Introduction of

Human Anatomy and Histology

Hendra Wana Nur’amin, dr., M.Sc

DEPARTMENT OF PHARMACOLOGY
FACULTY OF MEDICINE
LAMBUNG MANGKURAT UNIVERSITY 1
 What is Anatomy?
• Study of the STRUCTURE of the Human Body
• Closely related to PHYSIOLOGY!
• Physiology is the study of the FUNCTION of
the human body

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 Divisions of Anatomy
• Gross Anatomy • Microscopic Anatomy
• Structures that can be • Structures that cannot
seen with the eye be seen with the eye
• Muscles, bones, various • Need to use a
organs microscope
• Cytology = study of cells
• Histology = study of
tissues

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What are you made of ?

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 Ways to Study Anatomy
• Regional Anatomy – study one region of the
body at a time and learn everything about the
region

• Systemic Anatomy – study one body system at

a time. This is the approach we will use in this
course

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 Anatomical Organization
• Cells
• Tissues
• Organs
• Organ Systems
• Organism

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 Organ Systems
• 1. Integument
• 2. Skeletal
• 3. Muscular
• 4. Nervous
• 5. Endocrine
• 6. Cardiovascular
• 7. Lymphatic
• 8. Respiratory
• 9. Digestive
• 10. Urinary
• 11. Reproductive

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Four-footed body directions

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 Planes and Sections
• Sagittal section – divides the body into right
and left sides
– Mid-sagittal section = straight down the center of
the body
• Frontal section – divides the body into front
and back sides
• Transverse (cross) section – cut straight across
the body

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Planes and Sections

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Body Cavities

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Body Cavities

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Body systems:The human body has 11
systems
1-INTEGUMENTARY
ORGANS
 Skin

FUNCTIONS
 Waterproofs, cushions, protects deeper
tissue
 Excretes salts & urea; pain, pressure

 Regulates body temp; synthesize vitamin

D

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2-SKELETAL
ORGANS
 Bones, cartilages, ligaments, joints

FUNCTIONS
 Protects & supports body organs

 Framework for muscles & movement

 Hematopoiesis; store minerals

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3- MUSCULAR
ORGANS
 Skeletal muscle (attached to bone)

FUNCTIONS
 Contraction & mobility (locomotion)

 Facial expression, posture

 Produce body heat

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4- NERVOUS

ORGANS
 Brain, spinal cord, nerves, & sensory
receptors

FUNCTIONS
 Fast-acting central control system

 Responds to external/internal stimuli

via nerve impulses (electrical
messages)

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5- ENDOCRINE
ORGANS
 Pituitary, thyroid, parathyroids,
adrenals, thymus, pancreas, pineal,
ovaries, testes…..etc.

FUNCTIONS
 Slow -acting control system

 Glands produce hormones that

regulate growth, reproduction,
metabolism,…. etc.

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6- Circulatory
ORGANS
 Heart, blood vessels, capillaries &blood

FUNCTIONS
 Carries O2 nutrients, hormones, & other
substances to and from tissue cells
 White blood cells protect against
bacteria, toxins, tumors

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7- LYMPHATIC
ORGANS
 Lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes,
spleen, tonsils

FUNCTIONS
 Complements circulatory system by
returning leaked fluid back to blood
vessels
 Cleanses the blood; involved in
immunity

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8- RESPIRATORY
ORGANS
 Nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx,
trachea, bronchi, & lungs

FUNCTIONS
 Keeps blood supplied with O2 &
removes CO2
 Carries out gas exchanges through air
sacs in lungs

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9- DIGESTIVE
ORGANS
 Oral cavity, esophagus, stomach,
small intestine, large intestine,
rectum, anus (liver & pancreas)

FUNCTIONS
 Breaks food down into absorbable
units that enter the blood;
indigestible food eliminated as feces

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10- URINARY (EXCRETORY)
ORGANS
 Kidney, ureter, urinary bladder,
urethra

