CHAPTER 5

Heat exchange between human skin

surface and thermal environment
A. PHARO GAGGE John B. Pierce Foundation and Yale University,
YASUNOBU NISHI New Haven, Connecticut

CHAPTER CONTENTS dia, which consist of the air we breathe; the clothing
we wear; man-made sources of heat and cold neces-
Body Heat Balance Equations sary for our health and comfort; the heat, cold, and
Independent Variables in Human Thermal Environment
Ambient temperature humidity caused by the weather; exposure to solar
Dew-point temperature or ambient vapor pressure radiation; work under various barometric pressures,
Air and fluid movement high or low altitude, and occasionally human beings
Mean radiant temperature or effective radiant field live in aquatic environments. All these factors are
Clothing insulation characterized by temperature, or they in some way
Barometric pressure
Time of exposure affect the heat transfer from the skin surface by
Dependent Physiological Variables in Body Heat Balance radiation, convection, conduction, or evaporation.
Equation The human body's response to the thermal environ-
Mean skin temperature ment may be classified into three zones: 1) body
Skin wettedness
Body heat storage and rate of change of mean body cooling, in which regulation of body temperature is
temperature initially possible first by vasoconstriction, then by
Metabolic energy shivering, and finally is impossible; 2) evaporative
Sensible Heat Exchange by Radiation and Convection regulation, in which successful regulation of body
Operative temperature
Clothing in sensible heat exhange
temperature and a state of thermal equilibrium is
Radiation Exchange accomplished by vasodilation and sweating; and 3)
Mean radiant temperature and effective radiant field body heating, in which regulation by both vasodila-
Direct evaluation of effective radiant field tion and sweating fails. In the zones of body cooling
Solar radiation and heating, the exposure time is a principal consid-
Measurement of radiation exchange
Convective Heat Exchange eration.
Heat transfer theory Environmental temperatures that describe the
Free and forced convection transitional regions between the zone of body cooling
Measurement of convective heat transfer coefficient and of evaporative regulation are associated with
Effect of barometric pressure physiological thermal neutrality, neutral sensation
Evaporative Heat Exchange
Direct measurement of evaporative heat loss of environmental temperature, and a sense of ther-
Maximum evaporative heat loss from skin surface mal comfort. In the extreme zones of body cooling and
The Lewis Relation between heat and mass transfer body heating, the principal question for physiolo-
coefficients gists, physicians, and engineers is how tolerance to
Skin wettedness vs. efficiency of evaporative regulation
Special Environments
these environments can be extended. The transi-
Water immersion tional temperatures at the upper and lower limits of
Hyperbaric helium-oxygen atmospheres the zone of evaporative regulation vary considerably
Rational Temperature Indices of Thermal Environment with clothing worn, with the level of activity, and
Operative temperature with the very nature of the thermal environment
Humid operative temperature
Standard operative temperature itself. Man's ability to change his thermal environ-
Standard humid operative temperature ment by either of the latter three methods provides a
Standard effective temperature pattern for behavioral temperature regulation.
A new effective temperature index Metabolic heat reaching the skin surface must
Summary
leave by radiation, convection, conduction through
clothing, and evaporation. Exchange by these proc-
esses is governed first by the physical characteristics
HUMAN THERMAL ENVIRONMENT begins at the skin of the environment, namely, temperature, humidity,
surface and extends outward to the surrounding me- air movement, clothing, barometric pressure, and,
69
70 HANDBOOK OF PHYSIOLOGY ~ REACTIONS TO ENVIRONMENTAL AGENTS
secondly, by two physical properties of the skin sur-
face- its temperature and wettedness due to regula-
tory sweating. In this chapter, the avenues of heat
exchange will be analyzed in terms useful for physiol-
ogists, physicians, and engineers. Finally, rational
temperature indices ofthe total thermal environment
will be described. Practical applications will be given
to illustrate principles to be presented. The terms,
symbols, and definitions used follow the recent Glos-
sary of Terms for Thermal Physiology (34), as ap-
proved by the International Commission of Physio-
logical Sciences and its commission for thermal phys-
iology.
The nature of regulation of body temperature by
shivering, vascular changes, and sweating is dis-
cussed in the chapter by Hardy and Stolwijk in this
Handbook; the epidemiological effect of the thermal
environment on heat tolerance and heat oriented
illnesses is the subject of the chapter by Lind.
BODY HEAT BALANCE EQUATIONS
The heat balance equation describing the thermal
exchange between the body and its environment
takes the classic form
S = M ± E - I.± W) ± R ± C
where S = rate of storage of body heat (+ for net
gain); M = rate of metabolic energy production (al-
ways +); E = rate of evaporative heat transfer (- for
net loss); W = rate of work (+ for work against
external forces); R = rate of radiant heat exchange
(+ for gain); and C = rate of convective heat transfer
(+ for gain).
For the present analysis the outer skin surface will
be considered as the boundary separating the human
body and its thermal environment. All terms in
Equation 1 will be expressed in watts (W) per square
meter of outer skin area, [W'm -2] whose area may be
evaluated by the classic Dubois formula
An = O.202(m)O·4"(H)o.725 [rn"]
in which the human body or total skin surface area
(AD) is in square meters, body mass (m) in kilograms,
and height (H) in meters.
At the skin surface, Equation 1 takes the simpli-
fied format
S = M'k ± R ± C ± E sk
where M sk = net rate of metabolic heat to skin sur-
face (+ for net gain), and E sk = net rate of evapora-
tive heat transfer at skin surface (- for net loss).
In applications of Equation 3 we will assume that
the skin evaporative heat exchange (E sk ) always oc-
curs on the skin surface, and that the sensible ex-
change (i.e., R + C) from the clothed body surface to
be the same as the dry heat flow from the skin surface
to the clothing surface. As in Equation 1, all terms in
Equation 3 will be expressed in terms of energy ex-
change per unit area of body surface given by Equa-
tion 2.
The usefulness of the heat balance Equation 3 in
any application of partitional calorimetry lies in the
ability to calculate accurately (within ± 5% of M) any
four of its five terms. The fifth term, containing an
unknown factor to be measured, may be found by
difference.
INDEPENDENT VARIABLES IN HUMAN
THERMAL ENVIRONMENT
There are seven variables that must be considered
in the description of any thermal environment.
Ambient Temperature
The ambient temperature (Ta) in degrees Celsius of
a gaseous or liquid environment surrounding the
body is measured at a point outside the thermal or
hydrodynamic boundary layers over its surface. The
media to be considered are usually mixtures of air
and water vapor. In special cases, water environ-
ments and hyperbaric mixtures of oxygen and helium
(l) will be considered.
Dew-point Temperature and
Ambient Vapor Pressure
The dew-point temperature (Tdp) is a fundamental
measure of humidity in an air-water vapor environ-
ment and is defined as the temperature at which
condensation first occurs when an air-water vapor
mixture is cooled at constant pressure. The ambient
vapor pressure (Pa), when measured outsi.de the body
boundary layers, is an alternate fundamental meas-
ure of humidity. Water vapor pressure is always
associated with the saturation vapor pressure at
some temperature (T) in degrees Celsius. Thus Pais
(2) also the saturation vapor pressure at dew-point tem-
perature and equals P" dp- Here the symbol P" indi-
cates saturation pressure and the subscript describes
the temperature in degrees Celsius. There are many
meteorological tables (58) and psychrometric charts
in engineering handbooks (1) available, which relate
saturated water vapor pressure (in torr) to tempera-
(3) ture (in degrees Celsius). A useful empirical relation-
ship between P" dp and T dp is the Antoine Equation
for vapor pressure (1893) as follows
P*dp = antilog lO [8.10765- 1750.286/ (T d P + 235)] [torr] (4)
or
P*dP = Exp[18.6686-4030.183/(Td p + 235)] (4')
This Equation, which can also relate any tempera-
ture to the corresponding saturation vapor pressure,
is accurate within 0.02 Torr in the range 0-40°C,

when compared to the classical Goff-Gratch Tabula-
tion (1924) often used in meteorological tables (58).
For a complete discussion on these classic psychro-
metric relationships see L. A. Wood (66).
Other measures of humidity, but dependent on the
ambient air (Ta) or dry bulb (Tdb) temperatures, are
relative humidity (<I» and wet bulb temperature
(T wet) (ventilated). If any two of the five variables, T a ,
P a, T weh <1>, and T dp are known, the other three may
be found by use of a psychrometric chart (36) or by use
of the following meteorological equations (58)
<1> = p./P*.
= P*dp/P*. as nondimensional fraction (NO)
P*dp = [P*wet - 0.00066·P b
·(T. - Tw",)(l + 0.00115T w"')]
or at sea level
P*dp = P*w"t - 0.5 (T. - T we')
where P, is the barometric pressure in torr.
Air (and Fluid) Movement
The movement (v) of the ambient air or fluid in
meters per second results from a) free buoyant mo-
tion caused by a warm body in cool air medium, b) by
forced ventilation of the environment itself, and c) by
bodily motion caused by activity of the subject. Air
motion is difficult to measure consistently; anemome-
ters usually measure movement caused by forced
ventilation. In a water environment these same three
factors apply. Air on fluid motion over the body sur-
face is a fundamental consideration, necessary for a
complete understanding of both convective and evap-
orative heat exchange.
Mean Radiant Temperature
or Effective Radiant Field
The basic environmental variables that govern the
exchange of heat by radiation are a) in the tempera-
ture mode, mean radiant temperature (Tr ) , which is
defined as the temperature of an imaginary isother-
mal "black" enclosure in which human beings would
exchange the same amount of heat by radiation as in
the actual nonuniform environment; and, alterna-
tively, b) in the energy mode, effective radiant field
(H r ) , which is defined as the radiant energy (W'm- 2 )
exchanged by a human being with the imaginary
black enclosure at temperature 1'" ifhis body surface
is considered to be at the same temperature as the
ambient air. In the actual environment, the only
factors that contribute to H, are surrounding bodies,
intense directional heat sources, and cold sinks, i.e.,
bodies at temperatures differing from the ambient T a'
The elementary interrelationships between H" T"
and T a and their measurement will be discussed in
the section RADIATION EXCHANGE.
CHAPTER 5: HEAT EXCHANGE AT SKIN SURFACE 71
Clothing Insulation
The unit of clothing insulation (lelo) is the c/o, a
practical unit, which represents the effective insula-
tion provided by a normal business suit worn by a
sedentary worker in a comfortable indoor surround-
ing (21). The value of one clo unit is arbitrarily set at
0.155° m 2 .oC ·W- I •
Barometric Pressure
The barometric pressure (P b ) in torr is a fundamen-
tal variable that affects heat transfer in air-water
(4")
vapor media both by convection and by evaporation.
At sea level r, is 760 Torr, 101.33 kilopascals, 1013.33
(4"') millibars, or 1 atmosphere absolute (ATA).
torr
Time of Exposure
The time of exposure (t) in hours has particular
significance in cold and extreme heat.
DEPENDENT PHYSIOLOGICAL VARIABLES IN
BODY HEAT BALANCE EQUATION
Mean Skin Temperature
Skin temperature (TSk) may be measured experi-
mentally by the use of a radiometer (29) or by appro-
priately designed thermocouples (38). Mean skin Tsk ,
with whose value we are most familiar, is an average
of at least eight local values of T sk over the body
surface, each weighted by the fraction of the total
body surface represented. A useful weighting scale
(30) is head (7%), chest (17.5%), back (17.5%), upper
arms (7%), forearms (7%), hands (5%), thighs (19%),
and legs (20%). In the zone of evaporative regulation
the skin surface temperature tends to be fairly uni-
form and thus the weighting factors are less signifi-
cant in determining TSk ' In the cold, wide differences
in Tsk over the body surface can be expected, which
hinder proper interpretation of Tsk •
Accurate measurements of skin temperature make
it possible to determine the temperature and vapor
pressure gradient that affect both the sensible (R +
C) and insensible heat (E sk ) exchange from the body
surface. Skin temperature serves as significant index
ofthe mode of regulation of body temperature (see the
chapter by Hardy and Stolwijk in this Handbook).
Values of T Sk may also serve as indices of our sensory
judgments of heat, cold, and pain as well as of the
thermal comfort of the environment.
Table 1 outlines the general relationships that may
be expected between skin temperature and various
physiological and sensory states. The purpose of this
table is to orient the reader on the orders of magni-
tude involved. During rest and work on a bicycle
ergometer and when the subject rates his environ-
ment as comfortable, skin temperature over range
72 HANDBOOK OF PHYSIOLOGY ....... REACTIONS TO ENVIRONMENTAL AGENTS

