ANIMAL TISSUE

TISSUE: a tissue may be defined as a group of one or EXRTRACELLULAR FLUID: Most animal cells
more types of cells which are physically linked and has have narrow spaces around them and the fluid between
similar origin and specialized function(s) along with them or around them is called extracellular or
intracellular fluid. intracellular fluid. It plays a vital role in the movement
 The microscopic study of tissues is called of various substances across the cells.
histology.
 Father of histology= Paul Mayer TYPES OF TISSUES:
 Tissue term was given by Bichat. 1. Epithelial tissue
2. Muscular tissue
3. Connective tissue
4. Nervous tissue

EPITHELIAL TISSUE
The word epithelium was given by Fredrick and
Ruysch. CLASSIFICATION:
Origin: by all three germ layers. 1. Simple epithelial tissue
-epidermis: by ectoderm a. Squamous
-coelomic cavities: mesoderm b. Cuboidal
-epithelial linings: endoderm c. Columnar
d. Ciliated
BASEMENT MEMBRANE: epithelia rest on thin, e. Pseudostratified
non-cellular membrane called basement membrane. It 2. Compound epithelial tissue
is bilayered. a. Stratified
 Outer layer: basal lamina (thin; in contact i. Keratinized
with epithelia) ii. Non-keratinized
 Inner layer: fibrous lamina (thick; in contact b. Non-stratified
with connective tissue)

 SIMPLE EPITHELIAL TISSUE:

SQUAMOUS EPITHELIA:

o Structure: thin, flat, disc-like cells fitted tightly like the tiles of floor;
hence also called pavement epithelium. They are roughly polygonal
in surface view. Nucleus is flattened and is present at the center of the
cells.
o Location: inner cheek linings; Bowman’s capsule linings; alveoli
linings; blood vessels etc.
o Function: protection; secretion; exchange of gases, excretion etc.

**Tesselated epithelial tissue: divided into two parts;

i. Mesothelium: simple squamous epithelia present at coelom.
ii. Endothelium: simple squamous epithelia present on blood
vessels.
Structure: wavy outlines of cells.

CUBOIDAL EPITHELIA:

o Structure: cells are tall as well as wide. Nucleus is round and at

center.
o Location: ducts of glands; at PCT (here they have microvilli)
**In nephron (at PCT) it is also called “Brush bordered cuboidal
epithelium” (because of presence of microvilli) and; it is also present in
ovaries and testes (at sperm producing tubules), here it is called “Germinal
epithelium”.
o Function: protection; secretion; absorption; gamete formation.
COLUMNAR EPITHELIA:

o Structure: cells are much taller than wide. Nucleus is elongated and is
present at variable positions.
o Location: stomach; pancreatic tubules; gastric gland; intestine; gall bladder
linings.
o Function: protection; secretion; absorption.
**At stomach and intestinal linings, this tissue secretes a slimy fluid (i.e. mucus)
and such cells are called Goblet cells. In intestine, this tissue bears microvilli at free
ends.

CILIATED EPITHELIA:

o Structure: the cells bear fine, motile, cytoplasmic processes called cilia.
They arise from basal granules present below cell membrane.
Ciliated epithelia

Cuboidal ciliated Columnar ciliated

o Location: urinary bladder nasal passage, oviduct, spinal cord of

embryo

o Function: protection and movement of substances in a particular direction

because they have whip-like structures called cilia.

PSEUDOSTRATIFIED EPITHELIA:

o Structure: they are one-layered thick but appear two-layered because of some short cells which do not reach
to the free surface. But all the cells touch basement membrane.
Pseudostratified epithelia

Pseudostratified columnar Pseudostratified columnar ciliated

Location: (lines large ducts) trachea, large bronchi etc.

Parotid salivary duct,
Urethra of males,
Olfactory mucosa etc.

o Function: protection; movement of

secretions from glands, urine and semen in
urethra and mucus loaded with dust and
bacteria in trachea towards larynx.

