yy AISC'SS Australian Steel Detailers’ Handbook AUSTRALIAN INSTITUTE OF STEEL CONSTRUCTION A.C.N. 000 973 839‘AUSTRALIAN INSTITUTE OF STEEL CONSTRUCTION ‘ACN, 000 973 839 [AUSTRALIAN STEEL DETAILERS’ HANDBOOK Pubished by ‘AUSTRALIAN INSTITUTE OF STEEL CONSTRUCTION. Enquiries shouldbe adcressed othe pubssher: ‘Business across - Level 19,99 Mount Sec, Nath Shey. NSW, 2060, Austra, Postal adress ~ P.O, Box 8368, North Sydney, NSW, 2058, Austra, mal across ~enquiestais>.com.a Wabelts-wnalee coma © Copyret 1900 Ausatan Insitute of Ste! Construction Al rights reserved. This book or any part therot must not be reproduce ay form ‘without te wan pormisson ofthe Austra tit of Saat Constucin Fest eiton 1999 National Library of Australa Cataloguing-in-Publication entry: ‘strain ste detale’s handbook eto, Bibfography. ISBN 200845 79 9, 1. Bung, kon and stool Handbooks, manuals te, 2. Buling, ron and siel~Datals~ Handbooks, marual, tc 3, Soe, stctural - Handbooks, manus. |. Austalan Inst of Sos! Consvcton 2.1821 2 Preuction& Artwork by Reda Py Ltd (6 Kuru Stoct, North Narabeon, NSW 2101, Australla DISCLAIMER at oe an cmp ay (5 Srey Scum ayy orca, ‘Salpsonts prc te Rican oor Woe ran, ci age Sed ‘Sptocsncae fy ern ly ous on yO ee Peer ass ape cos ‘Siler reed sre ae oe Eas WARNING ‘i ean shut ett sad wot te sons of a compel ptshna use wh ape ‘Down at su acne oad abet en se |AISC: AUSTRALIAN STEEL DETAILERS’ HANDBOOK ASOWOI—1098, /‘Australian Steel Detalles’ Handbook Contents PAGE Foreword. a Ackeoniedgoments Prtace Notation . % ‘Abbreviations, 1. INTRODUCTION oa 1 Orang as means of communication. 1“ 12 Dota crawings “1 13 Proect ogansation ste 14 Function ofthe stl deter 4 45 Otharfelds of aco. 14 2, STRUCTURAL STEEL 24 24 Pain materia 2 22 Compound section. 25 23 Characoristes . : 225 24 —Specicaions. 25 25 Physcal properties. — : cee 6 28 Steal pociton 27 27 Tolerances 27 DRAFTING EQUIPMENT AND DRAFTING PRACTICES o 3.4 Manual dating equipment... aH 32 Computeraided dating ae 33 Dring practices... sos 36 34 Genera procedure 322 35 Approal of completed ceawings 3.29 4, ARRANGEMENT AND DETAIL DRAWINGS ....... cones det 441 Composition of atypical structure. 4 42 Designtoasing cee co cee 43 tnormation provided bythe designers 42 44 Drawing shoots, - oe cess dS 45. Holding down bot ayuts 45 48 General arangoment drawings : chs 47 Detarauings a2 48 Components of stoa}-tamed industi balding a ASOH/OI—1990 |AISC: AUSTRALIAN STEEL DETAILERS' HANDBOOK aFUNDAMENTALS OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING 54 Reactions 52. Shear : 53 Bending mement BOLTING 64 Introduction . 62 Bot ypes. 63 Boting categories . 64 Designo bots. 65 Botlength selection . 88 Detailing 67 Installation of tots 88 Preparation a bl ats... WELDING 7:1 Intodton 72 Jolntand weld ypes . 73 Edge preparation 7.4 Reinforcement and backing. 7.5 Incomplete penetration but wal. 7.8 Welding postions. . . 77 Practical gudines 7.8 Welding symbols . 7.8 Clearance for welding 7.40 Method of giving fd instructions . ‘STANDARDISED STRUCTURAL CONNECTIONS - 841 Introduction... 82 Angle seat connection Aa Ransng pd cxnnection. 84 Flexbloend plato : 85 Angle cleat conection... 88 Webside pate cones 8.7 Welded bear-o-colunn moment connection 188 Bote beam-to-calur moment end plate connection 89° Splces . 810 Putin and git cleats 8.11 Cobmn base plates ‘AISC: AUSTRALIAN STEEL DETAILERS? HANDBOOK 54 at 53 ot on a 82 63 63 or oe et oe ee 6 eo e840 en o5 a6 ASOHIOT—19009, BEAMS AND GIRDERS, 982 Shop cravings. 93 Beam detaing practice 84 tomate systems of noltudia dmensioning 25 Example of dtaing atypical beam 98 Example o dtangsiar beams 2.7 Deataling welded plate giders 99 Erection clearances 99° tings 40. COLUMNS 101 tedetion 102 Cohn besee 103 Spices 104 Column schedules 105 Cot detaiing practice 10.8 Exaple of detain a mt-storey column 107 Example of detaing a portal fame coun, . 108 Arllany BS 6s seeeseee 11, TRUSSES 1.5 itoduetion 112 Types of trusses 113 Chord and web sections 11.4 Layout and scales 118 Symmety and rotation. 