TABLE 1. General Relation of Skin Temperature which occurs during rest and when there is no regula-
(T sk ) to Various Physiological and Sensory States tion of body temperature by sweating or by vascular
State changes, mean skin temperature range is 83.7-34°C,
rectal temperature 36.9--37.1°C, and esophageal tem-
Above 45° Rapid tissue damage
43°-41 ° Threshold of burning pain perature is 36.&-36.8°C. The corresponding range of
41°_39° Threshold of transient pain mean body temperature (1'b) would be 36.3-:36'soC.
39°_35° Sense of hot
37°_35° Initial sense of warm
34°_33° Neutral temperature sense at rest; comfortable Metabolic Energy
33°_32° Neutral temperature sense at 2-4 mets exercise
32°_30° Neutral temperature sense at 3-6 mets exercise The metabolic energy term M in the basic heat
balance Equation 1 represents the free energy pro-
36°-30° Range where T'k - Til and is independent of M
duced by the transformation of chemical energy dur-
31°_29° Uncomfortable cold while sedentary
25° (local)
ing aerobic and anaerobic metabolic activities within
Numbing of skin sensation
20° (hand) Uncomfortable, cold an organism. Except during transient bursts of exer-
15° (hand) Extremely uncomfortable, cold cise and short periods following such exercise, the
5° (hand) Painful," cold anaerobic component may be ignored and M may be
Met, metabolic rate (for sedentary human beings 1 met = 58.2 measured by the rate of oxygen consumption as given
W'm- 2 ) ; M, rate of metabolic energy production; Til, operative by the following equation
temperature.
M = <O.23IR] + 0.77) 15.873] (V0 2 ) (60/A,,) W'm- 2 (7)

28-34°C may be shown (32) to be proportional primar-
ily to the operative temperature (To) and only very
slightly dependent on the metabolic energy (M).
Skin Wettedness
Skin wettedness (w) is defined as the ratio of an
equivalent skin area (A w) , which, if covered with
water, would produce the observed skin evaporative
heat loss (E sk), to the total skin surface area (AD)'
Methods of measuring or evaluating w will be dis-
cussed in the section EVAPORATIVE HEAT EXCHANGE.
Body Heat Storage and Rate Change
of Mean Body Temperature
The rate of storage of body heat (S) is directly
related to the rate of change in mean body tempera-
ture Ill'b/At by
S = (0.97·m/A vld'l\/M W·m- 2
in which [R] is the respiratory exchange ratio and
varies from a value of 0.83 during rest to 1.0 during
moderately heavy exercise. In Equation 7, \102 is
rate of oxygen consumption in liters per min at stand-
ard temperature and pressure, dry (STPD) (DoC, 760
Torr, dry), and [5.873] is energy equivalent of oxygen
in watts·hour per liter or 21.14 kJ per liter.
The metabolic energy M may be expended in four
ways: 1) as metabolic heat (M sk ) , which passes
through the skin surface; 2) as heat of vaporization of
respired water vapor (E n .s ) ; 3) as heat convected by
respiration (C res); and 4) as external work (-+- W). Thus
the net metabolic heat through the skin surface is
M Sk = M - E n •s - C,es - (±W) (8)
in which (17)
E n .s = 0.0023 M (44 - Pal (9)
and
(5) C«, = 0.0014 M (34 - Tal (P,,/760) (0)

in which 0.97 is the specific heat of the body in
W·h·kg- t (or 3.49 k-I-kg") and m is the body mass in
kg; At is in hours.
If an initial mean body temperature 1" b can be
determined accurately before exposure by a weighted
average of 1' Sk and some measure of internal body
temperature, such as the rectal (T re) or esophageal
(Tes) temperature, then
or
= r-, + [(S·A v)/(0.97·m)]t
where t is the time of exposure in hours. In the cold
the probable weighting ratio for 1'sk:Tre is 1:2 (12). In
the heat the probable ratio would be 1:4 (31) when T re
is used, or 1:9 (59) when T es is used.
In a state of physiological thermal neutrality,
As indicated in last term in Equation 8, when work
is done by the body on an external system, i.e.,
positive work (-+- W), the metabolic energy, which is
expended as heat, must be reduced by (-+- W). When
work is done on the body by an external system, i.e.,
by negative work (- W), mechanical heat is added to
the metabolic energy M. The net flow of heat across
the skin boundary layer is given by the storage term
S in Equations 1 and 3. When S is positive, heat flows
(6)
from environment into body and the mean body tem-
perature (1'b ) rises.
(6')
In a typical environment (25°C, 12 Torr or of 50%
rh) the E res loss accounts for about 7% of M. The C res
loss accounts for about 1% of M and is often ignored
for air at sea level. Work (W) can be measured accu-
rately on a bicycle ergometer or treadmill. The ratio,
W1M, represents the mechanical efficiency (TJ) of the
body doing work. In human beings maximum me-
 CHAPTER 5: HEAT EXCHANGE AT SKIN SURFACE ·73

chanical efficiency occurs while pedaling on a bicycle the dry heat exchange (DRY) from the body surface,
ergometer, and is approximately 18-22% for an aver- whether partially clothed or not, at temperature T surr
age person. Treadmill exercise is about 8-10%. For is given by
level walking and during most stationary activities, DRY = h(T" - T,urr) W'm- 2 (11)
the mechanical efficiency is zero and external work
(W) may be ignored. Negative mechanical efficiency where h is the combined coefficient for heat transfer
during negative work may be as high as 100% (2). by radiation and convection in W·m- 2.oC-l.
Table 2 shows the physical effort associated with In terms of our definition for ambient air tempera-
the expenditure of various levels of metabolic energy ture T a and mean radiant temperature r, above
during steady state. The data given here are pre- DRY = h, (T; - T,ur,) + hr(T r - r.,» (12)
sented primarily to acquaint the reader with the
general orders of magnitude of the physiological fac- in which he = convective heat transfer coefficient in
tors involved. The metabolic energy is expressed here W·m- and h, = linear radiation exchange coef-
2.oC-1

in met units, arbitrarily defined as 58.2 W· m" per ficient.

met, \70 2 in liters per minute applies for an average- Comparing Equations 11 and 12, it follows that
size man, i.e., about AD = 1.8 m", m = 70 kg (l55lb); operative temperature
and H = 1. 75 m (5 ft 9 in). Heart rates and respiratory T" = (hrTr + h..Ta)/(h r + h.) °C (13)
data are estimated from Astrand & Rodhal (3).
and
h = h , + h,.
SENSIBLE HEAT EXCHANGE BY
RADIATION AND CONVECTION Thus by Equation 13 operative temperature can
also be defined as an average of T; and r, weighted
The exchange of sensible heat from the skin sur- by their respective governing heat transfer coeffi-
face at average temperature T Sk is usually accom- cients.
plished first by conduction through clothing, when
worn, and next by radiation and convection from the
Clothing in Sensible Heat Exchange
outer clothing or skin surface to the surrounding
medium. In the section Operative Temperature, a The role of clothing in lowering the heat transfer
general view of the sensible or dry heat exchange will between the environment and skin segments of the
be presented, before a more detailed discussion of the body varies greatly from person to person, for the
heat transfer processes themselves. various activities concerned and for type of clothing
worn. In the past it has been simpler to generalize the
Operative Temperature problem by defining the effective conductance of any
set of clothing worn as the ratio of the dry heat
The operative temperature (To) of human thermal exchange (DRY) from the skin surface during ther-
environment is defined as the temperature of a uni- mal equilibrium to the average temperature gradient
form isothermal "black" enclosure in which man from the skin surface at T Sk to the outside clothing
would exchange the same heat by radiation and con- surface at temperature Tel. If measured accurately by
vection from his body surface as he would in his a radiometer, Tel should have the same weighting for
actual nonuniform environment. By this definition, its segmental surface temperature, as given for T sk '
and also include temperatures of exposed skin areas,
such as those of the face and hands. By this definition
TABLE 2. Classification of Physical Effort for
DRY = h., (Tel - '1'50) W'm- 2 (15)
Average-Size Healthy Young Man
Classification M. mets
",,02• V~:. HR. where h el is the effective clothing conductance in
I/min (STPDl IImin (STPD) beats/min
W·oC-1 per square meter of skin surface rather than
Basal 0.7- 0.8 0.20-0.24 5.5- 6.3 -70 the clothing surface. The reciprocal of h., or lei is thus
Sedentary 0.9- 1.1 0.27-0.33 7.6- 8.0 70- 80 defined as the effective insulation of the clothing
Very light 1.3- 1.7 0.40-0.50 10 - 13 80- 85
Light
worn.
2.2- 2.8 0.66-0.84 17 - 23 90- 95
Moderate 3.7- 4.5 1.1 -1.5 32 - 33 105-115 The dry heat exchange from the clothing surface at
Heavy 5.2- 6.4 1.6 -1.9 41 - 50 125-135 temperature Tel is given by
Very heavy 6.7- 8.3 2.0 -2.5 52 - 64 145-155
Exhausting 10 -12 DRY = ht'I', - Tel) W'm- 2 (16)
3.0 -3.5 85 -100 -180
Data is for steady-state work without environmental In terms ofT sk
stress. M, metabolic energy, 1 met = 58.2 W'm- 2 ; V0 2 , oxygen (17)
uptake in liters per minute at standard temperature and pres-
sure, dry (STPD) for average-size man; VE , ventilating minute where
volume in liters per minute (STPD); HR, heart rate in beats per
minute. F", = h"l!(hd + h) ND (18)
74 HANDBOOK OF PHYSIOLOGY ---- REACTIONS TO ENVIRONMENTAL AGENTS

or in which the insulation I elo is the effective insulation

F", = 10 / ( 1 0 = I,.,) ND (19) of the clothing worn in clo units.
By eliminating h in equations 16 and 17 it may be
where I", the thermal resistance of the operating seen that
environment, is the reciprocal of h, its combined heat
ND (21)
transfer coefficient.
As first proposed by Burton (13), it can be seen from or
Equation 17 that the use of clothing introduces a 1',.) = To + F,.) (1'sk - To) (22)
thermal efficiency factor, F e h in any equation de-
scribing heat transfer from the skin surface to the Thus if Ts k ' Ielo and h are observed, it is possible to
temperature To of the operating environment. The estimate Tel by Equation 22. Conversely, F el may be
effective combined heat transfer coefficient from the found by direct measurements of To, r., and T sk '
skin surface is thus the product Fclh and also equals Typical values for insulation of various clothing
the reciprocal of the sum (I, + lei) ensembles and corresponding values of F el are given
In practice, a uniformly heated copper man-size in Table 3. The factors F pel and i m will be discussed in
manikin has been used to evaluate the intrinsic insu- the section EVAPORATIVE HEAT EXCHANGE.
lation I e h effective for various clothing ensembles
(57). Observations of TSk and DRY (watts imput to
manikin) are usually made during thermal equilib- RADIATION EXCHANGE
rium in a uniform environment at temperature T a'
For the clothed manikin, the product Felh or 1/(Io + Mean Radiant Temperature and
lei) is evaluated using Equation 17. For the unclothed Effective Radiant Field
manikin the h or 1/10 of the environment is evalu- In an earlier section two alternate definitions of the
ated. From these two measurements the value of lei radiant environment were introduced: mean radiant
may be found. The value of the clothing insulation in temperature (T ) and effective radiant field (H ) . The
clo units (Ielo) is I e dO.155. The thermal efficiency, F e h former concept r has been used by the heating r
and
may now be redefined ventilating engineering profession for many years
F,.) = 1/(1 + 0.155·I,·'o·h) ND (20) (50); the latter concept (23) was introduced recently

TABLE 3. Typical Insulation and Permeation Data for Various Clothing Ensembles
and Their Relation to Sedentary Comfort
I Probable ET* or T a at
50% RH for Thermal
I,"t,,] h' F,l hF,ol-- F p<'!:' h"F pd <1>' i mH
Clothing Ensemble Neutrality and Corn-
fort"

clo W!(m'C) NDlO W!(m'C) ND W!(m'Torr) Torr!OC ND °C ± 0.5°C

Nude 0 8.1 I? 8.1 I? 7.7 1.05 0.43 29°

Shorts 0.1 8.2 0.89 7.3 0.95 7.3 1.0 0.45 28°
Typical tropical: shorts, open-neck shirt with short 0.3 8.25 0.72 5.9 0.87 6.7 0.88 0.52 27°
sleeves, light socks and sandals
Light summer: long light-weight trousers, open- 0.5 8.3 0.61 5.1 0.80 6.2 0.82 0.55 26°
neck shirt with short sleeves
Light working: athletic shorts, woolen socks, cotton 0.6 8.4 0.56 4.7 0.77 5.9 0.80 0.57 25°
work shirt (open neck), and work trousers, shirt
i
tail out (KSU-Standard clothing)
US Army "fatigues," man's light-weight under- 0.7 8.5 0.52 4.4 0.74 5.7 0.77 0.59 24°
wear, cotton shirt and trousers, cushion sole
socks, and combat boots
Typical business suit with vest 1.0 8.6 0.43 3.7 0.67 5.1 0.73 0.62 22°
Traditional European business suit: cotton under- 1.5 8.65 0.33 2.85 0.57 4.4 0.65 0.70 19°
wear with long legs and sleeves, shirt, woolen
socks, shoes, suit including trousers, jacket, and
vest
US Army standard cold-wet uniform: cotton-wool 2.0 8.70 0.27 2.35 0.50 3.8 0.62 0.73 15°
undershirt and drawers, wool and nylon flannel
shirt, wind-resistant, water-repellent trousers
and field coat, cloth mohair and wool coat liner,
and wool socks
, Clothmg insulation. ' Combmed heat transfer coefficient h, + h.; h, =
3.5 W/(m" °C), for normal air movement 0.2 m/s or 40
fpm. 3 Burton's thermal efficiency factor for clothing, calculated by Equation 20. 4 Effective combined heat transfer coefficient
from 1'sk to T a . ' Nishi's permeation efficiency factor for water vapor through clothing. 6 Effective evaporative heat transfer

coefficient for water on skin surface. 7 I/J, ratio of effective dry heat transfer to effective evaporative heat transfer coefficient:
hF,.';(h"Fp,.,l. 8 i m , Woodcock moisture index of water vapor through clothing and equal to 1/(2.21/1). 9 Probable new effective
temperature ET* for sedentary comfort, calculated by (34° - Msk/(hF cI )) + (P*340 - 0.5P*ET*)(0.06/I/J). )0 ND, no dimensions.