 COMPOUND EPITHELIAL TISSUE:

 Compound epithelial tissue consists of a few to several layers of cells. They are thicker and stronger than
simple ones.
 Their deepest layer rest on basemen membrane and is called Germinative Layer or Stratum germinativum.
 All the layers between germinative layer and the outer layer or free end are called Transitional Layers or
Intermediate Layers.

STRATIFIED EPITHELIA:

They have many layers of cells. Germinal cells are low columnar type and outer or surface layers vary in nature.
Based on the nature or shape of cells they are of four types: stratified squamous, cuboidal, columnar and ciliated.
Stratified squamous is sub divided into two parts: keratinized and non-keratinized epithelia.
 A. Stratified squamous epithelial tissue:
 Innermost cells (germinative layer) have rounded nuclei and are low columnar. They devide by mitosis and
form new cells.
 The new cells eventually shift outwards. In this process, they progressively flatten.
 The surface cells are thin flattened with flat nuclei.
 Intermediate cells are like polyhedral and have round nuclei.

i. Keratinized stratified squamous epithelial tissue: in this, outer

few layers replace their cytoplasm with hard, waterproof protein
called keratin (or horn). It form an outer layer called Horny Layer
(Stratum corneum). This process of horny layer formation is called
Kerartinization.
o Location: epidermis of skin
o Function: prevent loss of water and provide mechanical
support.

ii. Non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelial tissue: in this

tissue, keratinization does not occur. Hence there is no horny
layer found at the surface. Living cells are present at the surface.
o Location: buccal cavity, oesophagus, anal canal, vagina
and lower part of urethra.
o Function: protection against abrasion of food.

B. Stratified cuboidal epithelial tissue: epidermis of fishes, sweat gland ducts, larger salivary gland and
pancreatic ducts.
C. Stratified columnar epithelial tissue: epiglottis, mammary gland, and some other parts of urethra.
D. Stratified ciliated epithelial tissue: larynx and upper part of soft palate.

TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIA:

 They differ by stratified epithelia in having fewer layers (3 or

4) of cells, less flattened surface cells and remarkable
flexibility.
 Surface cells: globular (globe shaped)
Intermediate cells: polyhedral
Lower (germinal) cells: columnar

o Location: lines the organs which undergo considerable

expansions.
o Function: their cells stretch when expansion occurs and
during contraction, they acquire their original position i.e. they
start folding.

*GLANDS:
A cell, tissue or organ which secretes or produces a useful material is called gland.
o Origin: epithelial tissue
o Secretions: Proteins (pancreas), lipids (adrenal gland), carbohydrate + protein (salivary gland), carbohydrate
+ lipid + protein (mammary gland) etc.
-TYPES OF GLANDS:
*Based on the site of secretion:
1. Exocrine: use ducts for their secretions.
2. Endocrine: lack ducts; pour secretions directly in blood.
3. Heterocrine: partly endocrine and partly exocrine.
*Based on mode of secretion:
1. Merocrine: secretion leaves the cell through cell
membrane. Eg; goblet cells, sweat glands.
2. Apocrine: some part of cell breaks down containing
the secretion. Eg; Mammary gland.
3. Holocrine: the whole cell fills with secretion and later
breaks down and shed as secretion. Eg; sebaceous gland.
CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIAL TISSUE BASED ON FUNCTIONING:

1. GLANDULAR EPITHELIA: It has columnar type cells. They produce useful materials from them. They are
specialized for secretions. They may be unicellular (goblet cells; single isolated cell) or multicellular (many
cells play in a single unit like a cluster; salivary gland and sebaceous gland).
2. SENSORY EPITHELIA: They consist of columnar cells. They perform a function to sense stimuli and send
impulse. It can be found in retina and nasal chambers.
3. GERMINAL EPITHELIA: They consist of cuboidal cells. They give rise to gametes for sexual
reproduction. It covers ovaries and sperm producing tubules in testes.
4. PIGMENTED EPITHELIA: They contain pigments. It can be found on outer layer of retina.
5. ABSORPTIVE EPITHELIA: Their cells may be columnar or cuboidal. They have microvilli. They lines
small intestine and urinary tubules.

