Journal of Food Engineering 78 (2007) 1141–1148

www.elsevier.com/locate/jfoodeng

Analysis of the heat and mass transfer during coffee batch roasting
a,*
J.A. Hernández , B. Heyd b, C. Irles c, B. Valdovinos b, G. Trystram b

a
Research Center of Engineering and Applied Sciences (CIICAp), Autonomous University of Morelos State (UAEM),
Av. Universidad No. 1001 Col. Chamilpa, CP 62210, Cuernavaca, Mor., Mexico
b
Joint Research Unit Food Process Engineering (Cemagref, ENSIA, INAPG, INRA) ENSIA, 1 Avenue des Olympiades, 91744 Massy Cedex, France
c
National Institute of Perinatology, Montes Urales 800, Lomas, de Virreyes, CP 11000, Mexico DF

Received 21 May 2005; accepted 19 December 2005

Available online 17 February 2006

Abstract

In this paper, an experimental and theoretical analysis of the heat and mass transfer was carried out to evaluate the coffee bean’s
temperature and moisture content during the roasting in batch system. Arabica coffee from Colombian origin was roasted using different
air temperatures between 190 and 300 C, during 10 min. Bean’s temperature and weight loss have been measured on-line by robust sen-
sors. The experimental results allowed better understanding of the phenomena that appears during roasting. For example, an evident
increase of the bean’s temperature curve tendency is observed when this one exceeds the 250 C, it is probably due to the end of exother-
mic reactions and to the beginning of the bean burn. The experimental data of moisture shown a decrease of 10.5% d.b. to 0–7% d.b. A
dynamic model is evaluated and analyzed to predict bean’s temperature and moisture content during roasting. The results (simulations
and experimental kinetics) were in good agreement. This model can be used for on-line estimation and control of coffee roasting.
 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Heat and mass transfer; Coffee roasting; On-line measures

1. Introduction
In order to obtain a good cup of coffee, the step of roast-
ing is very important to develop specific organoleptic prop-
erties (flavors, aromas and color), underlying the quality of
the coffee. The amount of heat transferred to the bean is
essential in the roasting process. The process can be divided
into two phases. The first phase corresponds to the drying
(bean’s temperature below 160 C) and the second phase is
the roasting (bean’s temperature between 160 and 260 C).
In this last phase, pyrolytic reactions start at 190 C caus-
ing oxidation, reduction, hydrolysis, polymerisation, decar-
boxilation and many other chemical changes, leading to the
formation of substances essential to give among other, the
sensory qualities of the coffee. These moisture loss and
chemical reactions are accompanied by important changes
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +52 777 3 29 70 84; fax: +52 777 3 29 79
84.
E-mail address: alfredo@uaem.mx (J.A. Hernández).
(color, volume, mass, form, bean pop, pH, density, volatile
components) and generate CO2, of which a part escapes and
other part is retained in the cells of the beans. After this sec-
ond phase, the beans must be rapidly cooled to stop the
reactions (using water or air as cooling agent) and to pre-
vent an excessive roast which alter the quality of the prod-
uct (Illy & Viani, 1998; Nagaraju, Murthy, Ramalakshmi,
& Srinivasa, 1997; Raemy, 1981; Raemy & Lambelet,
1982; Schwartzberg, 2002; Singh, Singh, Bhamidipati,
Singh, & Barone, 1997; Sivetz & Desrosier, 1979).
During the process, several parameters can be used as
indicators to determine the degree of roasting (aroma, fla-
vor, color, bean’s temperature, pH, chemical composition,
bean pop, mass loss, gas composition and volume) (Dutra,
Oliveira, Franca, Ferrez, & Afonso, 2001; Hernández,
2002; Illy & Viani, 1998; Mendes, De Mendes, Aparecida,
& da Silva, 2001; Schwartzberg, 2002). Nevertheless, in the
industry, in order to obtain the optimal degree of roasting
and to control the quality of the product, the roast master
take up an essential position. In one hand, he interprets the