for a better understanding of high-temperature ra-
diant sources, such as a quartz infrared lamp or the
sun. Mean radiant temperature is included in the
definition for the effective radiant field as follows
H, = h,(T, - T a )
or
T, = 'I', + H,/h,
Introducing Equation 24 in the definition for opera-
tive temperature Equation 13
To=Ta+H,/h
or
H, = ht'I', - T a )
The term (R + C) in the basic heat balance Equa-
tion 3 may now be rewritten introducing Equation 25
in Equation 17
(R + C) = Fl'iH, + hF,.\(T a - Ts k )
or
and
Thus from Equation 27 the dry heat exchange for
human beings can always be expressed as the sum of
two terms; the first, FclHfl is directly proportional to
the effective radiant field as previously defined; and
the second term, hFel(Ta - Tsk ) , is proportional to the
heat exchange from skin surface in a uniformly
heated environment at the ambient air temperature
(Ta). Equation 27' describes only those terms involv-
ing radiation exchange and shows that R may be
divided also into the radiation exchange with all
surfaces differing in temperature from Ta plus the
exchange from the entire environment radiating at a
uniform temperature Ta' Equation 27" describes only
the term involving convective heat exchange and will
be discussed in more detail later.
The radiant field term H, itself represents the
equivalent radiant heat absorbed and exchanged at
the outer surface of the body, if this surface were
theoretically at ambient temperature, Ta' The magni-
tude of H r would be affected by the absorptance either
of the clothing worn or of the exposed skin surfaces to
the wave length corresponding to the temperature of
the radiating source. The radiant field absorbed is
modified by the thermal efficiency (F cl) of the clothing
involved.
In establishing the general principles of sensible
heat exchange above, the linear radiation exchange
coefficient h, has been treated as a constant. Its exact
value may be derived from the 4th power radiation
law, which states
R = u(Ar/Ao)f.el[(To + 273.2)4 - (Tel + 273.2)4]
or
CHAPTER 5: HEAT EXCHANGE AT SKIN SURFACE 75
in which
h, 0= 4u(A r/A n)fal'il (1'1'1 + T.,)/2 + 273.2J" (29)
In Equations 28 and 29, o: is the Stefan-Boltzman
Constant and equals 5.67 x 10- 8 W·m- 2·K-4. The
(23)
term (Arl AD) is the ratio of 47T radiating area of the
human body surface Ar to its Dubois surface AD and
will vary with posture. The ratio Ar/A D has recently
(24)
been determined with considerable accuracy by Fan-
ger (17) by use of optical methods and was found to
vary from 0.70 for the sitting position to 0.725 for
standing within ±2% regardless of height and body
(25)
weight. When clothing is worn, the radiating area of
the body Ar is increased by a factor facl. Fanger (17)
(26) and Breckenridge & Goldman (11) have shown that
facl increases by approximately 15% for each clo unit
of clothing insulation worn, i.e., by factor (1 + 0.15
I e10) '
From Equations 22 and 28, for an unclothed subject
(27) at thermal neutrality with 34° T Sk at 29° To the value
of h, is 4.5 W·m- 2.oC-1 and would apply for the sitting
position; for a lightly clothed subject (0.6 clo) with 30°
(27') Tel at 24°C To during thermal comfort, h, == 4.7; for a
well clothed subject (1.0 clo) with T,-r at 27°at 20°, h, ==
4.8.
(27"
Direct Evaluation of Effective Radiant Field
The Effective Radiant Field (ERF) is the sum of the
energy exchanges with sources that radiate at tem-
peratures differing from the ambient temperature.
Thus
(ERF) = (ERF). + (ERF)2 + (ERF)3 + ... + (ERF)n (30)
In this case (ERF). may represent the direct solar
radiation absorbed; (ERF)2' radiation reflected from
the sky; (ERFh, radiation reflected upward from the
ground surface; (ERF)4' long-wave radiation emitted
by the surrounding warm ground surfaces; (ERF)5
may be alternatively the negative radiation lost to a
"cold" night sky. In general, any (ERF)n is a function
of the temperature of the radiating source T; in de-
grees Kelvin, the absorptance a of the exposed body
or clothing surface for the emission of uTn4 by the
source, and an appropriate shape factor F m-n that
describes the fraction of human total body surface
irradiated by the source. Figure 1 illustrates how the
absorptance (a) for human skin varies with the tem-
perature spectrum of the radiating source (23,24).
Any radiant source n contributing to the total ERF
may take the generalized form
(ERF)n = f aci (A r/ Ao)F m-nUn
[(Tn + 273)4 -(T. + 273)4] W'm- 2 (31)
In Equation 31 the shape factor F m-m as here used,
refers to the body area AD itself, rather than the
radiating area of the body surface (AJacl) corrected for
(28) clothing. Only for the simplest geometrical arrange-
ments can values of F m-n be easily evaluated. If the
radiating source is an enclosing infinite sphere, Fm--n
(28') would be 0.70--0.73, as we mentioned for Ar/A D. At
 76 HANDBOOK OF PHYSIOLOGY ..-. REACTIONS TO ENVIRONMENTAL AGENTS
ReflectIvIty
" Ec c t o r
50 I " 50
40
30
20 Gos
•
Ro drot or
10
o '-----"'----~_ _---'---_ _L _ _ ~_ _~_ ____'~_
o 2000 4000 6000
Color Temperature (OK)
FIG. 1. Variation of absorptance (a) of human skin as a func-
tion of the radiating temperature of the source. Total surface
reflection and absorption of human skin for blackbody radiators.
[Data from Gagge et al. (24).]
the center of an infinite hemisphere (e.g., the night
sky) F rn- n - 035-0.37. For a point source such as the
sun at a 60° angle, F m-n - 0.2-0.25, depending on
posture. In every case, (ERF)o is the energy absorbed
on the outer surface of the body and is a function of
the absorptance of the skin or clothing surface; it is
not a function of the body surface temperature but of
the ambient temperature.
Solar Radiation
Roller & Goldman (55) have recently published a
comprehensive study on the solar load for clothed
soldiers working in various geographic areas and
climates. Solar load contributes directly to the effec-
tive radiant field. By using their sample data as a
guide, we can evaluate the case for a person walking
in the desert when the sun is at a 60° angle above the
horizon. In Equation 31 the irradiation received from
the sun at temperature To in degrees Kelvin is cov-
ered by the energy term cr (T n )4; the term with crTa4
may be ignored. The total solar load on a clear day
consists of three parts: 1) the direct (-800 W'm- 2) ;
2) the diffuse (-152 W'm- 2 ) ; and 3) the albedo or
energy emitted and scattered by the terrain (-107
W·m- 2) . The respective angle factors (F rn-n) for
each case are 0.24, 0.48, and 0.72. If a for either skin
or clothing surface worn is 0.7 (for direct and diffuse)
and 0.95 (for albedo), the total solar load absorbed on
the body or clothing surface for all three parts would
be 258 W'm- 2 for ERF. For h = 20 W·m- 2.oC-l (i.e.,
wind at approximately 4 miles per hour or 1.8 m/s)
and lelo = 0.5 (i.e., F cl = 0.39), the net load on the skin
surface would be 101 W·m- 2 • Without clothing it is
clear that the solar load on the bare skin surface
could have been the 258 W·m- 2 •
In another recent study, Breckenridge & Goldman
Ab!orplion
(11) exposed a clothed heated manikin to solar radia-
tion under a variety of weather conditions on the roof
of their laboratory at Natick, Massachusetts. Their
averaged data for 15 runs are given in Table 4.
60 From Table 4 based on the data of Breckenridge &
Goldman (11), the effective radiant field H r is
a
70
~
1
(Eo' an' F m-n) or 172 W· m ". Other observed factors
are ambient temperature = 20.4° C; air movement =
2.2 m/s; clothing insulation = 0.84 clo; insulation of
80 the air 10 = 0.37 clo; thermal efficiency of clothes =
0.305 (no dimensions). The calculated solar heat load
on body is Fell r or 52 W'm- 2 • In comparison, solar
90
heat load on manikin (measured by drop in heat load
necessary for a constant Tsk ) was 55 W -rn ".
_' 100 In calculating the heat load on a body caused by the
effective radiant field; first, the irradiance En must be
evaluated and adjusted for shape factors (F m-n) in-
volved and the absorptance (a) of the clothing or skin
surface exposed; finally, the total EFR must be multi-
plied by the F cl efficiency factor.
Measurement of Radiation Exchange
In practice it is more desirable to measure directly
the radiant field received on the body surface by a 477'
radiometer, rather than calculate heat exchange
from each source individually. Although many so-
phisticated instruments for measuring the total ra-
diant heat received, have been made in the past,
namely, the Pan-Radiometer (54), the Two-Sphere
(60), R-meter (22), and the Gier and Dunkle 27T radi-
ometer (26) all are either extinct, one-of-a-laboratory
kind, or difficult to find. Any instrument that uses
the ambient air temperature as a reference (as do
most radiometers) gives a reading directly propor-
tional to the effective radiant field, which it receives.
The simplest direct measure of H, for human beings
generally available is by a skin-colored Bedford globe
thermometer (6-in diameter) (4, 18) and by using the
formula
W'm- 2 (32)
where v is the ambient air movement in meters per
second. The first term in the bracket is the value of h,
for a sphere at average temperature, 27°C. The sec-
ond term is Bedford's formula for the convective heat
transfer coefficient for a 6-in globe, when converted to
TABLE 4. Averaged Data for a Clothed,
Heated Manikin Exposed to Solar
Radiation at Solar Angle 45°
Solar Irradi-
Type of Irradiation
Radiation
ance, En
Absorptance, Shape Factor,
Source. n" a, F m _,
(W'rn-')
Direct 1 492 0.7 0.24
Diffuse 2 201 0.7 0.48
Terrestrial 3 32 0.95 0.72
* Index number of radiant source. Data from Breckenridge
& Goldman (11).