MUSCULAR TISSUE
(40% mammal’s body weight)
 Origin: mesoderm
 Special properties:
1. Contractility: property of shortening and expanding.
2. Electrical excitability: energy stored in electrical potential difference across the plasma membrane.
 General Structure:
Muscle tissues consist of long narrow cells called muscle fibers. These muscle fibers are made up of parallel arranged
proteins called myofibrils.
*cytoplasm of muscle cells: sarcoplasm (sarco = flesh)
*cell membrane of muscle cells: Sarcolemma
*Endoplasmic reticulum of muscle cell: Sarcoplasmic Reticulum (SR) [store house of Ca2+ ions]
*Mitochondria of muscle cell: Sarcosomes
Muscle fibres may contain one or more nuclei. Mitochondria are present between myofibrils.

CLASSIFICATION OF MUSCLE TISSUE:

1. Striated muscle
2. Unstriated (smooth) muscle
3. Cardiac muscle

STRIATED MUSCLE: (Stripped or voluntary muscle)

Location: forms more than 80% of body mass of tissue. It is found in body walls, tongue, limbs etc.
Structure:
 Consist of unbranched muscle fibers with blunt ends (40mm long and 20µm wide)
 The myofibrils of this tissue shows alternating dark and light crossbands (called strips). It has many nuclei. So
striated muscle fiber is called Synctium.
 Dark Bands: They are anisotropic (refract light
differently in different planes) and are called
anisotropic or A-band. Its middle part is light and
termed Henson’s Line or H-Zone.
 Light Bands: They are isotropic (have same refractive
index in all the planes) and are called isotropic or I-
Band. It has a membrane in its mid called Membrane
of Krause or Z-Line or Z-Band. It is zigzag in
structure.

A-Band I-Band
 They are anisotropic.  They are isotropic.
 Give dark appearance in microscope.  Give light appearance in microscope.
 Bisected by H-Zone.  Bisected by Z-Band.
 Length remains unchanged during  It shortens during muscle contractions.
muscle contraction.
**Sarcomere: It is a part of the myofibril between two successive Z-Bands. Sarcomere (G; sarx = flesh; meros = part)
is defined to be called the functional and structural unit of muscle fibre and it includes all the bands or lines. It is 2-
3µm long. It contains a hemoglobin-like pigment called Myoglobin which can take up, store and give up oxygen
according to requirement.
Electron microscopic structure of sarcomere:
Electron microscope shows that sarcomere is a bundle of fine longitudinal myofilaments. There are two types of
myofilaments;
1. Primary myofilament (Thick)
2. Secondary myofilament (thin)

 Primary myofilament: They are confined to A-Band only. They are made up of protein, myosin. They bear
minute projections called cross-bridges of the protein meromyosine. These are free at both the ends.
 Secondary myofilament: They are confined to I-Band but also extend towards A-Band making an overlapped
structure and this overlapping occur between primary and secondary myofilament. This overlapping occurs in A-
Band providing a dark appearance.
In A-Band, these myofilaments are attached to primary ones by end of the crossbridges.
They are made up three proteins; actin, tropomyosin and troponin.
They are attached from one end at Z-Line while another end is free. It gives Z-line a zigzag appearance.

General feature:
Striated muscle is also known as Voluntary or Skeletal muscle; because its contraction is in our control and it helps
in locomotion respectively.