FUNCTIONS
 Eliminates nitrogenous waste from
the body (urea & uric acid)
 Regulates water, electrolytes, & acid-
base balance of the blood

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11- REPRODUCTIVE
ORGANS
 Male

 Seminal vesicles, prostate, penis,

vas deferens, testis, scrotum
 Female

 Ovaries, mammary glands, uterus,

vagina, uterine tube

FUNCTIONS
 Primary function for both sexes is to
produce offspring
 Male – testes produce sperm & male sex
hormones
 Female – ovaries produce eggs &
female sex hormones; mammary glands
for nourishment

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Introduction to Basic Histology

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 Histology
• Tissue: an aggregation of cells and cell
products of similar structure and embryonic
origin that perform a common function
• Histology: The study of tissues, especially their
structure and arrangement
– Biopsy: removal of tissues for diagnostic purposes
– Autopsy: examination of organs of a dead body to determine
cause of death

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 Basic Tissue Types
• Epithelial
• Connective
• Muscle
• Nervous

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 Level of Organization
• Cell – most basic unit structure of life.
• Unicellular life forms – perform and carry out life
processes
• Multicellular – group of cells, perform more complex
life processes, different cells are present, performing a
certain function.
• Tissue – a group of cells sharing the same function. (Ex:
liver tissue – hepatocyte – hepatic tissue or liver
parenchyma)
• Tissues can be arranged as compact tissue - Organ

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Typical human cell depicting the structural components 35
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 Histological Anatomy
• Advances in chemistry, physiology,
immunology, and pathology—and the
interactions among these fields—are essential
for a better knowledge of tissue biology.
• Familiarity with the tools and methods is
essential for a proper understanding of the
subject.

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 Microsectioning
• The preparation of tissues for microscopic examination
• Tissues and organs are usually too thick for light to pass
through them, they must be sectioned to obtain thin,
translucent sections. However, living cells, very thin layers of
tissues, or transparent membranes of living animals (Ex:
mesentery, tadpole tail, the wall of cheek) can be observed
directly in the microscope without microsectioning.
• Most tissues need thin slices using microtome.
• This method preserves tissues in longer duration under
varying physiological or experimental conditions.

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Microtome

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 Tissue preparation
• Fixation – prevents autolysis (self-destruction) or bacterial
invasion of tissues leading to tissue distortion and degradation

– Use of fixative chemicals as stabilizers or cross-linkers

maintaining the molecular and structural composition of
tissues. (Formaldehyde and glutaraldehyde are widely used
fixatives which react with the amine groups (NH2) of tissue
proteins. Glutaraldehyde, fixing action is reinforced since it
is a dialdehyde, can cross-link proteins. )

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• Embedding or tissue impregnation – use of solid medium to
facilitate sectioning. Paraffin or plastic resins give a rigid
consistency to the tissue. Involves dehydration (ethanol) and
clearing (xylene), and paraffin impregnation. – Tissue block
• Tissue sectioning – mounting the tissue block in the
microtome
• Staining – use of dyes to penetrate into translucent tissue
section. Basic and acidic dyes impart contrast to
microsectioned tissues allowing the observer to study the
cells and its ultrastructures and the matrix.

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 Behavior of tissues to dyes
• Hematoxylin and Eosin (H&E) – commonly used dyes
• Basic dyes – hematoxylin, toluidine blue, methylene blue stain
basophilic structures such as nucleus, free ribosomes, matrix of
hyaline cartilage.
• Acid dyes – orange G, eosin, acid fuchsin stain the acidophilic
components of tissues such as mitochondria, secretory granules,
cytoplasm and collagen.
• Trichromes – differentiating stains
• Counterstain – a single stain that is applied to a section to allow the
recognition of nuclei or cytoplasm, is used.
• Metallic dyes – silver or gold is ideal for nervous tissue.