0260-8774/$ - see front matter  2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2005.12.041
1142 J.A. Hernández et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 78 (2007) 1141–1148
physic measure (temperature and time of stay), and in the
other hand, the organoleptic properties of the coffee bever-
age (color, aroma and flavor). However, these measures are
obtained out-line. Automation is limited by the lack of cap-
tors allowing to follow the quality in real time, and by the
process conditions (the mass of beans is always in agita-
tion) which make instrumentation difficult (Hernández,
2002; Schwartzberg, 2002). It is important to mention that
the control of temperatures and duration, in industry, are
only effective, if the quality of the raw material does not
vary. Today, the chemical reactions are extensively studied
by Illy and Viani (1998), nevertheless, coffee roasting is
slightly studied as an unit operation. Indeed, in this opera-
tion, a specific instrumentation, working in real time and
taking into account the variables of the product does not
exist. Several variations are presented as a function of the
raw material and of the process conditions. The aim of this
work is to measure and analyze the bean temperature and
moisture content during coffee roasting and to evaluate the
model in the purpose of process control.
2. Material and methods
Colombia green coffee beans (Arabica) are roasted using
hot air flow as heating medium. The experiments are car-
ried out at constant air velocity of 4 m/s for constant air
temperatures (190, 200, 210, 220, 230, 240, 250, 260, 270,
280, 290 and 300 C) during 10 min. The experiments are
done with three replicates.
Fig. 1 depicts the data acquisition and processing using
a computer equipped with a temperature acquisition sys-
tem (SCB7 thermocouple conditioner and Arcom
PCAD12/16H A/D converter) and several software. The
low level task (data acquisition and I/O port programming)
are written in C (Lawyer, 2000; Photis, 1999), real time
data processing are done with Octave (Eaton, 2001) and
Thermocouples
carte ADC carte
SCB7
C
captemp
(write in
bash)
fichie R
(data)
R
octave R
relais balance
Tempe-
ratures
cafe.ensia.inra.fr
A B
Fig. 1. Scheme of experimental data used (temperatures and mass).
algorithm is managed in bash (Bourne, 2002); Type K Ther-
mocouples allowed to measure internal and external tem-
peratures of the beans and to control the air temperature
with a precision of ±0.5 C. One bean is drilled in order
to insert a thermocouple 4 mm below the surface (internal
temperature), and another thermocouple about 0.2 mm
below the surface in order to measure the near surface tem-
perature (see Fig. 1B). The beans are placed on a mesh to
keep them on static suspension, where convection is the
predominant mode of heat transfer. Beans weight is auto-
matically measured using an electronic scale METTLER
(SB16001) and controlled by the computer (see Fig. 1A).
A program written in bash makes the weight acquisition
each minute. Before each weight acquisition, the fan of
the roaster is automatically stopped for 8 s to stabilize
the measure.
3. Results
During coffee roasting, mass and temperature are mea-
sured on-line. The results will allow a better understanding
of the process, and a validation of the mathematical model.
Fig. 2 shows the evolution of the internal and external
bean’s temperature and of the air temperature (C) during
the roasting. These curves (Fig. 2) put in evidence the effect
of the air temperature on the evolution of the bean’s tem-
perature. The internal bean’s temperature has an exponen-
tial behavior described by Schwartzberg (2002) if bean’s
temperature is below 250 C.
An evident deviation with exponential kinetic is
observed between 80 and 100 s of roasting (Fig. 2B) for
experiments where the bean’s temperature become higher
than 260 C. When the optimal bean’s temperature is sur-
passed, the exothermic reactions responsible of the aroma
and flavor are reduced and the beans begin to be burn. This
phenomenon is called over-roasting by Coste (1968), it can
Bean Coffee
fichie
balance (data)
capmas
(in bash)
octave
relais C
Mass
 J.A. Hernández et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 78 (2007) 1141–1148 1143

200 350

180
300
160 Air Temperature
Temperature (°C) 250 Air Temperature

Temperature (°C)
140
Surface Bean Temperature
120 200 Surface Bean Temperature

100 150
Bean Temperature
80
100
Bean Temperature
60

40 Air Temperature 190 °C 50

Air Temperature 300 °C
20 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 0 50 100 150 200 250
A Time (s) B Time (s)

Fig. 2. Evolution of bean’s temperatures for roasting at 190 and 300 C.