meters per second and degress Celsius. The factor
[fael(A r / AD)]' converts the radiation field that the
globe "sees," to one that a clothed human being "sees"
over a 41T solid angle. The skin color allows the globe
to absorb radiant heat, as a human being does, re-
gardless of the direct or reradiated energy spectrum.
If the globe were matte black (a - 1), the energy
calculated by Equation 32 must be multiplied by an
average a for the various radiant sources.
The Bedford black globe thermometer was origi-
nally used for the measurement of mean radiant
temperature ('l'r)' By his formula, Tr was the solution
of the following equation
a{(Tr + 273)4 - (T. + 273)4] = 13.6 v'V(T. - '1'.)
Alternatively, r, may be found by substituting the
values of h, and H r found by Equations 29 and 32, in
equation 24. Both methods should give essentially
identical values for Tr-
CONVECTIVE HEAT EXCHANGE
Heat Transfer Theory
The heat exchange by convection between a warm
body and a surrounding fluid has been the subject of
study by aerodynamic and mechanical engineers for
the past century (51). The classic names, Nusselt,
Reynolds, Prandtl, and Grashof, have all become
associated with nondimensional numbers, involving
the basic physical quantities in convective heat ex-
change. The convective heat transfer coefficient (he)
in W·m- 2.oC-t is defined as the ratio of the convective
heat loss to the aT gradient between body surface
and ambient air. It appears in the Nusselt number
(Nu) as the product-ratio (h.d/k), where d is diameter
of the warm object in meters and k is the thermal
conductivity of the medium W·m-t.oC-l.
Free and Forced Convection
For free convection the Nusselt number (Nu) is a
function of the Grashof (Gr) and Prandtl (Pr) num-
bers as follows
(Nu) - (Gr)O.25(pr)O.25-<l.333 ND
where (Gr) = G{3p2d3aT/ IL2 , in which G is the gravi-
tational constant (m-h "); {3, the volume expansion
coefficient (K:"); IL, the absolute viscosity (kg'
m-I·h~t); p, the density (kg-rn"), aT, the temper-
ature difference between object and medium in de-
grees Kelvin or Celsius; d, characteristic diameter of
object (m); and where (Pr) = ILCp/k, in which C, is
specific heat at constant pressure (J·kg-t·K-t). (Pr) is
considered as contant (0.72) for air in thermal physi-
ology.
For forced convection the Nusselt number is a func-
tion of the Reynolds (Re) number and Prandtl num-
ber (Pr) and is described by the relation
(Nu) - (Re)055·(Pr)O.33 ND
CHAPTER 5: HEAT EXCHANGE AT SKIN SURFACE 77
where Re = pvdi IL or vd/v in which p is the density
(kg-rn"), v is the velocity in m-h", IL the viscosity in
kg-hr--m", and v is the kinematic viscosity in
m 2 ·h- J •
The important points to note from the above classic
relationships are 1) for free convection, he varies with
the temperature gradient aT, the gravitational con-
stant G and density; 2) for forced convection, he var-
ies with density and air motion and is independent of
aT,3) for both free and forced convection, he varies
inversely with some function of the diameter d or
length of the warm object. In a spaceship, for exam-
ple, free convection would not exist, as G = 0, and all
(32') convection would be forced. Barometric pressure af-
fects density and thus he. In general, the he for a
large object would be lower than one for a small object
in any given environment.
In the transitional region between free and forced
convection there is no simple relationship as de-
scribed earlier. For the resting human body with a
probable aT of 5°C from surface to ambient air, the
transition occurs at 0.2-0.3 m/s (40-60 ft/min) am-
bient air movement. Below this level of air move-
ment he may be considered as a constant (52).
The effective convective heat transfer coefficient,
he' defined as the ratio of the total heat exchange by
convection from unit area of exterior body surface
to the temperature gradient from the exterior body
surface to the ambient air temperature, has proven
to be one of the most difficult to evaluate accurately
for human beings. As can be seen by the basic heat
balance Equation 3, optimum calorimetric measure-
ments occur when the total dry heat exchange
(R + C) can be accurately measured from the ob-
served M Sk and E sk and, more important, under
conditions for thermal equilibrium when S is proba-
bly zero. Calorimetric measurements of the DRY
heat exchange under these conditions result always
in an accurate value for the combined heat transfer
coefficient (h). The value for the effective he is now
found by subtracting from h a calculated value for h ..
such as given in Equation 29. Determination of he by
this difference method are best done on unclothed
(33) subjects.
In general, the physical factors associated with he
are not simple to measure. Conditions of free and
forced convection may exist simultaneously. Convec-
tion is also affected by the motion of the ambient air
as well as by activity on the part of the subject. The
ambient air movement (v) caused by either turbulent
or laminar flow, may affect he differently. Finally the
question always remains how and where must the air
movement itself be measured for an accurate and
consistent relationship with he'
Measurement ofConvective Heat Transfer Coefficient
Measurements of he for various standard activities
(34) used in the laboratory are presented in Tables 5 and
78 HANDBOOK OF PHySIOLOGy ....... REACTIONS TO ENVIRONMENTAL AGENTS

6. The theoretical value proposed by Rapp (52) in
Table 5 is based on a sphere with 75-cm diameter;
those by Missenard (43) in Table 6 are based on a
long 17-cm diameter cylinder. Values by the naph-
thalene method, reported by Nishi (47), represent
the first direct measurements of he during exercise,
treadmill walking, and free walking without the
use of calorimetry. The last equation for he in Table
6 combines the dual effect of free walking and am-
bient air movement in the opposite directions and
is based on a comparison of the he coefficients for free
and treadmill walking, the difference being the con-
tribution of ambient air movement. The values pre-
sented have an experimental basis up to speeds of 4
mph (or 1.8 m/s), For greater air velocities, these
equations are still useful as first-order estimates.
Finally, values of he vary widely over the surface of
the body. Table 7 illustrates the changes observed
(47) during standing and various types of exercises.
The relation of room air movement (v) to the coeffi-
cient he has limited significance. In practice v is
usually measured with a hot wire anemometer,
which is calibrated in a wind tunnel at speeds above 1
m/s. Lower readings to 0.1 mis, found by projecting
the parabolic calibration curve backwards, thus have
only relative accuracy. Measurements of v are usu-
ally taken at the room location of interest without
people present. When a human being is in situ practi-
cal observations of v should be made at a point 5--10
em off the body surface, as proposed by Missenard (42)
and used by Nishi in locating the naphthalene balls
(47). When a subject is active, such as pedaling a
bicycle ergometer, the measured value of v for the
ambient or room air has even less significance. In
evaluating the effect of both air movement and activ-
ity, it is more practical to consider the resulting value
of he as an index of "relative air movement" rather
than use the actual values of the air movement itself.
Effect of Barometric Pressure
The values of he listed in Tables 5 and 13 apply only
at sea level. Barometric pressure (P b ) changes he by a
factor (P b/760)O.55. Thus the correct equation for de-
scribing the convective heat exchange (C) in the skin
heat balance Equation 3 is
C = h,.Fd(T a - TSk)(Pb/760)o."" w· m 2 (35)
The value ofh and its component h., used in defini-
tion for F tl (see Equation 20), must also be corrected
for barometric pressure. In all equations to follow he
always represents a sea level value.
EVAPORATIVE HEAT EXCHANGE
The heat loss by the evaporation of sweat secretion
on the skin surface is man's most effective means of
survival in the heat. The evaporative heat loss (E)
itself is the best single physiological index of his
environmental stress. Since the beginning of human
calorimetry, observed changes in E have been the
quantitative basis for measurements of the combined
transfer coefficient h for (R + C), for calibration of
the ratio A r / AD, and the individual transfer coeffi-
cients for radiation and convection for the particular
experimental arrangement used (15, 45, 63, 64).

TABLE 5. Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient» (hJ in Normally Ventilated Environments at Sea Level
Condition Ref. Remarks

Seated 4.1* (52) Theoretical

Seated 2.9 ± 0.9* (45,63) Partitional calorimetry
Standing 4.5 ± 0.3* (45) Partitional calorimetry
Standing 4.0 (43) Cross flow, theoretical
Reclining 4.3 ± 0.9* (15) Longitudinal flow
Reclining 4.2 (43) Longitudinal, theoretical
Seated on stool 3.1* (47) Naphthalene method
Seated on bicycle 3.4* (64) Partitional calorimetry
Pedaling bicycle ergometer 4.8 ± 0.8 (64) Partitional calorimetry
Pedaling bicycle ergometer (50 rpm) 5.4 (47) Naphthalene method
Pedaling bicycle ergometer (60 rpm) 6.0 (47) Naphthalene method
* These values involve both free and forced convection and may be considered as constant and representative of ambient air
movement in range 0-50 ft/rnin or 0-0.25 m/s.

TABLE 6. Formulas Relating Convective Heat Transfer Coefficients (hJ to velocity (v) at Sea Level
Formulas in W·m- 2 .oC - 1 Activity Ref. Comments

he = 11.6 V O." Seated (63) v , room air movement by hot wire anemometer
he = 3.43 + 5.93 v Seated (43) v, relative air movement 10 cm off body surface
h, = 2.7 + 8.7vo. 67
Reclining (47) v , air motion lengthwise by hot wire anemometer
h, = 6.5vr,r Treadmill (47) Vtw, speed of treadmill in normal room air
h. = 8.6v'i;;'!3 Free walking (47) v'w, speed of walking in normal room air
he = 8.6vl'w"l + 1.96 v~I.·" Free walking Va, air movement against direction of motion

Velocity is measured in meters per second.

 CHAPTER 5: HEAT EXCHANGE AT SKIN SURFACE 79

TABLE 7. Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient (he) in W' m -2. °C-I During Rest
and Exercise in Normal Air Movement (0.15 - 02 m/s)
Upper Thighs Legs
Body Region Head Chest Back Forearms Hands Average (he)
Arms
W'm- 2 , OC - 1

Area, % 17.5 17.5 19 20

Manikin Standing 2.7 2,5 2.6 3.2 3.1 3.5 2.9 4.5 3.2

Treadmill exercise Sitting 3.2 2.5 2.4 4.0 3.9 4.6 2.8 3.7 3.1
2 mph" 4.2 3.6 3.2 6.4 6.6 7.2 5.0 10.5 5.8
3 mph 4.6 3.8 3.6 7.3 9.3 10.3 6.6 12.7 7.2
4 mph 5.4 4.5 4.3 8.3 10.8 15.4 7.7 14.4 8.4

Free walking 2 mph 7.2 4.8 4.7 6.0 11.2 11.6 8.7 11.8 8.4
3 mph 7.5 5.3 5.1 13.3 12.5 13.2 10.0 13.4 9.4
4 mph 9.5 6.7 6.7 17.0 16.3 17.2 12.5 17.0 12.0

Bicycle ergometer Sitting 3.5 2..9 3.0 4.9 5.1 4.7 3.7 5.2 4.0
50 rpm 3.6 3.2 2.9 5.0 4.8 4.6 6.0 10.0 5.4
60 rpm 4.4 3.3 3.2 5.3 5.2 4.7 6.7 11.1 6.0

• 1 mph x 0.45 = 1 meter/second. [Data from Nishi & Gagge (47).]