11.6 mensioning 11.7 Node points 118 Node poms. = bolted construction Welded constuction 11.9 Bxample of dotaling a welded russ 110 Cambers. 12, BRACING 122 Bracing connections sees 123 Setting out and dotaling of bracing 12.4 Example of detaling of oor bracing 425. Adétional considerations ‘ASoHvOT—1900 ‘ASC: AUSTRALIAN STEEL DETAILERS' HANDBOOK 4 oa os 38 8 1013. PURLINS, GIRTS AND EAVES STRUTS. 18:1 toducton 132 ins 183 Bekging systems 184 Dotaling pune and bridging 125 Gate 136 Eavesstuts...... . 14, PORTAL FRAMES co 441 Invodueton 142 Design of portal frames 143. Design datas, 44 Eaves and apex sotout 145 Shop drawing . 148 Pro-sotot portal frames : 18> STAIRWAYS. . 18:1 ntecuction 152 Designof stairways 163. Detaing 46. DETAILING FOR ECONOMY... 461 troduction 462 Communicator 2... sseoos 183 Economy inthe use of material 16.4 Rattonaistion of member sizes an repettion of etals 165 Standard details, 166 Accuracy In detaling 167 Fabeoation 16.8 Boting 16.10 Tanspotation 16.11 Erection co 417, REFERENCES, sees 17.1 Asta standards. : 172 Other references 473 Further nermation APPENDIXA Fabrcitlon of structural ststwork APPENDIX. Sample project crawings wet 14 tet a 129 133 wt 4a 45. 1s 164 14 184 104 1641 162 162 162 103. 104 187 v4 4 we. 172 “ {AISC: AUSTRALIAN STEEL DETAILERS' HANDBOOK ASoH/01—1900FOREWORD ‘The Australian Insitute of Stost Construction (AIC) Is a national nor prot organisation dedicates to increasing ‘now/edge ana understanding of tho se of structural ste! nou soci. ‘Trough planned research and development programenes, industy seminars avd publishing technical work the Insttute provides lsacing edge tectnology an best practice engineering solitons contbtng to the growth of structural stalin Austral. Stel construction indus partispants who are responsible forte design faeication ‘2d erection of tel svuctures ar eady able to access the rouces of re iste “Te fabrictlon and erection ofa steered structure requires the co-ordnatn of trained engineers, architects and technicians Inthe structural see eta office, the oighal concepts of # structure's tamework (as shown on the architoct's and enginoors design draws) are Iterated and tarsated into dota crawngs. These Arawings, trough sketches, nes, cmensios and notos ge compel instructons for cuting, punching, ling and hen assombling te varous structural members with bots andlor was. “Trough the shop craning, the ssl detaler must convey in technical ang.ago al nfrmationrequod fr the workshop to fabreate many diferent types feruturl members. o prepare thee drawings stot dealer must have knowledge othe atest enghnorng speceations and be farar wih the sreclased techniques of warkahop fabreaten and ta erection. “The purpose of tis Handbook Is 10 provide suiclnt information fora trainee structural steel dealer (whois lnvoled ia specialst ata of svuctral rang) o lean the fundamentals of how to data most mambers aed Comections in a simplostos-fared bulding. The text includes @ ganeral scion on computor aided rating (CAD). Me roaderis assumed rot to be an Enger and some engineering fundamantals are included to help Understanding the procedure. As trainoes gan experiance, and are trained by sucyng Wis Book and other ASC ubleations, they wil acquire the knowledge necessary io Become competent set cet. The AISC publishes other Meratu on stuctural ste wich Includes stndelone publcatos, journals and ‘oar Rterenoe svould be mad to these ems i farer information Is equted ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS [NSC gratefully acknowledges the contbutton and assistance from the folowing ndvidule and organisations: ‘Me Aan Hawkins (AJ Hawkins Ply Lic) ‘Me Ross MeCatrey (Stel Pan Ausra Py Ltd) ‘Me Kon Morgan (Bayside Drain (st) Ply Lie) ‘Me Tory Patan (Aan Conaructone Ply Lid) ‘Me vice Reba (608 Stel Deters Ply Lic) Asc stat and those who gave constructive comment onthe Handbook’s contents ‘The Handbooks substataly based onthe Sudhem Afican Insite of Stel Constucon (SAISO) pubsiaton “Southern Alcan Stuctual Stolwore Detaing Manual” and some pars