically the law of conservation of charge. Following points are important regarding
the first law.
(i). In case of a battery, both terminals of the battery supply equal amount of charge.
(ii). In an isolated system (not connected to either of the terminals of a battery or to the earth) net
charge remains constant.

Second law: In a capacitor potential drops when one moves from positive plate to the negative plate by
q/C and in a battery it drops by an amount equal to the emf of the battery.

z
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11. Van de Graaff Generator

The working of Van de Graaff generator is based on the principle of electrostatic induction and action of points.
Suppose we have a large spherical conducting shell of radius R, on which we place a charge Q. This charge
spreads itself uniformly all over the sphere. The field outside the sphere is just that of a point charge Q at the
centre; while the field inside the sphere vanishes. So the potential outside is that of a point charge; and inside it
is constant, namely the value at the radius R. We thus have:
Potential inside conducting spherical shell of radius R carrying charge Q = constant
1 Q
V  4 0 R ………………………………….(1)
Now, as shown in Figure, let us suppose that in some way we introduce a small sphere of radius r, carrying some
charge q, into the large one, and place it at the centre. The potential due to this new charge clearly has the
following values at the radii indicated:

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Potential due to small sphere of radius r carrying charge q

 1 Q (at the surface of the small sphere)
4 0 r
 1 Q (at the large shell of radius R)
4 0 R
Taking both charges q and Q into account we have for the total potential V and the potential difference the values

1 Q q
V (R)    
4 0  R R
1 Q q
V (r)    
4 0  R r
q 1 1
And V (r) V (R)     ……………………………………(2)

4 0  r R
Assume now that q is positive. We see that, independent of the amount of charge Q that may have accumulated
on the larger sphere and even if it is positive, the inner sphere is always at a higher potential: the difference V(r )–V(R) is
positive. The potential due to Q is constant upto radius R and so cancels out in the difference.
This means that if we now connect the smaller and larger sphere by a wire, the charge q on the former
will immediately flow onto the matter, even though the charge Q may be quite large. The natural tendency is for
positive charge to move from higher to lower potential. Thus, provided we are somehow able to introduce the
small charged sphere into the larger one, we can in this way keep piling up larger and larger amount of charge
on the latter. The potential (Eq. 1) at the outer sphere would also keep rising, at least until we reach the
breakdown field of air.

A hollow metallic sphere A is mounted on insulating pillars as shown in the Fig.

A pulley B is mounted at the centre of the sphere and another pulley C is mounted near the bottom. A belt
made of silk moves over the pulleys. The pulley C is driven continuously by an electric motor. Two comb−shaped
conductors D and E having number of needles are mounted near the pulleys. The comb D is maintained at a
positive potential of the order of 104 volt by a power supply. The upper comb E is connected to the inner side of
the hollow metal sphere.

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Because of the high electric field near the comb D, the air gets ionised due to action of points, the negative
charges in air move towards the needles and positive charges are repelled on towards the belt. These positive
charges stick to the belt, moves up and reaches near the comb E. As a result of electrostatic induction, the comb
E acquires negative charge and the sphere acquires positive charge. The acquired positive charge is distributed
on the outer surface of the sphere. The high electric field at the comb E ionises the air. Hence, negative charges
are repelled to the belt, neutralises the positive charge on the belt before the belt passes over the pulley. Hence
the descending belt will be left uncharged. Thus the machine continuously transfers the positive charge to the
sphere. As a result, the potential of the sphere keeps increasing till it attains a limiting value (maximum). After
this stage no more charge can be placed on the sphere, it starts leaking to the surrounding due to ionisation of
the air. The leakage of charge from the sphere can be reduced by enclosing it in a gas filled steel chamber at a
very high pressure. The high voltage produced in this generator can be used to accelerate positive ions (protons,
deuterons) for the purpose of nuclear disintegration.
Electrostatics
Electrost
atic