be responsible of the observed deviation. Consequently, and below 5% d.b. in roasted coffee. Furthermore, volatile
this confirm that the bean’s temperature versus the time components are formed during roasting, inducing also
can be an indicator of the roast-degree during coffee roast- noticeable mass loss. Dutra et al. (2001) determined weight
ing. It is important to mention that Schwartzberg (2002) loss during the process for 300 g of green coffee using a
stopped the process when the bean temperature reach direct heating. They found two different speeds for mass
238 C, so he never observed this phenomenon. loss: the first period, between 0 and 7 min, shows a linear
During roasting, weight loss is measured each minute. kinetic with a weak slope, this period corresponds to a
The results in Fig. 3, show that we obtained a good repeat- moisture and volatiles losses, the second period from 7 to
ability of the measures (two repetition at 300 and 190 C, 12 min the weight loss follows a right line with a strong
and three at 250 C). After a short stage of latency, we slope, and this corresponds to a loss of CO2 and organic
observe a quasi linear behavior followed by a marked components of the bean. Besides, they showed that loss
deceleration. Weight loss clearly depend on the air temper- of CO2 increases when the moisture content diminishes sig-
ature of the roasting time. After 10 min of process the per- nificantly. The evolution of the mass loss can therefore be a
centage of mass loss ranged from 3% to 12% depending on criterion of the roasting degree, but it is not a key criterion
roasting temperature. Similar results are reported by sever- for us because weight is difficult to measure on-line in the
als authors (Da Porto, Nicoli, Severini, Sensidoni, & Lerici, industry.
1991; Dutra et al., 2001; Pittia, Dalla, Pinnavaia, &
Massini, 1996; Schwartzberg, 2002). This authors also 4. Heat and mass transfer modelling
reported weight loss differences due to types of roasting
machines, duration, type of bean and air temperature. The heat and mass transport mechanisms during batch
According to Guyot (1993) and Illy and Viani (1998), roasting (roaster using hot air flow) are given by the equa-
the moisture content is about 8–12% d.b. in green coffee tions proposed by Schwartzberg (2002):

• Moisture loss, the diffusive water transport in the bean is

14
given by
 
12 T’air 300 °C dX 4:32  109  X 2 9889
 ¼ exp  ð1Þ
10 dt d 2p T b þ 273:15
Weight Loss (%)

8 X: moisture content (kgwater/kgdry matter); Tb: internal

T’air 250 °C
temperature of the bean (C). The water loss is governed
6 by an Arrhenius type equation, proportional to X2; and
4 dp: effective bean diameter.
• Heat transfer, the rate of temperature rise of the beans is
2 given by
T’air 190 °C  
0 dT b GC pa ½T ae  T as   Qa!m þ Qm!b þ mbs Qr þ Lv dXdt
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 ¼
Time (s) dt mbs ð1 þ X ÞC pb
Fig. 3. Experimentals kinetics of weight loss. ð2Þ
1144 J.A. Hernández et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 78 (2007) 1141–1148
where Tae and Tas are respectively the in-air and out-air
temperature (C). G is the air mass-flow rate (kg/s). Cpa
and Cpb are respectively the air and bean heat capacity
(kJ/kg C). mbs is the dry weight of the bean kg dry
coffee and Lv is the latent heat of vaporization of the
bean moisture, Schwartzberg (2002) gives 2790 kJ/kg.
In this balance Eq. (2), the heat transfer from hot air to
bean GCpa[Tae  Tas], the heat transfer from air to metal
parts Qa!m, the heat transfer from metal parts to beans
Qm!b, the heat production by roasting reactions Qrmbs
and the heat necessary to moisture evaporation at the bean
surface during the roasting Lv ðdXdt
Þmbs are considered. How-
ever, in this work, the contact area between coffee beans
and metal part is negligible. It is also possible to assume
that the heat transfer from hot air to metal is negligible
because the temperature of the metal is equal to the air
temperature. Under this two hypothesis, the model is sim-
plified as follows:
 
dT b GC pa ½T ae  T as  þ mbs Qr þ Lv dX
dt
¼ ð3Þ
dt mbs ð1 þ X ÞC pb
To determine [Tae  Tas] in Eq. (3), a balance of air temper-
ature is considered by Schwartzberg (2002). Under the pre-
vious hypothesis, it is possible to write:
  