UNSTRIATED MUSCLE: (smooth/visceral/involuntary muscle)

Location: they are present in hollow internal organs (called viscera) such as alimentary
canal, genital tract etc. (hence they are also called Visceral Muscle). It also forms dermis
of the skin.
**They are responsible for involuntary activities and are often called Involuntary
Muscles. So they are located in the involuntary organs.
Structure:
 Cells do not contain any strip.
 Cells are spindle-shaped.
 One muscle fibre of smooth muscle is smaller than that of striated muscle i.e.,
0.2mm long and 8µm wide.
 Nucleus is oval and is in center.
 Cells are uninucleated.
 Myofibrils are hardly to be seen.
Function: controls involuntary activities.

CARDIAC MUSCLE:

Location: walls of heart, superior vena cava and pulmonary vein.

Structure: cardiac muscles consist of short, cylindrical fibers which are interconnected by oblique bridges.
 The cardiac fibres contain large number of mitochondria and glycogen granules so as to fulfill their high
energy requirements for the rhythmic contraction of cardiac muscles.
 They have poorly developed SR.
  The cardiac fibers are about 85-100µm long and 15µm wide. These are
uninucleated and nucleus is present at the center.
General Feature:
 Wave of excitation is self-generated.
 Blood supply is abundant; capillaries penetrate the fibres. Lymphatic
capillaries are also present.
 They also have striations.
 The cardiac muscle is innervated both by brain (CNS) and the ANS.
 Unlike other two muscles, they form a 3D network.

CONNECTIVE TISSUE
They are named so because they have a special **Based on arrangement of cells and matrix, this tissue
property or function of linking and supporting other is divided as follows;
tissues or organs of the body. 1. Loose connective tissue
Origin: mesoderm. 2. Dense connective tissue
They are the most abundant type of animal tissue. 3. Specialized connective tissue

General Structure:
They consist of variously shaped cells lying wide part
in a large amount of non-living intercellular material
called matrix. Matrix is generally consist of protein
fibers (polysaccharides).
Thus connective tissue comprises of two parts: cells
and matrix.
-Loose Connective tissue: cells and fibers are loosely
arranged in a semi-fluid ground substance. Ex. Areolar
and adipose tissue.
-Dense Connective Tissue: Cells and fibres are tightly
arranged. Ex., tendon and ligament etc.
-Specialized connective tissue: Special type of tissue.
Ex., cartilage, bone, lymph, blood etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE:

CONNECTIVE TISSUE

CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER SKELETAL TISSUE VASCULAR TISSUE

AREOLAR
ADIPOSE CARTILAGE BONE BLOOD LYMPH
WHITE FIBROUS
YELLOW ELASTIC HYALINE COMPACT
RETICULAR FIBROUS SPONGY
CALCIFIED

 CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER

AREOLAR TISSUE:

Location: it is distributed in almost all over the animal body.

Function: they connect one tissue or organ with others and also forms packaging nearly in all the organs.
Structure:
It consist of transparent, jelly-like, sticky matrix that contains many cells and fibres.
Fibers:
a. White fiber:
 Fine and wavy
 Flexible, unbranched and inelastic.
 Formed by collagen protein. [** on boiling white
fibers with water, some of their collagen changes to a
colloidal protein, gelatin.]
b. Yellow fiber:
 Few in number and thicker.
 Flexible, elastic and branched.
 Formed of elastic protein. [elastin is resistant to boiling. They can be digested by trypsin. They
provide elasticity to yellow fiber.]
Cells:
a. Fibroblast:
 Large, flat, spindle-shaped, long processes.
 Oval long nucleus.
 Secrete essential substances for matrix and fibers.
 They migrate to the wounded area and form many fibers to heal the
wound.
 Inactive fibroblast is called Fibrocyte.
b. Macrophages:
 Large, long-lived, irregular cells.
 They engulf foreign particles or microbes and dead cells.
c. Mast cells:
 Also called mastocytes.
 Oval-shaped, small, granulated cytoplasm.
 Produces heparin and histamine.
d. Fat cells/ adipocytes: contain lipids.
e. Chromatophore: contains specialized pigments and are much branched.
f. Mesenchyme: undifferentiated cells.
g. Plasma cells:
 Round and large.
 Nucleus is present in center.
 They synthesize anti-bodies.