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 Calibration factors:
• Scanner = 125m
• LPO = 50 m
• HPO = 12.5 m
• OIO = 5 m

Size of object = no. ocular

units X CFused

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• L-Fluorescent micrograph of rat kidney cells showing eosinophilic
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reaction. R- Chicken fibroblast with blood parasite T. cruzi infection.
• Combination dyes – L: picrosirius and hematoxylin in rat kidney
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glomerulus and tubules. R: human trachea in H&E.
• Trichrome stain using picrosirius to show the collagen fibers 46
in the rat mesentery.
• Metallic dye – Silver stain in nervous tissue 47
 Embryonic Tissue

• 3 major germ layers that form the embryonic disc (source of stem cells)
– Endoderm
• Inner layer
• Forms lining of digestive tract and derivatives
– Mesoderm
• Middle layer
• Forms tissues as such muscle, bone, blood vessels
– Ectoderm
• Outer layer
• Forms skin and neuroectoderm 48
I. Epithelial Tissue
• Cellularity - Consists almost entirely
of cells
• Covers body surfaces, lines hollow
organs, and forms glands
– Outside surface of the body
– Lining of digestive, respiratory and
urogenital systems
– Heart and blood vessels
– Linings of many body cavities
• Polarity - Has apical, basal, and
lateral surfaces
• Rests on a basement membrane
• Specialized cell contacts bind
adjacent cells together
• Avascular - no blood vessels
• Regenerative -Replaces lost cells by
cell division
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 Functions of Epithelia
• Protecting underlying structures; e.g., epithelium
lining the mouth
• Acting as barriers; e.g., skin
• Permitting the passage of substances; e.g., cells
lining air sacs in lungs and nephrons in kidney
• Secreting substances; e.g., pancreatic cells
• Absorbing substances; e.g., lining of stomach and
small intestine

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Special Characteristics of Epithelia

Figure 51
4.1
 Classification of Epithelium
• Number of layers of cells
– Simple- one layer of cells. Each extends from basement
membrane to the free surface
– Stratified- more than one layer.
– Pseudostratified- tissue appears to be stratified, but all
cells contact basement membrane so it is in fact simple
• Shape of cells
– Squamous- flat, scale-like
– Cuboidal- about equal in height and width
– Columnar- taller than wide

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Classifications of Epithelia

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Simple Squamous Epithelium

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Figure 4.3a
Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

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Figure 4.3b
Simple Columnar Epithelium

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Figure 4.3c
Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar
Epithelium

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Figure 4.3d
 Stratified Epithelia
• Contain two or more layers of cells
• Regenerate from below
• Major role is protection
• Are named according to the shape of cells at
apical layer

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 Stratified Squamous Epithelium
• Description
– Many layers of cells – squamous in shape
– Deeper layers of cells appear cuboidal or
columnar
– Thickest epithelial tissue – adapted for protection

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 Stratified Squamous Epithelium
• Specific types
– Keratinized – contain the protective protein
keratin
• Surface cells are dead and full of keratin
– Non-keratinized – forms moist lining of body
openings

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 Stratified Squamous Epithelium
• Function – Protects underlying tissues in areas
subject to abrasion
• Location
– Keratinized – forms epidermis
– Non-keratinized – forms lining of esophagus,
mouth, and vagina

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Stratified Squamous Epithelium

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Figure 4.3e
Transitional Epithelium

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 Epithelium: Glandular
• A gland is one or more cells that makes and secretes an
aqueous fluid
• Two types of glands formed by infolding of epithelium:
– Endocrine: no contact with exterior of body; ductless; produce
hormones (pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, pancreas)
– Exocrine: open to exterior of body via ducts (sweat, oil)
• Exocrine glands classified either by structure or by the
method of secretion
• Classified by structure
– Unicellular: goblet cells
– Multicellular: sweat, oil, pituitary, adrenal

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 Multicellular Exocrine Glands
• Classified on the basis of types of
ducts or mode of secretion
• Types of ducts
– Simple: ducts with few branches
– Compound: ducts with many
branches
• If ducts end in tubules or
sac-like structures: acini.
Pancreas
• If ducts end in simple sacs:
alveoli. Lungs