aAab
½T ae  T as  ¼ ðT ae  T b Þ 1  exp  ð4Þ
GC pa
where a is the effective air-to-bean heat transfer coefficient
(W/m2 C), Aab is the area (m2) across which air-to-bean
heat transfer occurs.
4.1. Properties estimation
To solve Eq. (2) by considering Eq. (4), it is necessary to
know a, Cpb and Qr:
• Effective air-to-bean heat transfer coefficient, a, was esti-
mated by Eq. (5) reported by Schwartzberg (2002):
he
a¼ ð5Þ
1 þ 0:3  Bi
where, he is the heat transfer coefficient at the air–bean
surface calculated by the Ranz–Marshall correlation
(Perry & Green, 1998) and Bi (Biot number) is used to
correct the overall air–bean heat transfer coefficient for
heat transfer resistance in the bean (Kreith, 1967).
• Specific heat of the coffee bean, Cpb, the values used are
obtained by Eq. (6) reported by Schwartzberg (2002):
C pb ð1 þ X Þ ¼ 1:099 þ 0:0070T b þ 5:0X ð6Þ
• Exothermic roasting reaction, Qr (rate of exothermic
heat production), in kJ/(kg dry coffee) s, was calculated
using Eq. (7) reported by Schwartzberg (2002)
   this experimental domain. Consequently, the model cannot
Ha H et  H e
Qr ¼ A  exp  ð7Þ
Rg ðT b ðKÞÞ H et
where, Ha is the energy of activation, Rg is the perfect-
gas-law constant, A, in kJ/(kg dry coffee) s, is the
Arrhenius equation prefactor times the amount of heat
generated per unit amount of reaction.
Schwartzberg (2002) obtained HRga ¼ 5500 K, A = 116,200
kJ/(kg dry coffee) s and Het = 232 kJ/kg.
Measured bean properties:
• Aab = 1.4 · 104 m2 equivalent sphere area.
• mbs = 1.75 · 104 kg dry matter.
• db = 6.6 mm equivalent sphere diameter.
4.2. Model solution
To solve the system of Eqs. (1)–(7), we wrote a computer
program in Octave (Eaton, 2001). This program works in
the following way: at instant t = 0, we know:
• the initial bean temperature Tb initial = 29 C,
• the initial bean moisture X initial = 0.105 kg water/kg
dry matter,
• the in-air temperature Tae, measured on-line.
These data allow to calculate in time t = 0:
• the effective air-to-bean heat transfer coefficient a (Eq.
(5)),
• the out-air temperature Tas (Eq. (4)),
• the rate of moisture loss dX
dt
(Eq. (1)),
• the specific heat of the coffee bean Cpb(1 + X) (Eq. (6)),
• the rate of exothermic heat production Qr (Eq. (7)).
The set of differential equations was numerically inte-
grated using fourth-order Runge–Kutta method written
in Octave (Eaton, 2001).
4.3. Simulation of the heat and mass transfer
An important characteristic of the model is that no param-
eter was adjusted to describe the bean’s temperature and
moisture content. The program was written in order to esti-
mate the bean’s temperature and moisture content versus
time, for a hot air roaster with 25 g of green coffee in different
constant air temperatures (Tae from 190 to 300 C).
Fig. 4 shows agreement between experimental and sim-
ulated bean’s temperature for three roasting temperatures.
This three kinetics are representatives for all the experi-
ments. Below 250 C, the model fits very well the data.
For hight bean’s temperature, the model do not predict
the small deviation which we had already observed in the
experimental part (Fig. 2B). The deviation can be explained
by a beginning of an over-roasting, the exothermic reaction
parameters (Eq. (7)) given by literature are not valid for
consider this perturbation. It could be possible to add an
other factor to take this phenomena into account, but we
 J.A. Hernández et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 78 (2007) 1141–1148 1145

350 and CO2; the model, which only considers water loss,
T’air 300 °C should give higher results. It would be interesting to mea-
300
sure the water content of the beans during roasting, and
Bean Temperature (°C)

250 T’air 240 °C to develop a more physical model considering water diffu-
sivity in the bean and mass transfer coefficient between
200 T’air 190 °C bean and air. But the perturbation of bean’s temperature
model induced by the bad estimated water loss is negligible.
150
Bean reach the roasting air temperature in less than 180 s,
100 and the moisture content simulation become bad after
300 s of roasting, when the heat transfer is very low.
50