ADIPOSE TISSUE:
Structure: many fat cells (adipocytes) are present with large fat globules.
*Heredity, exercise and the amount of fat we eat can all affect the amount fat
our adipose tissue stores.
Location:
 Around heart, kidney and blood vessels etc.
 Blubber of whales, humps of camel and fat bodies of frogs.
Function:
 They reserves food.
 Prevent heat loss.
 Act as shock absorbing cushions.

WHITE FIBROUS TISSUE:

 They are rich white collagen fibre.
 They are very tough and inelastic.
 They differ from white fiber present in areolar
tissue by having thick structure.
 They occur in two forms: tendons and ligament.

Tendon:
 White fibers are parallel arranged and bound
together by areolar tissue.
 Fibroblasts are the only cells which are present in it.
 Function: connect skeletal muscle to the bones.
Sheets:
 Fibers are arranged in crisscross manner.
 They are found in pericardium, capsule of kidney, perichondrium, dura matter etc.

YELLOW ELASTIC TISSUE:

 Loose network of yellow fibers.
 Thicker than that in areolar tissue.
 Fibroblasts are irregularly arranges.
 Occurs in two forms: cord (ligament) and sheet.
Ligament: binds bones with other bones.
Sheets: found in walls of blood vessels, lungs and bronchioles.
RETICULAR TISSUE:
 It consists of reticular cells and reticular fibers present in a fluid
matrix.
 Reticular cells are star-shaped. They possess protoplasmic
processions which are joined with other reticular cells, forming a
cellular network.
 Reticular fiber is superimposed on the reticular cells. They are
made up of protein called reticulin. They are branched and
inelastic.
Location: lymph glands, spleen, bone marrow.
Function: reticular cells are phagocytic, giving defense to our body
mechanism.

 SKELETAL TISSUE:

CARTILAGE:
They are solid and semi-rigid.
Structure:
1. Matrix:
 It is rubbery; made up of chondrin sulphate; consist of proteoglycan.
 Proteoglycans are the protein chains bounded by disaccharide hyaluronic acid.
 Matrix is also composed of cartilage cells and fibers (mainly collagen).

2. Chondroblasts: (cells of cartilage)

 Oval in shape, large nuclei and extensive ER (more protein output).
 Chondroblasts lei in a fluid space in the matrix called cartilage lacuna.
 Cell in the lacuna can divide after its full growth and the resultant cells can keep lying in the same lacuna
called cell nest.

3. Perichondrium:
 It is an outer stiff sheath that bounds the cartilage. It has 2 regions: fibrous layer and chondrogenic layer.
 Fibrous layer: white collagen fiber.
 Chondrogenic layer: consist of undifferentiated mesenchyme cells which can be converted into
Chondroblasts for growth and repair.
 Chondroblasts near perichondrium are small, oval and young and are called chondrocytes.

*Injury to cartilage takes more time to heal because of lack of blood

supply.

TYPES OF CARTILAGE:
1. Hyaline Cartilage
2. Fibrous cartilage (white and yellow)
3. Calcified cartilage.

Hyaline cartilage:
 It is clear, homogenous, translucent and bluish-green.
 Very fine collagen fibers; difficult to observe.
 Flexible, elastic and compressible.
 Location: bronchial rings, laryngeal walls, sternal ribs, tracheal
rings etc.

Fibrous cartilage: contain prominent fibers.

a. White fibrous cartilage: lack perichondrium. They are located between vertebral
discs, pubic symphasis etc.
b. Yellow elastic cartilage: it is most elastic cartilage. It is opaque and yellowish.
Perichondrium is present. It is located in epiglottis, pinna, auditory canal of ear,
nose tip etc.
Calcified cartilage:
 Calcium salt deposited in the matrix.
 They are very hard and inelastic.
 Location: vertebrae of shark, suprascapula of frogs etc.