of te Amarean Insti of Stel Construction AISCIUSA) puolcaton“Dotaing fr Steel Corsructon™ AISC also achnowledpes the SAISC ard ‘he AISCIUSA forthe uso of tor respective mata, ASOHOI—1990 ‘AISC: AUSTRALIAN STEEL DETAILERS’ HANDBOOK wwPREFACE “The Handbook covers the proces of structural steelwork dealing, commencing wih hefundamentals of craving continuing with crafting pracioe and conventions, the types and behaviour of baits and weds, the conventional methods of dealing components, and cancuing wth tps cn achiev economy of contruction, The Handbook Should serve both as a fundamental gue for ange steel detalles ard asa usful pont of refrence Tor mee fxparenced paso, ‘Tnetypes of snctures covered are those representing he buk of the typical abicalor’s worktass, Le. commerce land indus bangs, portal ares, platfonms and towers. Moro spocialsod structures, such as bres, tanks, bunkers ete ae not ineuded, “The Handbooks dected mainly athe steal dela onplayed by atypical steal detaling frm or steal fabricator to pare the working arawings hat are eired by the workshop fr fabrication of the teolvork, However the topics ‘eat wit inthe Hancoook wil so be ot neret to draftspersons and designars in asocated areas of ect, ‘especialy those in arctets’ and consuting englnoe”ofices and t's hoped that ts conten wil be use widening the understanding ofstoswork orang requrements. One aim of the Handbook sto stil to toa etalon a sonso of mportace of tha rele nth total ste! contruction actly, and of the need 4 adopt 8 ‘esponsteatiide tovards thee work, ue to abrcation shop and project prefernoee ae wall as ating company precios, hare maybe several options {or stel dealing and falxication methodologies. Those options may include welded versus balled constuction, “imanual" versus computer numercaly contoted (CNC) faricatio, ful dealing inthe drawing fice as agains ‘sop sel-ut of certain deals, piecemeal fabrication instead of large shop assem. and whether manual ‘computer aided drafting procedures are used. Consequenty, in some Instances the ndbook sats iterative Procedures or suggested deta to cowey senlariformtion Obvcusy, dating Cems refrng t tis Handbook should advise thet ranees and other nteeste sta which of te atematves are prefered I-hus, ‘The Handbook fs hased substantial on the “Southern Alcan Stuctural Steework Dealing Manus” (by the ‘Southam Alcan Isiitof Stet Constructo, 1994) as provided some very good maria fr trainee Aualan ‘lel detaters. Hence, the Handbook should be cansiored to ba an evoking pubtation raat on Indy feodback which, future edtions, wt bdge the gap rom fandaments gue to dusty “code-otthe-practoe™ Consequently, AISC welcomes commets on improving the Handbook to reach th outcome 0 as to make t more usofl to tango steal detalles and oer iterestod paris, he curent ein ofthe Handook has the folowing featres + Ils pubis in a ring binder 20 as to pari he reuon of spec Seton when fey are updated by AISC (this may be nates by industy feeds) ‘+ Based onthe fundamental material resentod inthe body ofthe Handbook, readers can sorts acta! el deta drevings from leading Avsralan detaling companies f= 2 sample project wth drawings etic to At size format (Append 8) a sample project wth drawings presented n A format as an attachment win a seevsto the Hanaook ‘+ The popula AISC publication Economical Stuctral Statwork” which f referenced by the Handbook and roves important into on tha ous aspects othe stl construction met. thas been assumed tha the stuctires to be dete! have boen substantially designed n accordance wih AS 4100 and consequently faquont reference ie mad tothe Standard. Oter rated tel design Standards ay Include AS/NZS 4600, AS 28271 and AS 3990 se Chapter 17, Rafrenceis also made three AISC publications, namely Standardized Stuctural Connections (et. 1), Design Capacty Tables for Structral Stel, Vokame t: Open Sections (Ref. 2) and Design Capac Tabs for Structural’ Stool Holow Sections Ret. lesson that ery stool deal should bein possession of et and Is highly desreabe to have acess (possibly Wwough ther ‘rawing off leary} to als 2 and. “The emphasis inthis Handbook ison dealing and nt on the calculation or design of comections. This subject is eal thin oer AISC publications. Ais of other stool dealing referonces provided my Chapler 17. These felernces may bo usatl to those readers waning mare nfrmation onthe topic, ‘SC, 1908, va ‘AISC: AUSTRALIAN STEEL DETAILERS' HANDBOOK ASOH/ot—1096 ~NOTATION a ‘Thread uncut > Longin of had 4 Pain shanklength t "Nominal bo length n Nut hoi ' “Thickness of ly 4 “Te hicks of th ply under the Bot head 5 “Thetness of nner oly ABBREVIATIONS “The abbroitons iste below are goneraly used for structural steelwork appicaons. See aso Figure 3.29 fora ‘hed of Bene abbreviations for sucka! steal detaling and Figure 3.90 fr @ schedule of fypleal Bulng onatuction abtrevations 4.03 “Commercial rade bolts srug chtoned 88S High strength sructura bots srug hte 8.78 High stengt structural bots uly tensioned bearing type 88TF High strength structural bats fuly tensioned riciontype ISG Asafa Inethute of Stee! Construction BOS Basic nygen Stoetnaking BT Tee Saxton cut fem Universal Bean CAD Computer Aided Drang FW Continuous Filet Weld CHS Circular Holiow Seaton {CNC Computer Numeric Gntoied : CCPSW Complete Penetration Butt Weld CT Toe Section ut tom Universal Column Dla Diameter oo ito OTT Design Throat Thickness fot a wld) e cast EA Equal Angle EAF ——_Bctric Ar Furnace (Steeaking) AL Fat GP Goneral Purpose weld category) HO Hotgng down P intersection Point PEW Incomplate Penetration But Weld ZS organic Zine Sieate i blonewons ASoHIOI—1990 |AISC: AUSTRALIAN STEEL DETAILERS’ HANDBOOK &No 0 Pec Pr Pas a aeggage Tre us us uc uno sas |AISC: AUSTRALIAN STEEL DETAILERS' HANDBOOK tong ont Number Not to Seale Outside tameter Ph Ceo Diam Paral! Flange Chane! Pte Request for iformation Rectangular Hosow Section Reduced Level South Section ‘Standard Flor Level Sauer Hotow Section Set Out Point ‘Strctaral Purpose weld category) Tepered ange Beam “Tapered Flange Channa! ‘Unequal Angle Universal eam Universal Cue, Unies Notod Otherwise West Welded Bear Welded Colum AspHo1—1999,1. INTRODUCTION 1.1. DRAFTING AS A MEANS OF COMMUNICATION Crating ea methad of conveying information nla or graphic form. Usual thas todo wih the lanning a esig of an abject or structure, whether be a sngle st-sren, a mut-siory Elling or ay of an nite range tf toms, components, machines of structures. A drawing ull ot only convey accwately the appearance of he Atle as but, but wil also gv the necessary information on how tito be Da ‘Another means of communicating formations the spoken or wrton werd. Howover, this proces of infermaton| transmit inves very lngty descriptions and requres the contnuod presence ofthe concave of the projet ‘rng the constuction procass to ens that the nekuctions have boen understood caret lis obvious tat ‘ren asm ding wil coney the required inormation mor clesey av aceratly ané mich more concialy ‘an can be done by to spoxen or writen word and wll alse reduce the need fr supersion, ‘The tol deal’ functon thereto, to serve as anintrmocary between the Sonoshver andthe exeoutor ofthe Drolet. Stes detain is @ specials area of sructral crafting, AS sucha detalr rust be familar with general ‘Shuctural crating practice a well as teas specie to sta! shop drawings. Tr deta nesds fo have a cleat Ldrstanging ofthe designer intent and must corn his information o paper by graphical moans. Ath same {io the detater must havea knowledge ofthe processes volvo i he canton oration ofthe projec. “The drawing is then both an struction othe artisan on how the structure tO Be Bl and a permanent econ of ‘he deste’ tet It wile evden om ths simple tution that a ste! dota’ funtion Is avery Important ane nthe chan of ‘evorts fram the orginal cancepton to the fal completon of ary tam or project wil ao be cae that the ran ‘equrements nthe tel deal’ approach are clay of presenation acura, speedo work as wal as patlonce ‘and porsonerance, 1.2. DETAIL DRAWINGS Prior tothe use of tel asa structural