Direct Measurement of Evaporative Heat Loss
In direct calorimetry, such as used in the classic
studies of Hardy and Dubois (16) and of Benzinger &
Kitzinger (8), the evaporative heat loss from the body
may be determined from the change in the humidity
ratio (kilograms of H 20 per kilogram ofdry air) at the
outlet from the whole body calorimeter. Chambers
(14) has published such a psychrometric chart useful
for physiological research from which values of the
humidity ratio may be determined.
In partitional calorimetry E is found from the rate
of change in body mass rn, (11m/lit), as measured by a
sensitive balance. The most successful balance used
for this purpose has been the Potter Bed, described in
US Pat. 3,224,518 and 3,360,002. This balance is de-
signed without any wearing knife edges and has
proven useful for continuous measurement of body
weight during both rest and heavy exercise (56). In
such studies, E is determined by the following rela-
tion
E = 60·ri1·A/A D
where rn is the rate change of body mass (m) in
grams per minute; A. is the latent heat of sweat (0.68
W . h/g" or 2.45 J. g-I). For heavy exercise m must
also be corrected downward for CO2 loss over O2 gain
by factor (0.00154 MAo) (in grams per minute), for
which the respiratory exchange ratio (R) is unity. To
evaluate E sk , the total evaporative heat loss from the
body (E) must now be corrected for respired vapor
(E res ) as described in Equation 9.
In Equation 36 the magnitude expected for m for an
average-size person is of interest. Without active
sweating the body would lose weight by respiratory
and skin diffusion at a rate of approximately 0.5
g-rnin". When working at 50% of maximum oxygen
capacity in 30° T a and 50% rh, his sweating rate (rn)
would be about 10-12 g' min-I. For an average person
Belding & Hatch (6) have chosen 18-20 g-min" as
the maximum steady sweat production, when they
set their limits for heat strain. The maximum whole
body sweating observed in the extreme heat is in
range 25-30 g·min-I for short periods of time (36).
The validity of Equation 36, as a direct measure of
evaporative heat loss, depends on the ability of the
sweat produced at a rate m to evaporate completely
on the skin surface. Theoretically E sk should always
be less than the maximal evaporation possible for a
total wet skin surface.
Maximum Evaporative Heat Loss from Skin Surface
The maximum evaporative heat loss (E m ax ) from a
totally wet skin surface is proportional to the concen-
tration gradient from the water vapor on the skin
surface to the water vapor in the ambient air and
may be described by the relation
(37)
where A. is latent heat of sweat in 0.68 W'h'g- I; h o is
W'm- 2 (36) mass transfer coefficient (for diffusion of water vapor)
in m-h"; Psk is vapor density at skin surface (g-rn"):
and Pa is vapor density in ambient air (g-rn"). Vapor
density is related to vapor pressure by the classical
Gas Law and Equation 37 may now be rewritten for
an unclothed subject as
(38)
where T is [(TSk + T a )/2 + 273.2]; P,;tk is the saturated
vapor pressure (in torr) on a completely wet bare skin
surface at TSIO P~p is equal to the ambient vapor pres-
sure (P a) in torr; and R w is the gas constant for water
vapor and equal to 3.47 x 1O-3m3·Torr·g- I·K-I.
Equation 38 is valid when the difference (TSk - T a ) is
small with respect to T, i.e., less than 10%. The term
in the bracket [hoA./(RwT)] is now defined as the
evaporative heat transfer coefficient (he) in W·m- 2 •
Torr".
80 HANDBOOK OF PHYSIOLOGY ~ REACTIONS TO ENVIRONMENTAL AGENTS
The Lewis Relation Between Heat
and Mass Transfer Coefficients
Engineers, meteorologists, and physiologists are
familiar with the analogous relationship between
convection of heat and mass diffusion during evapora-
tion. Convection is governed by a temperature gra-
dient between the skin surface and ambient air
evaporation by a density or pressure gradient. Th~
environmental factors, air motion and density, act in
the same way during both processes. The constancy
of the ratio hJh e under the same conditions of tem-
perature and pressure was recognized by Lewis (39)
and has been expressed in terms useful for physiolo-
gists by others (33, 39, 51). The ratio ho/h e varies as
(D/k)2/:1 (pCp)-l/:J, where D is the mass diffusivity
(m--h"); k the thermal conductivity (W·m-1.oC- 1) ;
C p, specific heat at constant pressure (J·kg-1.oC) and
p is density (kg-rn"), In practical terms for the
present discussion, the ratio (helh e), now called the
Lewis Relation (LR), is given numerically by
(LR) = h..Jh,. = 2.2 (760/P,,) °C·Torr
The number 2.2 is the sea level value for (LR), which
in turn varies inversely as the barometric pressure.
For a unit (m-) of wet skin at temperature Tsk, the
maximum evaporative capacity may now be written
in which 2.2 and he are sea level values.
The term F pel Equation 40, known as the Nishi
Permeation Efficiency Factor (48) for passage of wa-
ter vapor through clothing, has been added to take
account of clothing worn. This factor also varies with
barometric pressure.
The factor F pel is analogous to the F cl for dry heat
exchange and may be written
F tx-t = hpd/(hpel + hpj ND
in which heel is the heat equivalent of water vapor
passing through clothing and he evaporative heat
transfer coefficient from the skin surface itself.
For a vapor impermeable garment, heel and thus
F pel would be zero. For bare skin (unclothed) F pel is
unity. For normal porous clothing, such as worn ev-
ery day by an average person, it has been shown
experimentally (48) at sea level.
F pel = 1/(1 + 0.143h,l,o) ND
Equation 42 relates F pel to the sea level values of he
and the effective clothing insulation lelw At any baro-
metric pressure he in Equation 42 should be replaced
by h e(P b/760)o.:;:;.
An alternate factor to F pel is the nondimensional
moisture index (i m) of Woodcock & Breckenridge (68).
The definition of i., is implied in his equivalent defini-
tion for E max as follows
or
in which hF el is the reciprocal of (1 + lel)' A compari-
0
son of equations 40 and 44 shows that
i m = h,F pel/(hF d) ND (45)
The product im(LR) would be the ratio of the effec-
tive evaporative heat transfer coefficient to the effec-
tive combined heat transfer coefficient. Values of i m,
reported in the literature (68), may be used to calcu-
late F pel by Equation 45 rather than Equation 43.
Table 3 has been completed to show how these evapo-
rate heat transfer coefficients and clothing factors
vary with the clothing insulation.
Skin Wettedness vs. Efficiency
of Evaporative Regulation
The wetted area of the skin (A w) has been defined
as the area of the skin, which, if covered with sweat,
would provide the observed rate of skin evaporation
under the prevailing condition. Thus by this defini-
tionE sk = Aw·Emax/Ao. Skin wettedness (w) has also
I (39) been defined as the ratio of Awl A o. Thus
W = Aw/A o = E,./E m a x ND (46)
When E sk can be evaluated experimentally and
since E max is obtained from the basic observations of
r., r; T wet (or T dp), he and I elo , it is then possible to
evaluate skin wettedness at any time by Equation 46.
Skin wettedness ranges from a certain minimum
value, which occurs when there is no evaporative
heat loss by regulatory sweat (i.e., E rsw = 0), to a
maximum theoretical value of unity. A theoretical
minimum value of zero would occur if the skin were
completely impermeable to water vapor. At the mini-
mum w value the evaporative heat loss from the skin
surface is entirely due to the diffusion of water vapor
(E diff) , evaporated within outer layers of the skin. The
(41) E diff is also directly proportional to the value of E max,
which represents the evaporative power of the envi-
ronment and is calculated from the aforementioned
six basic observations, when E rsw = O. When regula-
tory sweating begins, evaporative heat loss may occur
both by diffusion (E diff) as well as by the evaporation
of sweat (E rsw ) . When the skin surface is completely
wet (i.e., w = 1), E d if f, per se, no longer occurs, and
E sk is attributed entirely to regulatory sweating
(E rsw)' The ratio Ersw/Emax describes the skin wetted-
(42) ness (w rsw) due to sweating, the ratio Ediff/Emax is the
skin wettedness due to diffusion (Wdiff), and the total
wettedness (w) any time is given by
W = Wdlff + (1 - WdJrf)W rs w ND (47)
From data reported by Brebner et al. (10), the
minimum value of the ratio Ediff/Emax (or w) may be
0.06. For continuing exposure to dry cold this mini-
mum value may lower (28). For the remainder of this
chapter, the value 0.06 for a minimum value of Wdiff
will be considered as fixed characteristic of the body
skin surface as a whole. In terms of skin wettedness
(44) (w), the wettedness due to regulatory sweat (w rsw)
 CHAPTER 5: HEAT EXCHANGE AT SKIN SURFACE 81

alone is given by the relation
w"w = (w - 0.06)/0.94 ND (48)
Although the maximum value for w (i.e., unity)
occurs when the skin is 100% wet, there is no clear
evidence in the literature that in air the body can
ever become 100% wet. Sweating is not uniform over
the body surface. Some of the measured weight loss
(rn) may roll off the body without contributing to
evaporative heat loss. Sometimes sweat may evapo-
rate within the clothing layers and thus the efficiency
of evaporation by E sk would be reduced as a cooling
mechanism. Preliminary analysis of published data
(18, 27) seems to show that the maximum skin wet-
tedness for unclothed subjects may fall in the wetted-
ness range 0.8-1.0 at the upper limit of the zone of
evaporative regulation. With clothing the maximum
wettedness useful for body cooling may drop near 0.5.
Air turbulance of the environment tends to spread
sweat evenly over the skin surface. In desert climates
with low humidity and by using loose-fitting cloth-
ing, the maximum effective wettedness may rise up
to the 0.9-1.0 range. Activity and high ambient air
movement also tend to spread sweat more easily over
the body surface, specially when unclothed, and im-
prove the efficiency of evaporative process.
The significance of the maximum possible evapora-
tive heat loss (E m a x ) for clothed and unclothed human
beings was first emphasized by Belding & Hatch (6)
when they proposed their heat stress index (HSI).
During the thermal equilibrium the above value for
w, expressed as a percentage, would correspond nu-
merically to their HSI Index. Modifications of their
index have evolved in recent years in the proper
interpretation of the product wE m a x and the associ-
ated heat transfer factors in the denominator of their
index, and in the practical value of the product wh.;:
F pel to be used as an effective evaporative heat trans-
fer coefficient when evaporative regulation of body
temperature fails (7).
SPECIAL ENVIRONMENTS
Water Immersion
Heat exchange during water immersion will follow
to a great extent the general physiological and physi-
cal principles previously outlined for air. In water
exchange by radiation and evaporation is absent and
the heat balance Equation 3 may now be written
S = M,. - hw('I\. - Tw)Felw W'm- 2 (49)
in which the subscript w denotes water and h., is the
convective heat transfer coefficient from the exposed
body surface to water. The thermal efficiency factor
for clothing (F Clw) in water is defined as before
F elw = Iw/(lw + I clw) ND (50)
in which the insulation of the water I w is l/hw (in
m 2.oC·W-l) and I clwis the insulation of the clothing in
water. As was the case for air, a full-scale clothed
manikin is usually used (65) to evaluate I clw when
immersed in water; due to compression of clothing by
water, I clw tends to be lower than a corresponding
measurement of leI in air.
Values of h., for whole body immersion are ex-
tremely variable. The value listed in Table 8 above for
h., included the insulation effect of a thin waterproof
coating on the manikin surface. Correcting for this
effect, Witherspoon et al. (65) estimate the resulting
h , would have been 134 W·m- 2.oC-l. The h., for a
gradient from the exposed outer surface of 3°C would
also include a free convection component almost
twice the forced convection component. The irregular
shape of the human body would also result in stagna-
tion effects between arms and trunk and so reduce
hw •
More recently Nadel et al. (43) have evaluated h.,
in a swimming flume for water velocities ranging
from still to 0.95 mls. They report for their unclothed
subjects values of h., of 230 W·m- 2.oC-l at rest in still
water, 460 at rest in moving water and 580 while
actively swimming. The latter figure was found to be
independent of swimming speed (using the crawl).
These authors measured their h w, as the ratio of the
average skin heat flow, measured by four copper-
tellurium Hatfield-Turner discs, to the average tem-
perature gradient from four skin thermocouples, held
in place by a thin surgical tape (estimated insulation
0.005 clo) to the water itself. Their water tempera-
tures varied between 18° and 33°C.
In practice an accurate measurement of t sk is
very difficult for bare skin in water but becomes
considerably easier and more significant when mea-
sured under clothing. Clothing insulation worn over
the skin surface causes, as before for air, the effective
heat transfer coefficient from the skin to water to be
the product hwFclw or ratio l!(lw+ I clw)' For this I clw
value of 0.6 clo, when h., = 350, the product hwFelw =
10.4; when h., = 100, hwFclw = 9.7. Thus a variation
100-300 in h., would make little significant change in
the overall heat transfer coefficient from skin to wa-
ter and the heat exchange itself would be less depend-
TABLE 8. Typical Data for an Immersed Copper
Manikin Wearing a Neoprene Wet Suit
About 1/ 4 inch Thick
Still Stirred
Manikin Units Air
Water Water
Unclothed
10 or r, cIo 0.62 0.14 0.11
h or h., W·m- 2 . OC- I 10.4 46 59
Clothed
10 + I cl or I w + I elw cIo 1.48 0.76 0.71
I cl or I elw 0.86 0.62 0.60
F el or F elw ND 0.42 0.18 0.15
hF eh hwF elw, W·m- 2 .oC- 1 4.36 8.49 9.09
or 1I0 w + I cl w )
Data based on personal communication from Dr. R. F. Gold-
man, US Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine,
Natick, Massachusetts.
82 HANDBOOK OF PHYSIOLOGY ~ REACTIONS TO ENVIRONMENTAL AGENTS
ent on the accuracy of the h ; observation. The ulti-
mate usefulness of measuring h.F ctw and the total
heat exchange in water is to predict accurately the
rate of fall (or rise) of mean temperature from the
storage term S and in tum human survival time in
cold water. For detailed studies in this area see
Lambertsen (37) and Keatinge (35).
The physiological neutral point for unclothed sub-
jects in water for h., value 100-300 W· m- 2 • °C-I
would be very close to neutral TSk (in range 33.5-
34°C), and it would be lower by only 0.3-0.soC for a
threefold increase in level of activity expressed in
met units. However, for the wet suit described above
the effective combined transfer coefficient is approxi-
mately 10 and the neutral water temperature would
be lowered to 27-28° for 1 met or 16-19° for moderate
activity (3 mets).
In shallow water for diving subjects the respired
convective heat loss forC res to be substracted from the
energy metabolism M is small and may be ignored.
However, in deep dives the heat loss may be consider-
able by respiration, when breathing equipment used
is at water temperature, (62). As may be seen by
Equation 10 it would be possible for a man to lose a
sizeable portion of this metabolic energy by C res,
while swimming in the above suit at 5°C at a depth of
40 meters (i.e., C res ~ 70 W· m ? for M ~ 350 W . m ").
Hyperbaric Helium-Oxygen Atmospheres
The major changes in the heat transfer processes,
caused by a helium-oxygen atmosphere under pres-
sure, occur in the heat transfer coefficients for convec-
tion and for evaporation of sweating. At sea level the
convective heat loss by respiration was about 1% of
the metabolic energy, but under pressure this term
becomes significant. The nature of these changes on
the convective and evaporative heat transfer coeffi-
cient will be discussed in this section.
The principal physical properties of air, oxygen,
nitrogen, and helium, which affect heat exchange by
convection and evaporation, are presented in Table 9.
From the earlier section CONVECTIVE HEAT EX-
CHANGE, it can be shown that the physical factors
affecting the convective heat transfer coefficient are
he ~ k(P/i...jO-55(,..C,,/k)0.:l:l (forced convection)
he - k(P/,..)0.5(,..C,,/k)0.25 to 0.:1:1:1 (free convection)
where k = thermal conductivity, p = density, J.t
absolute viscosity, and C, = specific heat. For any
TABLE 9. Gas Characteristics at 760 Torr and 20°C
Thermal Conductiv-
Gas
ity, k
Absolute Viscosity, JL
Units W-m-I.OC-l kg-mv-h " x 10-- 2
Air 0.0250 6.55
Oxygen 0.0250 7.32
Nitrogen 0.0250 6.83
Helium 0.149 7.03
Data based on International Critical Tables and Smithsonian Meteorological Tables.
gas mixture, i.e., % O2 and % He or % N 2 , it is
possible from these relationships to determine the
ratio of he' (for any He-0 2 mixture) to he (for air at 760
Torr), first, by evaluating the relative change for a
given mixture at sea level and, second, by correcting
this ratio for changes in barometric pressure, which
affects the p term only. Table 10 shows such calcula-
tions for various helium atmospheres. For 5 ATA (l
ATA = 760 Torr) and above, a constant partial pres-
sure of oxygen of 300 Torr is maintained. The values
indicated in Table 10 are based on the physical prop-
erties of each mixture, by averaging the properties in
Table 9 weighted according to the percentage of oxy-
gen and helium oxygen and helium present.
In Table 10 it can be seen that the initial substitu-
tion of helium for nitrogen essentially increases the
convective heat transfer by a factor of two over that of
air at sea level. The greater increase for he' relative
to air at sea level is due to increasing density raised
to the 0.5 and 0.55 power. For the helium atmos-
pheres above 5 ATA illustrated the relative increases
in he' for either free or forced convection is approxi-
mately the same.
During the evaporative process from a wet skin
surface to a helium atmosphere, the evaporative heat
transfer coefficient (he') for a helium-oxygen mixture
is different for the same environmental condition
with air, and is reflected in the relative change of the
product of the convective heat transfer (he') and the
Lewis Relation (LR') for the gas mixture. The princi-
pal properties of the gas mixture affecting the Lewis
Relation, as seen before, are described by the relation
LR _(D/k)21:l(pC p)-II:l
The new term, now appearing, is the mass diffusivity
(D) for water to a gas, which is also listed in Table 9.
Since D also varies with lip and since k and C p do not
vary with pressure, then
LR - lip
Two columns have been added to Table 10 showing
the relative changes in the Lewis Relation (LR) to air
for various values of ATA. Helium alone at constant
pressure would lower LR' by a factor 0.6-0.7. Since
LR varies inversely proportional to the barometric
pressure, the ratio LR for mixture to LR for sea level
air lowers rapidly with increasing values of ATA.
The product, Llc-h., is equal to the evaporative heat
transfer coefficient. The last column in Table 10,
representing the relative change in the evaporative
Thermal Capacity Mass. Diffusivity (wa-
Density, p Specific Heat, c, per gas volume, pCp ter to gas), D
kg-m? J·kg LOC-' J·m- 3 .oC- 1 m 2 ·h - l
1.20 1004 1205 0.088
1.332 911 1213 0.088
1.166 1027 1197 0.088
0.1664 5200 865 0.271
 CHAPTER
TABLE 10. Comparison of Heat-Transfer Coefficient for Various Helium Oxygen
Hyperbaric Environments with Those for Air at Sea Level
P.,I760 %0, by %Heby h',/h, at 1 h',/h, at
Gas (ATA) ATA (forced) ATA (forced)
volume volume
Air 1 20 80(N.) 1 1
He 1 20 80 2.47 2.47
He 5 7.9 92.1 2.13 5.16
He 10 3.9 96.1 1.98 7.03
He 20 2.0 98.0 1.89 9.82
He 30 1.3 98.7 1.85 11.95
P b , barometric pressure; ATA, atmosphere absolute; he, convective heat transfer coefficient; he, evaporative heat transfer
coefficient; LR, Lewis Relation (39); primes over he and LR refer to helium-oxygen gas mixtures; without primes, to sea level at 20·C.
heat transfer coefficient, is the product (he'/hc)-(LR'/
LR). Thus in a helium hyperbaric environment at 30
ATA, although the relative change in convective
transfer coefficient (he) increases by a factor of 12, the
evaporative heat transfer coefficient drops by a factor
of almost 4.
The values of the ratios he' /h, and (LR' /LR) in
Table 10 can now be quickly converted to the actual
convective he' and evaporative heat transfer he' coef-
ficients by substituting sea level values for he from
Table 5 or 6 and 2.2 for LR. To the value of he' derived
in this manner must now be added the value of'h, (see
Equation 29) to get the combined coefficient h' for the
mixture concerned. When clothing is worn in a hy-
perbaric atmosphere, the effective combined heat
transfer coefficient is now h'F~h in which F~l is
found by substituting h' in Equation 20. The effective
evaporative heat transfer coefficient is similarly
found from the product (LR')(h~F~cl)' in which
F~cl is found by substituting h~ in Equation 42.
A practical illustration of the principles outlined in
the previous paragraph is given in Table 11 for a
sedentary subject (M = 58.2 W'm- 2), wearing light-
weight clothing (lclo = 0.6) and still air (he at sea level
= 3.5 W·m- 2. oC-l) for the same He-02 mixture listed
in Table 10. In general it can be seen the role of
radiation exchange (i.e., h.) becomes an increasingly
smaller fraction of the total dry heat exchange as
barometric pressure increases. Although the relative
increase in he is 12-fold at 30 ATA, the addition of the
radiation coefficient (h.) reduces the relative change
in the combined coefficient to a factor of 6 for an
unclothed subject (i.e., Fel = 1). Light clothing in turn
reduces the relative increase in the effective com-
bined heat transfer coefficient to a factor of only 2.
Although light clothing would give considerable
protection against the cold with increasing atmos-
phere absolutes, it creates a severe vapor barrier for
the evaporative heat loss from the skin surface. At 30
ATA, without clothing, the evaporative heat transfer
coefficient drops to 29% of sea level; with clothing the
effective evaporative heat transfer coefficient is down
to 8% of sea level. By assuming an ambient vapor
pressure (P a) of 12 Torr and a i'Sk of 34°, the E max for
the environment may be calculated for either nude or
clothed condition by Equation 40 or as indicated in
the footnote to Table 11. In a hyperbaric environment
5: HEAT EXCHANGE AT SKIN SURFACE 83
h',/h, at 1 h',/h, at (LR')/(LR) (LR')/(LR) at h',./h, at ATA
ATA (free) ATA (free) ATA (forced)
at 1 ATA
1 1 1 1 1
2.75 2.75 0.62 0.62 1.5
2.48 5.55 0.64 0.128 0.66
2.33 7.37 0.67 0.067 0.47
2.24 10.01 0.70 0.035 0.34
2.20 12.05 0.71 0.024 0.29
normal clothing thus tends to act like a garment
impermeable to vapor.
With increasing barometric pressure the thermal
capacity (pCp) of a unit volume of gas mixture also
increases. Values for pCp are also indicated in Table
9. Although the density of helium is one-seventh of
that of air, its specific heat is five times that of air,
the thermal capacity per unit volume remains ap-
proximately 0.72--0.78 for the percent mixtures listed
in Table 10. The increase in the respired heat loss is
thus principally a linear function of barometric pres-
sure (61). The sea level respired loss by convection, as
described in Equation 10, was developed by Fanger
(17), based on the valid assumption that the respira-
tory ventilation rate varies linearly with the energy
metabolism M. For C:"'s in a He-02 atmosphere
Equation 10 must be multiplied by the factor, 0.75
or by [p'Cp' (for mixture)/pC p (for air)]. When these
factors are combined, at 30 ATA, the additional con-
vective load by C res would be 1.8 W per degree
Celsius change in T, per met. This coefficient would
only be relatively significant when the subject is
clothed (1.8 vs. 8.8) but insignificant when unclothed
(1.8 vs. 46.5) as far as the total cooling load is
concerned. With increasing levels of exercise, this
respiratory coefficient would rise, however, more rap-
idly in proportion to the rise in the effective combined
coefficient itself, and the various parts of the body
both internally and externally would cool at different
rates. Both would require a more sophisticated analy-
sis than presented here for values of i'Sk and whole
body heat transfer coefficients.
The physiological neutral operative temperature is
given by the solution of Equations 1 or 3 for To, when
all the effective heat transfer coefficients are used in
calculating the terms involved. In Table 11 the neu-
tral point (T~n), for M of 1 met for unclothed and 0.6
clothed and for P, = 12 Torr (or 40% rh at sea level)
has been calculated; T~n occurs when the wettedness
(w) equals 0.06. The temperature To" for the upper
limit of evaporative regulation occurs when w == 1
and is found approximately by the sum T~n + E;"ax/
(h'F~I)' At sea level for the low humidities used, the
zone of evaporative regulation extends over a 30°
range for To. With increasing barometric pressure the
range for regulation narrows to 1_2 at 30 ATA. 0
Towards the cold the transfer coefficient (h'F~l)
84 HANDBOOK OF PHYSIOLOGY -- REACTIONS TO ENVIRONMENTAL AGENTS