BONE:

 It is hardest tissue in the body; due to calcification of its matrix.

 It constitutes skeleton, provide support and protection.
Its histology (osteology) can be studied in two ways:
a. If the bone is dried.
b. If the bone id decalcified.

DECALCIFIED BONE:
 If the bone is kept in a dilute acid (5% HNO3) for some time, then its inorganic part is dissolved and organic
part will be left behind. Such a bone is called decalcified bone. The examination of decalcified bone reveals
its animal (organic) matter.
 Small bones are fully solid and the long bones have cavity in center called marrow cavity.
 Longest bone: femur; smallest bone: stapes [in humans]

There are three parts of a bone: periosteum, endosteum and matrix.

 Periosteum: it covers bone externally and it contains active bone cells, called osteoblasts. These cells produce
new bone material which helps in its growth. Periosteum contains blood vessels.

 Endosteum: it covers marrow cavity. It also contains osteoblasts which are responsible for the growth of bine
from inside.
*Long bones have bidirectional growth as it occurs from outside (by periosteum) and inside (by endisteum).

 Matrix: it is made up of protein called Ossien. It contain collagen fiber which provide it strength. Rather than
these organic matters, bone matrix is also composed of inorganic matter like sulphates, phosphates, fluorides,
and carbonates of calcium and magnesium.

*Among all the salts present in the bone, Calcium Phosphate has major proportion.
**Inorganic matter = 70% matrix
Organic matter = 30% matrix
***With increase in age, the amount of inorganic matter increases, making the bone brittle and inelastic. That’s why at
old ages, we get fracture more easily but at young age, our bones are somewhat flexible, preventing us to get fractures.

 Lamellae: layers in the matrix which are arranged in concentric form around narrow lonmgitudianl cavities
called Haversian Cavities.

 Circumferential Lamellae: lamellae around the marrow cavity and the whole bone (in endostium and
periosteum respectively)
  Lacunae: small, fluid spaces in the lamellae. They contain inactive bone cells called Osteocytes. Lacuna give
off some radiating channels which crosses lamellae called Canaliculi. They are small and thin.

 Osteocyte: (inactive bone cells) It stores glycogen. In developing stage, osteocytes possess many
protoplasmic processes called Filopodia which extend through canaliculi. As maturity comes, these filopodia
get withdrawn.

 Haversian system: haversian canal, lamellae, lacunae and canaliculi together make haversian system. (also
called osteon). The haversian canala are connected with transverse channles called Volkmann’s Channel.
They contain blood vessels (arteries and veins), lymph vessels and nerves.

BONE MARROW: soft, fatty tissue in the hollow part of long bones.
It is of two types:
1. Red bone marrow: it is present in the spongy part of the long bones. It produces RBCs by iron. It also uses
the iron from dead RBCs in making new RBCs. In new born infants, entire bone marrow is red.
2. Yellow bone marrow: it is present in the shaft of the long bones. It produces RBCs only at the times of
emergency; yellow bone marrow converts into red one produces RBCs.

*Red bone marrow is composed of reticular tissue and yellow bone marrow is made up of adipose tissue.
**BMT (Bone Marrow Transplant): It is the process of transplanting bone marrow in a person by medical aid. First
BMT center was CMC, Vellore.

DRIED BONE: in dried bone, all the cavities are

empty, periosteum, endosteum and osteoblasts are
lacking, having dried up.

TYPES OF BONES:
1.
Compact Bone: At the shaft of the bones. (cylindrical)
2.
Spongy Bone: At expanded ends. (epiphysis)

 VASCULAR TISSUE:

 It has fluid matrix.

 Its matrix lacks fibers and floats freely and flows in the body.
 Vascular tissue is also called Fluid connective tissue.