material, the usal practice was ta depict se, abuing ora bridge by means ‘of elevations, plans and cross-sections wth, ware necessary, elagod deals ofspecal parts ofthe stuctre hat ‘raqured more detaled desertion. Thus th elevation of abridge would be to a sal suficint to show, by moans ‘of sultable annotation the sites and shapes ofthe members making up the grcers. kos, a pan of the dock ‘woul incest the layout and sie th lecx beams. However, tho suppet bears and any speci momiber end ‘Connections would be shown i an elagod scale, In suit deal to enable th ronwerky, the carport othe Blacks o constuct these components to a reasonable gree of accuracy However, wit he advent of sructiral stl, pefabricaion bocame essential ar this tought wit tte nee to ‘supplement te arrangement drawings wih detall drawings of at individual morbors and components. These > known as shop deal dravings and are usualy repare bya special tel data company under sub-covdfat ‘asta cbrcater for uso nits workshops. he shop dea wings are based on th layout and arrangement —@——[__ owen Conception Engineer reports to Project coor on eaty “etal cost owner spots ‘norer ONSITE ENGINEER --O— Cmersets Prolminary paring and \opoceed ig tyoutcrvnge ‘and arvctral com pool owner paces contac with Detaieadesin, [4 @——_} “contactor {al ses arangoment reson No; 2 fale 2 drawn by 2 date + hooked by + rawng No + jadNo, 5. reilon books: olin No + by description dateissued: + checked by. 6. roforence books: Peano tes 7. bolt bloke fq + gos + Sngth: + ype * gharay: eaten 8. materi st (requked "em No doscrption; remarks; rath quanti: 8. appicabe notes: oP standard welds: : * surface preparation 10.t4yes Layers alow you to group onttes, assign them special colours andine types, and also to contr ther pay the conoapt of ayers snr to ransparent avery, you can define as many layers as you We Layers sould be narnedin an rgarisod maner so that hoy are easly identified Assignment of ayrs maybe Based on ne fypes or the elements bang daw deponding on the individu drafting foe procedures. 3.2.7 Holds and Revisions Hold clouds on rawings must be shown wih an “verted” oud Reon oud mest be usd to highight al changes to drawings. However, one ovsion cloud wih a dost the revisor to at drawing may be Used wher Elst practical to co changes. Roto number tangles must be ‘laced win he oud and placadneath border for asyvbity.Allcoude shaulsbe dramatic neo 7m 328 Plotting Ploting of checks can usualy be done to 2 siz if he erga drawing is drawn on an ta about 110 scale ‘Complex cravings or those araun ta lvge soa 99.150 should be pated on Fal pots forthe clent shoud aways be fl size except for simple deta where Is somtimes possible to pt {or lseue ofA? ofA ze erga dranings are no bigger than At at 1:10 sea, ASoH/O1~1000 [AISC: AUSTRALIAN STEEL DETAILERS’ HANDBOOK 35329 Identification Checkolts shouldbe clrly enified ae such by a “checkpint” block or stamp onthe srawing which should be ‘onthe electronic coy, Fal plots shoul! contain signatures of authorisation - again these shouldbe on the laconic copy 32.10 Filing Paper plots ao not original and should be trosted with caution, The only tue oiginal the elton master copy. ‘Ato use, plots should be clsposed of or ssed othe clint a pat of thor copying requerars. This saves papar and fling space. (A laser printed A copy i very ust as along term reference copy Hrequted) 32.11 Storage ‘CAD drawings canbe stored pormanenty in various way 1. floppy dik ~ 90S, dks labeled withthe contract No, caving No tite of drawings, csk box No: 2. hard disk ocal eve o network to saree 53. tape ~used many for archiving of daly backup duo to sow access te; and 44 ap toctology develops othr mathods wil bacome vata, drawings are stored on loppy ask, thet Noppy disk ruber should appear on the drawing somewhere to enable quek rte stored on disk or tape ta draving shoul be savod Ina su-aectoy that matenes the Job NO. ‘rarea cadet, 32.12 Revisions Revo to falad CAD drawings must ake place under a cortoed prooedus. Tis is © prevent cravings being access an ated “at wi". Changes should be ahr by to project manager responsible Arvsons rust bo ‘oudod an the osion number ralsed onthe drawing Checking and ssuleg procadros should match tat ofthe ew drawing. 