TABLE 11. Heat Transfer Factors and Limiting Operative Temperatures for Various
He-02 Atmospheres at Constant Water Vapor Pressure (12 Torr) and 20°C
ReI. Ther· Limits of Evaporative
Dry Heat Transfer Coefficients Evaporative Heat Trans. Coer. Max. Evap. Power
mal Cap. Regulation

Gas P, E:nilX E:n8ll T.',n for w = 0.06 T:: for w ~ 1

h'F'" h', or
h", h, h' nude F'" F~'l h',.F~d p'C' ,/(pC p )
clothed (LR')'h',
Nude Clothed Unci Clo Uncl Clo

W·m- 2 . Wornl!· W·rn- 2 • W·rn- 2 • W·rn- 2 • W'rn- Z '

% ATA ND ND w-m 2 W'm"2 ND °C °C °C °C
°e-I -c- "C--I °C-l Torr " Torr-I

Air 1 3.5 4.7 8.2 0.57 4.67 7.7 0.79 6.08 209 165 1 29 24 54 59
80% He 1 8.64 4.7 13.3 0.45 5.99 11.75 0.57 6.70 319 181 0.78 30 25 54 55
92% He 5 18.06 4.7 22.8 0.32 7.30 5.06 0.39 1.97 137 53 3.7 32 27 38 34
96% He 10 24.6 4.7 29.3 0.27 7.91 3.6 0.32 1.15 98 31 7.3 32 27 35 31
98% He 20 34.6 4.7 39.7 0.21 8.34 2.66 0.25 .66 72 18 14.4 33 28 35 30
98.6% He 30 41.8 4.7 46.5 0.19 8.84 2.21 0.22 .48 60 13 21.6 33 28 34 29.5
All primes refer to helium-oxygen gas mixtures indicated; otherwise data apply to air at sea level. Pb, barometric pressure; h.,
convective heat transfer coefficient; h., linear radiation exchange coefficient; h, combined heat transfer coefficient; F"" clothing
efficiency factor; h., evaporative heat transfer coefficient; F pd , permeation efficiency factor; E;"ax = h, (LR')F~d (Pf, - 12); o'C' p/(pC p ),
thermal capacity of gas mixture relative to air; w, skin wettedness due to perspiration and diffusion; Ton, operative temperature for
thermal neutrality when w = 0.06; '1';;, operative temperature at upper limit of evaporative regulation, when w = 1.

should be compared with the skin metabolism M sk-
which for our example is about 55 W·m- 2 • For the
extreme case, when the subject is unclothed at 30
ATA, each drop in To' below T:m would cause an
initial body cooling rate of 46.5 W·m- 2 • Thus this
cooling rate would correspond approximately to an
initial drop rate of 1DC per hour in the mean body
temperature of an average-size person for each de-
gree that To' falls below T:m .
In the present section the heat exchange in helium
hyperbaric atmospheres has been described in terms
of the convective heat transfer coefficient now used in
air environments. The order of magnitude of the
phenomena derived on the basis of physical theory
agrees well with those reported in the literature.
With one exception (61) most of the studies for this
field are descriptive and, when quantitative, the in-
dependent variables describing human heat ex-
change are not always reported. The examples pre-
sented here confirm well-known observations (5, 53,
62) that the nature of heat exchange under high baro-
metric pressure tends to be very similar to that in
water in that the temperature range for comfort in
both media is very narrow.
RATIONAL TEMPERATURE INDICES
OF THERMAL ENVIRONMENT
All rational temperature indices (19) are based on
the fundamental heat balance Equations 1 or 3. The
family tree of rational environmental temperature
indices is illustrated in Figure 2.
Operative Temperature
Operative temperature (To), as shown in Equa-
tion 13, is the average of the mean radiant ct) and
the dry bulb or ambient air temperature (Ta)
weighted by the linear radiation (h.) and convective
(h.) heat transfer coefficients involved. The dry heat
exchange (DRY) from the skin surface in terms of
operative temperature and the combined heat trans-
fer coefficient (h) and the clothing efficiency factor
(FeI) is
DRY = F",h(T" - 'I\k) W -rn" (7)
By Equation 17 operative temperature may now be
defined as the temperature of an imaginary uniform
black enclosure in which a human being with an
observed skin temperature (Tsk ) would exchange the
same sensible (DRY) heat as he would in the actual
environment described by l' n T a, and clothing insula-
tion worn.
Operative temperature is a temperature index of
the physical heat stress caused by the environment
on human beings and is independent of the tempera-
ture of the skin surface and insulation of clothing
worn.
In normally ventilated living space the tempera-
ture (Tg ) of a skin-colored Bedford-type globe ther-
mometer has been used as a direct measure of To (24).
Humid Operative Temperature
Humid operative temperature (Toh) is a biophysical
temperature index (49) of the strain caused by the
physical environment on the regulatory sweating
system and is defined as the temperature of an imagi-
nary uniform "black" saturated enclosure (i.e., when
To = T a = T dp) in which human beings would ex-
change the same total heat (sensible + insensible)
from the skin surface at the TSk and w observed in
the actual environment, which in turn is described by
To. Ta , Td p and the ~'lo worn. Thus by this definition
TOTAL (loss) = -R - C - E Sk W-m " (51)
= hFclCT,k - To) + wh,.Fpd(P;"k ~ P,tp) (52)
= (A + wBllTsk - Toh ] (53)
where
A = hF d (54)
B = 1.92h"F IX'I = 4. 22h"F pel (55)