0 4.4. Sensitivity analysis

0 50
Fig. 4. Evolution of the bean’s temperature versus time for different air
temperatures (*: experimental, -: simulated).
preferred to keep a robust model with no adjusted
parameter.
The moisture content simulation using Eq. (1) leads to
acceptable results (Fig. 5) for the beginning of the kinetic.
After 300 s the model significantly underestimates the
water content. The weight loss include water, volatiles
0.105
0.1
X (g H2O/g Dry matter)
100 150 200 250
Time (s) As shown in the previous section, the model reproduced
with good accuracy the experimental data (Tb and X).
However, this model is developed for process control pur-
pose, as a consequence it is important to test the robustness
of the model for small perturbations of the process vari-
ables (Va, HR) or of the product characteristics (a, Aab, db,
X, Cpb, Qr, mbs).
A variation of air velocity, Va, from 2 to 6 m/s induces
important changes on the Tb (see Fig. 6). This change
can be explained, since the air velocity have an effect on
the heat transfer coefficient calculated by Ranz–Marshall
correlation (Perry & Green, 1998) he and the air mass-flow
rate G. These two parameters are very important to predict
the bean’s temperature and out-air temperature (see Eqs.
(2) and (3)). Therefore, it is necessary to know the air veloc-
ity in an exact way.

0.095
A variation of relative humidity, HR, from 20% to 80%
0.09 (at ambient temperature) did not show an effect on the sim-
ulated bean’s temperature (data not shown), since when air
0.085 T’air 220 °C is heated at 200 C, it become very dry (HR < 0.1%).
0.08 Fig. 7 shows the effect of the bean’s size (db) on the
bean’s temperature versus time. One can observe that the
0.075 variations of db have a very important effect on the bean’s
temperature Tb as mentioned by Schwartzberg (2002).
0 100 200 300 400 500 When we consider a relatively small variation of bean’s
Time (s) dimensions (Aab), the prediction of the bean’s temperature
Fig. 5. Evolution of the bean’s moisture content (*, +: experimental, -: vary appreciably (Fig. 8), thus this parameter Aab must be
simulated). known with precision, because this value will reflect itself

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

300 300
Bean Temperature (°C)

Bean Temperature (°C)

200 200 250 250

200 200
150 150
150 150
100 100
100 100
T’air=240 °C T’air=300 °C
50 Va = 2, 4, 6 m/s 50 Va = 2, 4, 6 m/s
50 50

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

Time (s) Time (s)

Fig. 6. Bean’s temperature versus time, (-): Va = 2, (): Va = 4 and (+): Va = 6 m/s.
1146 J.A. Hernández et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 78 (2007) 1141–1148

0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
250 250
300 300

Bean Temperature (°C)

Bean Temparature (°C)
200 200 250 250

200 200
150 150
150 150
100 100
100 100
T’air=240 °C T’air=300 °C
50 db = 4, 5, 6, 7 mm 50 50 db = 4, 5, 6, 7 mm 50

0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (s) Time (s)

Fig. 7. Evolution of bean’s temperature versus time (line continuous) represents d = 4, (line discontinuous) is d = 5, (+) is d = 6 and (*) is d = 7 mm.

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 Fig. 9 presents the results of bean’s temperature versus
250 250 time for different initial moisture contents X0. These curves
show well that it exists a minor effect on the values of
Bean Temperature (°C)