32.13 Automatic Steel Detailing Software Packages ‘The development of sophisticated software packages which automate the production of shop deal cravings is rapid revolutensing the deal dating indus. These sofware packages modal the entre structural frre in {twee dimensions using salt members generally rather than wie amos. Te packages ince caries of avadablo steel soctone and typloal conection detals whch an be readly appled to mamoers forming ‘he fame. {Casting the Mares also possbie to allow for non-standard satin ypes and cornet, Those packagos ar extremely power ool wich are capable for detecting clases betwoon mombers and bots sc, and ealy reduce he manual checking tne. The computer generated shop dtals canbe ouput as drawings 0: downoad s data fles for computer numerc controled (CNG) fabrication equpmer. 3.3. DRAFTING PRACTICES 3.3.1 Linework and Lettering ‘The good appearance of any drawing is trgely a matter of union in making nes and laters. The uty of raving deponcs on te Srongth and contrast ofthe various Ine symbols and legiy follows thatthe most Sesirle crewing ona that combines uniformity and uty No attr how vedorn i sppearance, fine, celia Tnewerk and tiny letring must be avolie, since ol and grease on pt Inthe shop cr fd can render such raving useoss or misleacng ‘Toad ho tranoo in solctng the proper weights, Fa .1 shows recommended tne comentions gonealy sed in ‘tritural drain, Relerce should aso be made 6 AS 100. Fig 8.2 uta the appearance of such ines a3 they relate to each der On 8 drain, Border ines, where not pepe che sheet, shoud be mad heaw and Black to contrast strongly whl ther tne. ‘When manually dating, the dashes and spaces of hidden object nee shoul! be proportned by eye, uniflora 28 [AISC: AUSTRALIAN STEEL DETAILERS' HANDBOOK ‘ASOHO1—1000,Type ole. Tine biaess Penel ead Cuties, underring ot tes, boda nes es unser tie (oteayy Hor t + ‘ovation and section arow ines (Medion 4 ‘inion prooction leader, bot conte tines YMMMIM Cross hatching ines (oF ne m4 conte nes ‘Adjacent toms, toms in ont of euting plano The hae main types of in usedn crating a: 8) Heavy: Used fr visible outnes of objets, section or elevation row ines and undetining (used) 5) Mean: Used fr dot ines indeating hisdon outs, ©) Fine: Used for csrire nes, mension ines, projacion ines, gage lines, cos-haching and bresk nes, Forfurer information refer to AS 1100 single example of ie use ofthe varus (pes of nels shown Pig.32, Fig. 1: Line types and thicknesses ASOHOI—1909 |AISC: AUSTRALIAN STEEL DETAILERS’ HANDBOOK 37SECTAA, ¥Z 1234567890 abcdefghijk Imnopgrstu VW xyzSight less proncunced in weight than vse object Ines. Tho dashes shouldbe fern, not feathered, and about twice tho length ofthe intervening spaces [see Fp. 3.1). A dashed Ine should stat with a sll ne, eat 2 space. [Comers should bo formed with stersecng dashes. A good average proprtn Is dm dashes and 2mm spaces, “The stating and stopping of all nes should be postive. Oven of object and dmansin nes beyond tho ‘Proper terinations must be avoided. Most manusly rawn cco and cls rcs ae executed with compass. Smal cries are convenient mado with ci template. Exremey ge cices rogue a beam compass or alfoad curs, ‘Adstioaly, with manual dating, cota small cles and othe symbole epresrting hols and bas on shop and ‘ection cravings may be convenient draw froshand. Frochand execution speeds up the work considera, ana ‘hen done cretuly sentry satisfactory ‘Altering, dimension figures and aroweads on manual dated shop drawings are made freehand using sive ‘hat is essentaly lable, unform and capable of rapid execution. Apart rom cimonsionl secure thee Is feature mors important than tain, Hoge igus can result costy anor nthe workshop oa ate ‘Tho ability to latter wo canbe anquked erly by contiwod cart practice. Even withthe inwoduton of CAD