For Stand.
Environment
(To.50%rh)
(hrs.hcs.lclos.Pbs)
(Tsk) (Tsk. W)
Tso TsOh----SET-
FIG. 2. Family Tree of rational environmental temperature
indices. The physical properties of the skin are temperature Cr,.)
and wettedness (w). Basic environmental temperatures are
mean radiant (1'r), ambient air (T a), and dew-point (Trip) temper-
atures. Barometric pressure (P b ) and air movement affect the
convection coefficient (he)' Clothing insulation (lc/o) affects the
efficiency factors (F rl and Fpc,) for transfer of heat and water
vapor through clothing. The standard of reference environment,
used for comparison in standard operative (T,o) and standard
humid operative (T ,oh) temperatures, describes usually one which
is familiar for our daily living conditions. The indices for new
effective temperature (ET*) and new standard effective tempera-
ture (SET*) refer to environments at 50% relative humidity (rhl,
and
In Equation 56 a linear dew temperature (Tdew) is
defined by
Td e w = (P. + 25.3)/1.92 ac
In the range of the observed dew-point temperature
25° < T dp < 35°C, T dp and Tdew are numerically equal.
The ambient vapor pressure (Pa) may be rewritten as
either P" dp or <l>P*a' In terms of the basic environ-
mental physical properties (To and Pa), by combining
Equations 56 and 57
The general relationship of Tob to the ambient vapor
pressure, (P a), and the operative temperature (To> is
illustrated on the psychrometric chart in Figure 3 for
a resting sedentary subject while lightly clothed in a
normal ventilated room. The relative humidity
curves indicated refer to either To or T; and Pa. The
characteristics of the environment are indicated in
the box on the left side of Figure 3. In the zone of
evaporative regulation any line of constant wetted-
ness is described by the equation
(P. - P*sk) = -[hF,.,/(wh.F pd )]
{'I', - ('I'sk - M.k/(hF cI )) )
which is the heat balance equation 3, rewritten and
combined with Equation 52. For purposes of the pres-
ent illustration, mean skin temperature (Tsk) is as-
sumed to be constant at 34° over the zone of evapora-
tive regulation. When TSk is constant, loci of constant
T ob and skin wettedness (w) appear as common
straight lines on this psychrometric chart. The zone
of evaporative regulation falls between the w = 0.06
CHAPTER 5: HEAT EXCHANGE AT SKIN SURFACE 85
and w = 1.0 loci. In the zone of body cooling loci of
constant Tob parallel the w = 0.06 locus and Tob ap-
proached To numerically in value. Above the w = 1.0
locus, evaporative regulation has failed, and loci of
constant T ob would parallel the w = 1.0 locus. The
negative slope of lines of constant Tob or w in Figure
3, as seen from Equation 58, is the ratio
hFcl/(wheF pel)' The abscissa at the intersection ofloci
of constant wettedness with the saturation curve
gives the numerical value of the T uh index. For the
transfer coefficients chosen here the zone of evapora-
tive regulation lies between values of23.5° and 30.5°C
for T oh- All loci of constant wettedness or constant T ob
radiate from a common point (CP), whose abscissa is
given by the term [TSk - Msk/(hFcl)] and whose ordi-
nate is p* sk- Physically speaking, this abscissa value
equals the operative temperature at which MSk would
be theoretically balanced by the DRY loss, when E Sk
= O. Figure 3 actually describes a plot of the basic
heat balance equation on the psychrometric chart,
when Equation 52 is entered in Equation 3.
Skin temperature actually is not constant over the
range of Tofor the zone of evaporative regulation but
increases slowly, Loci for w = 1 are also drawn for TSk
values of 35° and 36°C. The true w = 1 locus would
(56) thus tend to be flatter than one drawn for a constant
TSk'
In Figure 3, loci are also drawn for the classic
Effective Temperature (ET) applicable to a sedentary
(57) normally clothed subject and described in the original
studies of Houghten & Yaglou (32). For the satura-
tion line 000% rh) the numerical index values for ET
and T ob coincide by definition. Deviations between
the two occur at lower relative humidities. When
regulatory sweating is minimal (w - 0.06), the older
ET tends to overestimate the effect of vapor pressure
when compared to T oh- When evaporative heat loss is
-c (58) near its maximum (w - 1), ET tends to underesti-
mate the effect of vapor pressure. In the middle
ranges of evaporative regulation, when 0.3 < w <
0.5, index values of T ob and the older ET tend to be
identical at all relative humidities.
There is no simple direct measure of humid opera-
tive temperature with a simple physical instrument.
As may be recognized from Equation 56, Tob may be
considered as a linear average of the Ta , Tr , and TdP or
Tdew, weighted by their associated transfer coeffi-
cient. The wet bulb-globe temperature (WBGT) index
developed by Yaglou & Minard (70) would be in the
same numerical category as Tob, since WBGT is a
(59)
torr
weighted average of T a, the T g of a black globe ball
and the Twb of an unventilated wet bulb. The weight-
ing factors used with the WBGT as an index were
specially chosen to simulate the earlier ET of Hough-
ten and Yaglou.
Graphic solutions are possible for both T ob and w
for conditions, when there is thermal equilibrium.
The steps for such a solution are 1) the common point
(CP) is plotted on a psychrometric chart with coordi-
nates (TSk - Msk/(hF cl ) , P~'D; 2) coordinates of the
86 HANDBOOK OF PHYSIOLOGY .--- REACTIONS TO ENVIRONMENTAL AGENTS
50,---------------------......,
M =~2.4 W·rn
sk
40 h=?6
he=2.9 w·ni 2 .oC- 1
FIG. 3. Graphic representation of a
IcI=06 clo
typical environment for a sedentary
clothed subject. All loci of constant
wettedness pass through a common
point (ep) whose coordinates are [(T Sk
- Msk/(hF,.,)), P" Sk]. The dotted loci rep-
resent the classic Effective Tempera-
ture (ET). The abscissa at the intersec-
tion of all solid loci with the 50% rh
curve is the new Effective Temperature
(ET*) of the American Society of Heat-
ing, Refrigerating and Air-Condition-
ing Engineers (ASHRAE). Shaded
zone represents the ASHRAE Comfort
Standard for environmental design.
T sk , skin temperature; rh, relative hu-
midity. 10
observed conditions (OP) for the environment in
question (To, P a or <I>P*a) are plotted; 3) a straight
line is drawn between CP and OP. The negative slope
of this line equals analytically hF.,.j(wheFpel)' The
value of w at OP may be found by dividing by the
ratio hFed(heFPel), which is negative slope of the w =
1 locus, the negative slope of CP-OP line. The abscissa
at intersection of the CP-OP line with the saturation
curve is the value for Toh that corresponds to the
observed To and P a. Alternatively, when w can be
evaluated experimentally by ratio Esk/Emax, a line
with negative slope (hFeI/(wheF pel)] is drawn through
the (OP) point, (T", Pa)' The abscissa for the intersec-
tion of the lines with the saturation curve give the Toh
acting on the subject, whether or not equilibrium
exists.
A practical application of the T oh index is illus-
trated in Figure 4. A prescriptive environment of
27.5° T oh or ET has been set for the limit in which men
can work safely at 300 kcal- h-\ (or 350 W or 194
W . m -2) for an average-size person with AD of 1.8 m".
This example is taken from Figure 2 in Lind (40). The
equivalence of T oh and ET follows by their definitions
at 100% rho The environmental factors are estimated
for this illustration as I elo = 0.3; he = 6.0 (~0.25
m-s "); h, = 4.9; h = 10.9 from which Fe! = 0.66, and
F pel = 0.80. The critical value of TSk is assumed to be
35°C and constant. On a psychrometric chart, the
common point (CP) is first plotted, (35 - (194)(.9)/
[(10.9)(0.66)], 42.2) or 00.7, 42.2). The prescriptive
point (PP) is now plotted at (27.5, 27.5). The negative
slope of the line drawn between (CP) and (PP) is 0.88.
w· ni2.o e l
W=O.?
(1.24)
10 20 30 40 50 60
AMBIENT AIR OR OPERATIVE TEMPERATURE °C
The slope of the (w = 1) line is (10.9)(0.66)/
[(2.2)(6.0)(0.80)] or 0.68. The wettedness (w) under
this prescriptive condition is 0.68/0.88 or 0.78. The
slope line for w = 0.78, so drawn, gives the locus of To
and P a values for which an identical prescription
environment would exist. For an equivalent dry de-
sert environment, where P a == 5, the prescriptive
limiting To would be 53°. The E sk at this 53° point
would be (0.78) x [ 2.2 x 6.0 x 0.80 x (42.2 - 5)] or
306 W' m ? or a sweat rate of 14 g-rnin " for an
average man. The bracketed term is value for E max.
Probable sweat rate at 50 and 100% rh above PP are
also indicated. Any observed point (OP) lying above
the prescriptive locus (for w = 0.78) describes a condi-
tion in the zone of body heating. In Figure 4 a line has
been drawn through the CP with slope 0.68/0.06 or
11.3, which defines lower limit of zone of evaporative
regulation. For the work conditions described, the
environment in terms of To and P a has now been
divided into the three zones of regulatory response.
For an environment with these same general char-
acteristics and for this same work rate, suppose the
same worker must operate in front of a blast furnace,
which caused an effective radiant field of 100 W'm- 2
on the clothing surface, while the ambient air re-
mained at a Ta of 25 ° and 40% rho The ambient vapor
pressure would be now 9.5 Torr and the operative
temperature in front of the furnace 25 + 100/10.9 or
34.2°by Equation 25. Before facing the furnace the OPt
would have coordinates (25, 9.5). In front of the fur-
nace the OP 2 would be (34.2°, 9.5). The degree of
wettedness (w) associated with CP-OP I line is 0.3;