CLASSIFICATION OF VASCULAR TISSUE:

1. Blood = Plasma + RBCs+ WBCs + Platelets
2. Lymph = Plasma + WBCs

BLOOD:
 6.8L in adult person on an average.
 6-10% body weight.
 Study: Hematology
 Physical appearance: sticky, heavier than water; basic in nature (pH 7.4); bright red when oxygenated and
purple when deoxygenated.
1. PLASMA:
 It is faint yellow colored and slightly alkaline.
 Plasma without clotting factors is called serum.
 Composition:
Water 90%
Proteins 7-8%
Inorganic salts 1%
Others (food, gases, waste, 1-2%
anticoagulants, antibodies,
cholesterols etc.)
 Plasma proteins:
a. Albumin and globulin maintains osmotic
pressure of plasma i.e. 7.6 atm.
b. Some globulins (eg. immunoglobulin) form
antibodies in response to the injury of
antigens.
c. Properdin destroys bacteria, viruses, foreign
RBCs etc.
d. Prothrombin and fibrinogen are clotting
factors.
2. RED BLOOD CORPUSCLES (RBCs): (Erythrocytes)
They are the most abundant cells in our body. On an
average about 2.5 million RBCs are formed in a
second. They are red in color and contain a red colored
pigment in them made up of iron called hemoglobin
(Hb). Hb carries oxygen.
 Shape: in mammals, RBCs are circular (front
front) and biconcave (from side view) and are
enucleated.
*Young RBCs contain nucleus but matured one do not.
**Llama and camel has biconvex RBCs.
 Size: smaller than WBCs (diameter = 7-8µm and
thickness = 2µm)
 Number:
Total RBC count: normal number of RBCs per cubic
mm of blood.
Man = 5.5 million RBCs/mm3 blood
Woman = 4.5 million RBCs/mm3 blood
Abnormal decrease in RBC count = Erythrocytopenia
Abnormal increase in RBC count = Polycythemia
Erythrocytopenia occurs in anemia. During
erythrocytopenia, oxygen shortage stimulates kidney
cells to secrete a hormone called EPO (erythropoietin)
which signals bone marrow to increase the production
or formation of RBCs which is called Erythropoiesis.
 Inorganic salts:
These are- Na+, Ca++, Mg++, Cl-, CO3, PO4 etc. They
are present in the form of ions. So, they are also called
Blood (Plasma) Electrolytes.
 Food materials: (glucose, amino acids, fatty acids
etc.)
Normal content: 80-100 mg glucose/100 ml of blood
(for 12 hrs. after meal)
Abnormal state: if blood sugar exceeds 180 mg/100
ml, glucose is secreted in the urine causing diabetes
mellitus.
 Waste: urea, uric acid, ammonia.
 Gases: oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen (in
dissolved form)
 Regulatory substances: hormones, enzymes and
proteins.
 Anticoagulants: anti-prothrombin/ heparin.
 Cholesterol: synthesized by liver and released in
blood. Its normal range is 50-180 ml/ 100 ml of
blood. If this range exceeds heart problems can be
faced.
 Formation: (Erythropoiesis)
It occurs in liver and spleen in foetus and in red bone
marrow after birth. Excess RBCs are stored in spleen.
Vitamin B12, proteins, iron and folic acid stimulates
erythropoiesis.
 Color: yellowish when a cell is seen singly and
red when seen in bulk. Red color is due to
hemoglobin.
 Hemoglobin: It is a red colored pigment present in
blood. It consists of globin (protein) joined by
heme (non-protein) hence named. Heme is
associated with iron.
Normal range = 15 mg/ 100 ml of blood.
1 RBC = 280 million Hb molecules.
1 Hb molecule carries 4 O2 molecules.
Hence an RBC has 280 X 4 = 1120 O2
molecules.
 Life span:
Humans = 180 days; Rabbits = 50-70 days; Frog = 100
days
Destroyed RBCs’ iron is returned to bone marrow to
prepare fresh Hb for new RBCs.
 Special property: in slow flowing blood, the
RBCs form piles called RBC Rouleaux by
adhering together due to surface tension.
3. WHITE BLOOD CORPUSCLES (WBCs): (Leucocytes)