200 200 Tb. However, if initial moisture content is considered as null

(X0 = 0), the simulated beans temperature increased
150 150
quickly, it is normal, because the phase of drying does
not take place. Therefore, the initial moisture is a very
100 100
important factor that must be considered in the model
-- Aab 0.03 m 2
50 - Aab 0.02 m2 50 bean’s temperature prediction, but the analysis of the ini-
tial moisture value X0, of 9%, 11% and 13% in d.b., have
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
shown that the effect of this parameter on the kinetics of
Time (s)
bean’s temperature is rather weak (see Fig. 9).
Fig. 10 compares the two bean’s temperature kinetics,
Fig. 8. Variations of Aab in Eq. (2). first using a constant Cpb (2.41 kJ/kg C) and the other a
variable Cpb f(X, Tb) (Eq. (6)). Also, this figure shows the
on the results of Tb. Besides, according to Eq. (4), the experimental data (indicated by *) of the bean’s tempera-
dimensions of the bean tends to be a very influential ture. It can be observed that the constant specific heat of
parameter on Tb, Tae and Tas. These dimensions can vary the bean can also simulate the bean’s temperature but in
according to the batch of coffee to be roasted and during a way less satisfactory than if one uses a variable Cpb for
the course of the process Hernández (2002). When a mix- the bean’s temperature of roasting. Nevertheless to predict
ture of varieties (i.e. Arabica and Robusta) is roasted, these bean’s temperature over 260 C is better to use the constant
dimensions are delicate to determine in the batch and dur- Cpb but this it is not the case because carbonization begins.
ing the process, and by consequence a model to predict Aab In addition, the dry weight of the beans mbs has also
is necessary inside the system of proposed equations. shown a change in the behavior of Tb versus t. To recapit-

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

250 250
200 200
Bean Temperature (°C)

Bean Temperature (°C)

200 200
150 150
150 150
100 100
100 100
T’air=240 °C T’air=300 °C
50 X0=9, 11, 13 % d.b. 50 X0=9, 11, 13 % d.b.
50 50

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Time (s) Time (s)

Fig. 9. Bean’s temperature versus time, line continuous is X0 = 9%, line discontinuous is X0 = 11%, + is X0 = 13% d.b.
 J.A. Hernández et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 78 (2007) 1141–1148 1147

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
250 250 300 300

Bean Temperature (°C)

Bean Temperature (°C)

200 200 250 250

200 200
150 150
150 150
100 T’air=240 °C 100 T’air=300 °C
100 100
-- Cpb= constant (2.41), -- Cpb= constant (2.41),
50 - Cpb= variable f(X,Tb) 50 - Cpb= variable f(X,Tb)
50 50

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Time (s) Time (s)

Fig. 10. Bean’s temperature versus time, (line continuous) represent the variable specific heat of the bean (Eq. (6)) and (line discontinuous) is a constant
Cpb = 2.41.

ulate this analysis of succinct sensitivity of the dynamic
model, we showed that if the changes of operation vari-
ables and parameters linked with the product like:
• the specific heat Cpb,
• the mass of product m,
• the air velocity Va.
The model takes into account these parameters in order
to predict the bean’s temperature in a satisfactory manner.
For variables not controlled by the model as:
cult to measure on industrial roaster, but we showed that
it is possible to calculate this temperature as a function
of input temperature Tae. The model calculates the output
air temperature Tcas at the same time, which is easy to mea-
sure on-line. If some perturbation appears, that it is not
take into account by the model, the simulated bean’s tem-
perature Tcb , will be wrong, this will appear on the differ-
ence between simulated and experimental temperature
ð Tcae  T ae Þ, allowing to adjust the model parameters on-
line. Further studies will try to adapt this strategy to indus-
trial roaster.

• dimensions of the bean db (diameter) and Aab (surface of Acknowledgment

the bean),
• initial moisture X0.
It is necessary to measure the correct values in order to
have a reliable model. Some variables, like relative humid-
ity HR, does not influence the output of the model, under
the studied conditions.
5. Conclusion
The suggested model can be used in a satisfactory way to
describe the behavior of the coffee bean’s temperature ver-
sus time, in an hot air roaster. This model showed a good
agreement with all the experimental kinetics. It is necessary
to note that no parameter were adjusted in this model. Fur-
thermore, it can be used to determine how behavior can be
affected by parameters variations which are not controlled
in the course of roasting. If the parameters are known cor-
rectly (aAab, mbs, X, db, Cpb, Va and Tae), the model can be
used directly, or with small modifications, for other roast-
ing machines where the heat transfer takes place between
air and metal and/or a heat transfer of metal towards the
bean and the bean towards metal (i.e. Rotating-drum
roaster, Rotating-bowl roaster, Scoop-wheel roaster and
Swirling-bed roaster). Schwartzberg (2002) showed that
bean’s temperature is a good criterion to evaluate coffee
quality during roasting process. This temperature is diffi-
We thank to Prof. Henry G. Schwartzberg for his per-
sonal communication to this work.
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