50~-----------------------..,
40
MSk"194x0.9W·rril
hc-6.0 W·m 2 .oC I
hr=4.9 W·ni 2.oCI
Iclo-O.3
Tsk"35°C
10
10 20 30 40
AMBIENT AIR OR OPERATIVE TEMPERATURE OC
with CP-OP2 w is 0.5. If the relative humidity of the
air at OP a had been 84% (or P, = 20 Torr), the wetted-
ness corresponding to CP-OPa would be 0.43, but in
front of the furnace for CP-OP4 , w is 0.71 and
would be near the prescriptive limit of w = 0.78.
Standard Operative Temperature
Standard Operative Temperature (Tso) is defined as
the temperature of a black isothermal environment
in which a human being, wearing standard clothing
and exposed to a standard air movement and baro-
metric pressure, would exchange the same heat by
radiation and convection as he would with the same
mean skin temperature in the actual environment
described by To. In the actual environment the DRY
heat exchange is given by Equation 17, or now by
DRY = A<TSk - To) W.m?
In the standard environment by definition
DRY = A,.(T Sk - Tso )
where
or
Equating Equations 60 and 61, it follows
T,o = (A/A,)T o + (l - A/A,lT'k
By Equation 63, it is possible to describe any thermal
stress, caused by Ta , '1'" or ERF, by the transfer
CHAPTER 5: HEAT EXCHANGE AT SKIN SURFACE 87
FIG. 4. Psychrometric chart which
relates a prescriptive condition (PP),
described by a humid operative tem-
perature (Toh) of 27.5° for a man work-
ing at about 3 mets and wearing 0.3 clo
to an equivalent temperature at 50%
and for a desert environment at 5 Torr
vapor pressure. The values for wetted-
ness (ui ), operative temperature T,,,
and Toh at operating conditions OP-l
and 2 for a man working in front of a
radiant heat source at ambient vapor
pressure (Pa) of9 Torr and atOP-3 and
OP-4 for 20 Torr are also indicated
graphically. CP, common point; M",
net rate of metabolic heat to skin sur-
face; hr. convective heat transfer coeffi-
cient; h" linear radiation exchange
coefficient; I rio, clothing insulation; T ok,
skin temperature; ET*, new effective
temperature; rho relative humidity;
ERF, effective radiant field.
50 60
coefficients hand F e l and by barometric pressure (Pg),
in terms of the ambient temperature of a uniform
environment of known standard characteristics. By
definition TSk applies to both actual and standard en-
vironments.
Standard Humid Operative Temperature
Standard Humid Operative Temperature (Tsoh) is
the temperature of an imaginary saturated isother-
mal enclosure in which a human being, wearing
standard clothing and exposed to standard air move-
ment at sea level, would exchange the same heat by
radiation, convection and evaporation as he would for
the same skin temperature and wettedness in the
actual nonuniform environment. If As + wB s or Cs
are the values for the combined humid transfer coeffi-
(60) cients in the standard or reference environment, as
was the case for T so it follows
T 80h = (C/C,)T Oh + (l - C/C,)T'k °C (64)
(61)
Standard Effective Temperature
(62)
In general the Standard Temperatures- operative
and humid operative- make it possible to compare
(62')
two or more entirely different environmental condi-
tions, as described by Toand T ohs in terms of a Tso and
Tsoh for the standard or reference environment. The
°C (63)
standard often represents an environment that de-
scribes a set of physical conditions that exist for some
known physiological state. It is possible to compare
88 HANDBOOK OF PHYSIOLOGY --- REACTIONS TO ENVIRONMENTAL AGENTS
two environments directly only when the M Sk ex-
pected in each of the two environments is nearly
identical. The following are some practical examples
of how the indices Tso and Tsoh may be used.
Question: What would be the equivalent ambient
temperature for comfort for an unclothed subject in a
hyperbaric atmosphere of 5 ATA?
For a series of studies (46) sponsored by the Ameri-
can Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Condi-
tioning Engineers (ASHRAE) as well as for the com-
fort studies compiled by Fanger (17) it has been
shown that sedentary man, while wearing 0.6 elo
insulation, is comfortable at 24°C and 50% rh at sea
level. The transfer coefficients for h and he, used in
Figure 3, were used to describe this ASHRAE com-
fort environment, which will now be used as a stand-
ard; thus the standard effective heat transfer coeffi-
cient As = (0.59)(7.6) = 4.48 W·m- 2.OC-I.
For the hyperbaric environment in question, since
he is corrected by the factor (Pb/760)0.5\ thus A = (4.7
+ 2.9(5)°·55)(1.0) or 11.7 W·m- 2.oC-l. The solution is
the value of To in Equation 63, when rewritten
To = (Too + (A/A, - l)'I',k)/(A/A,)
= (24 + (2.61 - 1)34)/2.61 = 30.2°
Question: What is the temperature for sedentary
comfort for a subject at 12,000 ft (3,658 m) altitude
while wearing 1.5 do? For this condition P, = 480
Torr, and A = (5.3 + 2.9(480/760)°·55)(0.36) = 2.72.
The answer is an operative temperature for comfort
of 17SC.
A practical application of the use of standard (or a
reference) humid operative temperature is the follow-
ing. Question: What would be limiting values for
heat stroke in terms of T oh- for a man while working
at 3 mets, wearing 0.3 clo, in an atmosphere of 4 ATA
(i.e., in an underwater caisson)? Also, what is the
comfort range? The air movement is about 400 ft/rnin
(2 m/s) caused by fans and would correspond to he
value of 34.9 W·m- 2.oC- 1 in the hyperbaric atmos-
phere.
For the work range (3 met) Wyndham (69) has
reported that: a) below 28.8° T we! or T oh of a saturated
environment in a South African mine, the risks of
fatal heat stroke (HS) are negligible; b) a sharp rise
in HS occurs at 32.2° T oh; and c) above 33.9° T oh there
is serious danger of a fatality. The mean skin temper-
ature TSk for the exercise level at each condition are
assumed to be a) 35°; b) 36°; and c) 37°. His he at 1
ATA is assumed to be 8.2 W·m- 2.OC-l for 100 ft/min
(0.5 m-s"), His subjects were unclothed and the M Sk
value is also 160 W·m- 2 • The hyperbaric environment
is now used as reference. The first step is to estimate
the skin wettedness for the prescriptive conditions
outlined above. The key heat transfer coefficients in
Wyndham's environment are
A = hF.., = (4.7 + 8.2)(1) = 12.9 W·m- 2 . oC- '
B = 4.22h..F lX' = (4.22)(8.2)(1) = 34.6 W· m'· °C-I
The negative slope of the w 1 line is
hF cI/[2.2 h.,Fped = 0.715 Torr·oC-l. The coordinates
of the Common Point (CP) are (TSk - Msk/A, P*Sk);
these are for a), (22.6, 42.2); b), (23.6, 44.6); and
for c) (24.6, 47) in (OC, torr). The coordinates of the
prescription points (PP) are for a), (28.8, 29.6); b),
(32.2, 36.1); c), (33.9, 39.0), where the abscissa is in
degrees Celsius and the ordinate in torr. The corre-
sponding values ofToh are 28.8, 32.2 and :l3.9, respec-
tively. The ratio of the characteristic slope of the w =
1 locus to the slope of the CP-PP line is the skin
wettedness w. Thus a) for negligible (HS), w = (0.71)/
[(42.2 - 29.6)/(28.8 - 22.6)] or 0.35; b) for danger of
(HS), w = 0.72; and c) for fatal incidence of (HS), w =
0.83.
In the standard (or reference) environment (i.e., in
the case the hyperbaric), As = (4.7 + 34.9)(0.35) =
13.9 and B, = 4.22(1/4)(34.9)(0.40) = 14.7, where the
values for F el and F pel are 0.35 and 0.40, respectively.
For a), Cs = As + wBs = 19.0 W·min- 2.oC- I; b), C, =
24.5; and c), Cs = 26.1. The negative slope of the w =
1 line for the reference environment is (13.9)/[2.2(1/
4)(34.9)(0.4)] or 1.8 Torr·oC-l.
°C
(63') The value ofT soh, equivalent to the three respective
prescriptive points found by Equation 63, are a) 26.8;
b) 30.0, and c) 32.0. The negative slope of the loci of
same constant wand Tsk, as in the observed (Wynd-
ham's) environment, are a), 1.80/0.35 or 5.14
Torr·oC-I; b), 1.80/0.72 or 2.5, and c), 1.80/0.87 or 2.1.
Alternatively, these same loci could be found by
drawing slope lines between the common points and
the prescriptive points.
McNall et al. (41) have shown that clothed (0.6)
subjects, doing a step test with average Msk of 3 mets,
are comfortable at an ambient temperature of)7.5°
(50% rh) or T Oh of 15SC. Assuming a comfort T sk of
33° and effective he of lOW· m -2 . "C- t, the skin wet-
tedness for comfort is 0.18. The corresponding pre-
scriptive Toh for comfort in the above 4 ATA chamber
would be 22.4°C.
All the aforementioned factors are illustrated
graphically in Figure 5. The various zones for cool-
ing, evaporative regulation, and for probability of
heat stroke are outlined.
A New Effective Temperature Index
All the operative temperatures described above
have been so defined that they can be used in a basic
heat balance equation to describe the heat exchange
from the skin surface at TSk and ultimately by R + C
or R + C + E Sk to the environment. Both T oh and T soh
by definition always refer to an imaginary saturated
environment. By using the saturation curve as the
numerical value for the environmental index, the
range for the zone of evaporative regulation becomes
less than lOoC, and the values for Toh and Tsoh so found
are usually well below what our common experience
would call hot and very hot. The same handicap also

50.....-------------::------; ,'----------,
40
~ how, by using the concept of a standard
~ STANDARD
30
~ lela" 0.3
~
~ 4ATA
It 20
~ common reference. 0, environments ob-
~ served by Wyndham (69) and McNall et
§ al. (41); 0, 4 ATA environment; 1',.,
10
10 20 30 40
AMBIENT AIR OR OPERATIVE TEMPERATURE °C
applied to the older effective temperature of Hough-
ten and Yaglou.
A new effective temperature index (ET*, to distin-
guish it from the older ET) has been proposed for use
by the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating
and Air-Conditioning Engineers, which uses as its
index value the abscissa at the intersection of loci of
constant wettedness with the 50% rh curve. The as-
sumption has been made that the average relative
humidity of our daily environment is approximately
50%. The new effective temperature index, ET* is
defined in exactly the same words as Toh except that
the imaginary isothermal environment is now defined
at 50% rh instead of 100% rho From Figure 3, drawn
for a clothed subject wearing 0.6 clo, it can be seen the
range of Toh for zone of evaporative regulation is
23.4-28.2°C compared to 24-38° for ET*.
In Figures 3, 4 and 5 a 50% rh curve has been
drawn for reference in converting any T oh to ET*. The
abscissa at intersection of all loci of constant wetted-
ness with this curve gives graphically the value of
ET*.
ET* and Toh are also related analytically by the
same definition
T,," = [A(ET*) + w(B/1.92)(25.3 + 0.5P *ET-)]/(A + wB) (65)
In terms of To and P, of the environment from Equa-
tion 58 by
T,," = [AT" + w<B/1.92)(25.3 + Pa)]/(A + wB) (66)
Analytically ET* is the solution (preferably by iter-
ation on a computer) of the following function found
CHAPTER 5: HEAT EXCHANGE AT SKIN SURFACE 89
FIG. 5. Psychrometric chart indicat-
ing limits for comfort and heat stroke
found in a hyperbaric atmosphere for
men working at 3 mets and with light
clothing (0.3). This chart illustrates
humid operative temperature, pre-
FOR CAISSON scriptive conditions for heat stroke, ob-
served by Wyndham (69), and for ther-
mal comfort by McNall et al. (41), both
-2
hc"34.9 w·rn . '"
0,.-1
I at same level of exercise, may be rein-
~
terpreted graphically in terms of am-
bient vapor pressure and operative
temperature values in a hyperbaric en-
vironment, used as the standard or
skin temperature; ET*, new effective
temperature; I,."" clothing insulation;
CP, common point; PP, prescriptive
point; ATA, atmosphere absolute; h.,
convective heat transfer coefficient.
50 60
by combining Equations 65 and 66 and reintroducing
the basic transfer coefficients
f(ET*) = ET*
(67)
+ w[(2.2h('F pd)/(hF,.,)](O.5P*ET- - Pal - T" = 0
ET* may also be used as a standard effective tem-
perature in the same manner as Tsoh' The only
change in Equation 67 would be SET* for ET* and the
use of h., h., and Iclos values for the standard or
reference environment.
The ASHRAE ET*, when used as a standard, is
illustrated in Figure 6 (27). For this figure a two-node
model of human temperature regulation (19, 20, 25)
was used to generate values TSk and skin wettedness
(w) that correspond to the environmental stress
caused by To and P a' In Table 3 the last column has
been added to show in terms of ET* the probable
environmental temperature for comfort and thermal
physiological neutrality when the clothing ensembles
in the left column are worn while sedentary.
SUMMARY
Heat balance equations, describing human heat
exchange by radiation, convection, and conduction
from the skin surface with the thermal environment
have been introduced, and each term has been de-
fined.
The environmental variables in the basic heat bal-
ance equation that must be measured are ambient
temperature, mean radiant temperature or the effec-
90 HANDBOOK OF PHYSIOLOGY ~ REACTIONS TO ENVIRONMENTAL AGENTS
50
6. A chart relating standard ef-
FIG.
40
fective temperature (SET*) with am-
bient vapor pressure in torr, dew-point
temperature (T dp) or linear dew tem- t
perature (T dn,.) and with standard op- ~
erative temperature (T 80)' For a stand-
30
'l>
ard environment at uniform ambient ~
temperature, this chart is equivalent ~
to an expanded comfort chart of the ~
American Society of Heating, Refriger- Q:
'-
20 /~
ating and Air-Conditioning Engineers. ~
IAdapted from Gonzalez & Gagge (27).] §-
:s:
tive radiant field, the ambient vapor pressure or dew-
point temperature, an angle factor that describes
body posture and orientation to thermal radiation
present, air movement as it affects the convective
heat transfer coefficient, clothing insulation, baro-
metric pressure, and length of exposure.
The physiological variables in heat balance equa-
tion are skin temperature; skin wettedness, which is
governed both by regulatory sweat secretion present
and by the evaporative power of the environment; the
rate of change of body heat storage or of mean body
temperature; the metabolic energy level along with
the metabilic heat flowing through the skin surface;
and the external work accomplished.
The dry heat exchange from human skin surface is
governed by the Operative Temperature (To) of the
thermal environment and by an effective heat trans-
fer coefficient, which is a function of both the com-
bined heat transfer coefficient for radiation and con-
vection and the clothing insulation.
Operative temperature is an average of the mean
radiant and ambient air temperature, weighted by
their respective heat transfer coefficient. It is also
defined in terms of ambient air temperature and the
effective radiant field.
The evaporative heat loss from the skin to the
environment is governed first by skin wettedness, by
the ambient vapor pressure, and by an effective evap-
orative heat transfer coefficient, which is in turn a
standard
environment· 0.6 cia
he =2.9 W·rri'·oC'
sea level
expo time: I hr
01>"\
20 25 30 35 40
STANDARD OPERATIVE TEMPERATURE (Tsol
function of skin wettedness, the product of the Lewis
Relation and the convective heat transfer coefficient,
and the clothing insulation.
The total heat loss from the skin surface is gov-
erned by the humid operative temperature and by an
effective humid transfer coefficient, which is a func-
tion of skin wettedness in addition to heat transfer
coefficient for radiation, convection, and conduction
through clothing, used in defining operative temper-
ature.
Humid operative temperature is essentially an av-
erage of the operative temperature and the dew-point
temperature, weighted by the effective heat transfer
coefficient for dry heat exchange and the effective
humid transfer coefficient for evaporative heat loss.
In this chapter, the heat balance equation itself, all
its individual terms, the associated heat transfer
coefficients, and related temperatures- operative
and humid operative- have all been defined in ana-
lytical terms that can be transposed easily into com-
puter language for on-line analysis of experimental
data.
Graphical solutions of the heat balance equation
have been also demonstrated by use of plots on a
psychrometric type chart drawn with operative tem-
perature as abscissa and the ambient vapor pressure
as ordinate.
Standard Temperatures- Operative and Humid
Operative- by which indices it is possible to compare

two or more environments with many different char-
acteristics such as clothing worn, air movement, and
barometric pressure have been analytically defined.
Two special environments, water immersion and
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