 They lack hemoglobin and contain nucleus. a. Monocytes: largest WBC (10-20µm);
phagocytic in nature; pale blue cytoplasm.
 Shape: 12-20µm b. Lymphocytes: small in size (7-10µm);
 Number: nucleus is round and large (20-40%);
Total WBC count = 5000-10000 WBCs/ mm3 of blood secrete antibodies; heals wounds.
Rise in WBC count = Leucocytosis 2. Granulocytes: granules are present in
Fall in WBC count = Leucopenia cytoplasm; has lobed nucleus; formation is
 Color: colorless called Granulopoiesis.
 Formation: (Leucopoiesis): occurs in lymoph a. Basophiles: blue and black granules;
nodes, red boen marrow, thymus and spleen. contain histamine; s-shaped nucleus;
 Life span: 3-4 days methylene blue stain.
b. Eosinophil: brick red granules; bi-lobed
nucleus; eosin (acidic dye) stain.
 Types of WBCs:
c. Neutrophils: Fine red brown granules;
1. Agranulocytes: granules are absent; nucleus
multi-lobed nucleus; stain with acidic and
is non-lobed and is round; formation is called
basic dyes well.
Agranulopoiesis.

4. PLATELETS: (Thrombocytes)

 Shape: spindle-shaped Rise in platelet count = Thrombocytosis

 Color: colorless Fall in platelet count = Thrombocytopenia
 Size: 2-5 µm wide only (smallest blood cells)
 Number:  Formation: Thrombopoiesis (in red bone marrow)
Platelet count = 250000 cells / mm3 blood  Life span: 3-7 days

FUNCTIONS OF BLOOD:

o RBCs: transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide.

o WBCs: acts as soldiers, scavengers and builders.
o Platelets: helps in the clotting of blood through a coagulant chemical called Thromboplastin or platelet
factor.
o Plasma:
 Transport of food, oxygen, carbon dioxide, waste, hormones etc.
 Supply of raw material
 Regulation of water balanced, temperature and pH
 Immunity
 Moisturisation of tissues
 Lymph formation
LYMPH:
 It is colorless.
 Composed of plasma and WBCs only (mostly lymphocytes).
 It flows in lymphatic capillaries.
 Function: it carries materials from tissue into blood stream or vice versa.

NERVOUS TISSUE
 Origin: ectoderm
 Nervous tissue forms nervous system.
 The functional and structural unit of nervous tissue is neuron or nerve cell.

NEURON:
 They do not divide after their maturity as they lack centrioles.
 It is the longest cell in our body.

It has 3 parts: cell body, dendrite and axon.

1. Cell body:
 Also called cell soma or cyton.
 Contain nucleus and certain granules
called Nissl’s granules.
 It is 13.5µm in diameter.
 Cytoplasm is called Neuroplasm.
 It is star-shaped.

2. Dendrites:
 These are short, tapering, much
branched protoplasmic processes of
cyton. They arise from a region at
cyton called Dendron.
 They also contain Nissl’s granules.
 They conduct impulse to cyton.

3. Axon: it is longest protoplasmic process of the cyton that may be myelinated or non-myelinated. It conducts
signals (impulse) from cyton to the next nerve cell’s dendrite via axon terminals.

ARRANGEMENT OF NEURONS:
Direction of impulse transmission

----------------- ---------------------------------- --------------------

neuron accepts
impulse from
dendrites Synapse (200Aº)
Direction of impulse
(by another chain of neurons)

*At synapse, the impulse is converted in the form of chemicals (called neurotransmitters). They bind to the dendrites
of next neuron and create fresh impulse.