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 Lateral Surface Features
• Tight junctions
• Desmosomes
• Gap junctions

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Membrane Junctions: Tight Junction

• Integral proteins of adjacent

cells fuse together
• Completely encircle the cell
and form an adhesion belt.
• Form an impermeable
junction.
• Common near apical region
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 Lateral Surface Features – Cell
Junctions
• Desmosomes – two disc-like plaques
connected across intercellular space
– Plaques of adjoining cells are joined by proteins
called cadherins
– Proteins interdigitate into extracellular space
– Intermediate filaments insert into plaques from
cytoplasmic side

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 Membrane Junctions: Desmosome
Linker proteins extend
from plaque like teeth of
a zipper.
Intermediate filaments
extend across width of
cell.

• Common in superficial layers of skin; skin

peels after a sunburn
• Reduces chance of tearing, twisting, stretching
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Figure 3.5b
 Membrane Junctions: Gap Junction

• Connexon proteins are trans-

membrane proteins.
• Present in electrically excitable
tissues (heart, smooth muscle)
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 Basal Feature: The Basal Lamina
 Noncellular supporting sheet between the
epithelium and the connective tissue deep to it
 Consists of proteins secreted by the epithelial cells
 Functions:
 Acts as a selective filter, determining which molecules
from capillaries enter the epithelium
 Acts as scaffolding along which regenerating epithelial
cells can migrate
 Basal lamina and reticular layers of the underlying
connective tissue deep to it form the basement
membrane

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 Epithelial Surface Features
• Apical surface features
– Microvilli – finger-like extensions of plasma
membrane
• Abundant in epithelia of small intestine and kidney
• Maximize surface area across which small molecules
enter or leave
– Cilia – whip-like, highly motile extensions of apical
surface membranes
• Movement of cilia – in coordinated waves

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 Connective Tissue
• Most diverse and abundant tissue
• Main classes
– Connective tissue
– Cartilage
– Bone tissue
– Blood
• Characteristics
– Mesenchyme as their common tissue of origin (mesenchyme
derived from mesoderm)
– Varying degrees of vascularity
– Nonliving extracellular matrix, consisting of ground substance
and fibers
– Cells are not as abundant nor as tightly packed together as in
epithelium

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Connective Tissue: Embryonic Origin

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Figure 4.5
 Functions of Connective Tissue

• Enclose organs as a capsule and separate organs

into layers. Areolar
• Connect tissues to one another. Tendons and
ligaments.
• Support and movement. Bones.
• Storage. Fat.
• Insulation. Fat.
• Transport. Blood.
• Protection. Bone, cells of the immune system.

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 Structural Elements of Connective Tissue

• Ground substance – unstructured material

that fills the space between cells
• Fibers – collagen, elastic, or reticular
• Cells – fibroblasts, chondroblasts,
osteoblasts, hematopoietic stem cells, and
others

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 Connective Tissue Cells
• Fibroblasts - secrete the proteins needed for fiber synthesis
and components of the extracellular matrix
• Adipose or fat cells (adipocytes). Common in some tissues
(dermis of skin); rare in some (cartilage)
• Mast cells. Common beneath membranes; along small blood
vessels. Can release heparin, histamine, and proteolytic
enzymes in response to injury.
• Leukocytes (WBC’s). Respond to injury or infection
• Macrophages. Derived from monocytes (a WBC). Phagocytic;
provide protection
• Chondroblasts - form cartilage
• Osteoblasts - form bone
• Hematopoietic stem cells - form blood cells
• Undifferentiated mesenchyme (stem cells). Have potential to
differentiate into adult cell types. 77
 Extracellular Matrix - ECM
• ECM has 3 major components
1. Protein fibers 2. Ground substance 3. Fluid
• Protein fibers
– Collagen fibers. Composed of the protein collagen. Strong,
flexible, inelastic; great tensile strength (i.e. resist stretch).
Perfect for tendons, ligaments
– Elastic fibers. Contain molecules of protein elastin that
resemble coiled springs. Returns to its original shape after
stretching or compression. Perfect for lungs, large blood
vessels
– Reticular fibers. Formed from fine collagenous fibers; form
branching networks (stroma). Fill spaces between tissues
and organs.

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 Ground Substance
• Interstitial (tissue) fluid within which are one or more of the
molecules listed below:
– Hyaluronic acid: a polysaccharide. Very slippery; serves as
a good lubricant for joints. Common in most connective
tissues.
– Proteoglycans: protein and polysaccharide complex.
Polysaccharides called glyocosaminoglycans (chondroitin
sulfate, keratin sulfate). Protein part attaches to
hyaluronic acid. Able to trap large amounts of water.
– Adhesive molecules: hold proteoglycan aggregates
together. Chondronectin in cartilage, osteonectin in bone,
fibronectin in fibrous connective tissue.
• Functions as a molecular sieve through which nutrients
diffuse between blood capillaries and cells

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Areolar Connective Tissue

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Figure 4.12b
Adipose Tissue

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Figure 4.12c
Reticular Connective Tissue

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Figure 4.12d
Dense Irregular Connective Tissue

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Figure 4.12e
Dense Regular Connective Tissue

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Figure 4.12f
 Elastic Connective Tissue

• Bundles and sheets of collagenous and elastic fibers

oriented in multiple directions
• In walls of elastic arteries (aorta), lungs, vocal ligaments
• Strong, yet elastic; allows for recoil of tissue after being
stretched

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 Connective Tissue: Cartilage
• Composed of chondrocytes (cells) located in matrix-surrounded
spaces called lacunae.
• Type of cartilage determined by components of the matrix.
• Firm consistency.
• Ground substance: Proteoglycans and hyaluronic acid
complexed together trap large amounts of water (microscopic
sponges). Allows tissue to spring back after being compressed.
• Avascular and no nerve supply. Heals slowly.
• Perichondrium. Dense irregular connective tissue that
surrounds cartilage. Fibroblasts of perichondrium can
differentiate into chondroblasts (cartilage-forming cells)
• Types of cartilage
– Hyaline
– Fibrocartilage
– Elastic

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Hyaline Cartilage

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Figure 4.12g
Elastic Cartilage

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Figure 4.12h
Fibrocartilage

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Figure 4.12i
Bone Tissue

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Figure 4.12j
Blood Tissue

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Figure 4.12k
 Muscle Tissue
• Characteristics
– Cells are referred to as fibers
– Contracts or shortens with force when stimulated
– Moves entire body and pumps blood
• Types
– Skeletal:attached to bones
– Cardiac: muscle of the heart.
– Smooth: muscle associated with tubular
structures and with the skin. Nonstriated and
involuntary.

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Skeletal Muscle Tissue

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Figure 4.14a
Cardiac Muscle Tissue

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Figure 4.14b
Smooth Muscle Tissue

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Figure 4.14c
Nervous Tissue

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Figure 4.15
 Tissues and Aging
• Cells divide more slowly
• Collagen fibers become more irregular in structure, though they
may increase in number
– Tendons and ligaments become less flexible and more fragile
• Elastic fibers fragment, bind to calcium ions, and become less
elastic
– Arterial walls and elastic ligaments become less elastic
• Changes in collagen and elastin result in
– Atherosclerosis and reduced blood supply to tissues
– Wrinkling of the skin
– Increased tendency for bones to break
• Rate of blood cell synthesis declines in the elderly
• Injuries don’t heal as readily

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Half of what we are going
to teach you is wrong, and
half of it is right. Our
problem is that we don't
know which half is which.
-Charles Sidney Burwell
(Dean of the Harvard Faculty of Medicine,
1935-1949)

Contact: hendranuramin@gmail.com
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