3.

Electrical Properties I
Question

“What determines electrical conductivity in

materials?

2
Learning objectives

Explain what resistivity and conductivity is

Explain electron transport in metals
Describe the effect of temperature and
impurities on the conductivity of metals

3
Examples of applications where electrical properties
are relevant

Conductive Concrete for De-icing

www.apple.com

www.conductive-concrete.unomaha.edu/conductiveconcrete.htm

4
Si chips: an Intel processor

Intel dual and quad core

Haswell chip
Processed Si wafers
Integrated circuits (IC) =chip
5
Electrical conduction: Ohm’s law

A
(cross
sect. I
area) V
L

• Ohm's Law:
V=IR
resistance (Ohm)
voltage drop (Volt) current (Amp)

6
Resistance, Resistivity and Conductivity

• Resistance and Resistivity:

l
R
A
where ρ is the Resistivity in (Ohm-m)=(-m)

• Conductivity - units: ( - m)-1:

1
s=
r
Note: Resistivity and Conductivity are material properties,
independent of sample geometry

7
 Electrical Properties l
R
A
 Which will have the greater resistance?
Case 1 2ℓ
2 rℓ 8r ℓ 8r ℓ
D1 R1 = = = 2
æ D ö p D1 p x
2 2

pç 1÷
 è2ø
Case 2
rℓ rℓ
R2 = =
D2 æ D2 ö
2
p x2
pç ÷
è 2 ø
D1 = x, D2=2x
R1 = 8R2
 Analogous to flow of water in a pipe
 Resistance depends on sample material and
geometry

8
Alternative view of A
(cross
Ohm’s Law sect.
area)
I
V
L
Further definitions
J = se <= another way to state Ohm’s law

current I
where, J is the current density = = (Amps/m 2 )
surface area A
e is the voltage gradient = V/L

dT
J =  (V/L) q  k
dx
Analogous to the expression
Electron flux conductivity voltage gradient
for heat transfer
9
 Conductivity: Comparison
• Room T values (Ohm-m)-1= ( - m)-1
METALS - Conductors CERAMICS - Insulators
-10
Silver 6.8 x 10 7 Soda-lime glass 10 -10-11
Copper 6.0 x 10 7 Concrete 10 -9
Iron 1.0 x 10 7 Aluminum oxide <10-13

SEMICONDUCTORS POLYMERS - Insulators

-14
Silicon 10-4 to 105 Polystyrene <10
Germanium 1 to 106 Polyethylene 10 -15-10-17
GaAs 10-6 to 105

Selected values from Tables 18.1, 18.3, and 18.4, Callister 8e.
10
 Example: Conductivity in metals
What is the minimum diameter (D) of a copper wire carrying 2.5A so
that the voltage drop over 100 m is less than 1.5 V?
L  100 m
Cu wire - I = 2.5 A +

100 m
< 1.5 V
L V
R 
D 2 A I 2.5 A

4 6.07 x 107 (Ohm-m)-1

Solve to get D > 1.87 mm
11
Insulators, Semiconductors, Conductors

12
Understanding Electrical Conduction

1. In most solid materials, a net motion of charge

is associated with the flow of electrons.
2. In liquids and gels, a net motion of charge may
be associated with the flow of ions.
3. In semi-conductors and insulators, a net motion
of charge may also be associated with the
motion of holes.

13
Understanding Electrical Conduction

The electrical conductivity of a solid material is

determined by the number of:
1. Free electrons
2. Free holes

14
Understanding Conductivity
Electron Energy Band Structures

As discrete atoms are brought into close proximity with one another, such as
occurs in a solid, the influence of each atom on the other results in the splitting of
the electron states (1s, 2s…) into electron energy bands.
Adapted from Fig. 18.2, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Recall: Pauli Exclusion Principle requires all
electrons to have different energy states
 Understanding Conductivity
Band Structure Representation

Adapted from Fig. 18.3,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

• Therefore, at a given r0, there are a series of Energy bands and Energy gaps
that form.
• The band that contains the highest energy is called the conduction band (taupe)
and the band with the next highest energy is the valence band (blue)
16
Conductors (Metals)

17
Conduction & Electron Transport in Metals

 Only electrons with energies greater than Fermi energy, Ef, may be
accelerated in the presence of an electrical field.

 The energy required to elevate and electron into the conduction band,
may be provided by and electric field (voltage difference), thermally or
by light.

 In metals the energy required to achieve Ef is low and generally a

voltage difference is sufficient to generate the free electrons
necessary for conduction.

 In insulators the energy required is usually significantly higher,

requiring elevated temperature or light

18
Conduction & Electron Transport in Metals
 There are two electron band structures found in metals: State 1 – partially
filled valence; and State 2 - overlap of the filled valence band with the
conduction band.

State 1 - Partially filled band

Energy

Empty conduction band • Electron States

above and
GAP adjacent to the
filled states
Partially filled valence band • Example Copper
Ef
filled
empty

19
Conduction & Electron Transport in Metals

State 2 - Overlapping bands

Energy

• Electron States
Empty conduction band above
z
• Example
Ef Magnesium
Filled valence band

filled
empty
Conduction & Electron Transport in Metals

• Alternate schematic depiction used in Callister – (a)

State 1 and (b) State 2
Conduction & Electron Transport in Metals

 In metals, there are vacant energy states adjacent to the highest

filled energy state at Ef.
 Thus, very little excitation energy required to promote (move)
electrons into the “low-lying” empty states
 The results is a large number of available electrons carriers thus
easy movement of electrons to conduct electricity
Understanding high conductivity
Conductivity

  n e e
n # of charge carriers

e charge on an electron (1.6x10-19 C)

e Mobility of charge carrier

• Metals (Conductors):
- high density of available charge carriers
- also, high mobility of electrons in metals

Therefore, high conductivity

23
Influence of Temperature and Impurities on
Resistivity of metals

 The presence of imperfections in the

material scatters electrons and increases
resistivity.
 Sources include:

 Impurities (alloy additions, trace elements), i

 Lattice vibrations (thermal), T
 Crystal dislocations (deformation), d

rtotal = ri + rT + rd
Influence of Temperature and Impurities on
Resistivity of metals
Question

“What determines electrical conductivity in

materials?

APSC278 by Warren Poole and 26

Anoush Poursartip
Learning objectives

Explain what resistivity and conductivity is

Explain electron transport in metals
Describe the effect of temperature and
impurities on the conductivity of metals

APSC278 by Warren Poole and 27

Anoush Poursartip
Example problem 18.1

(a) Compute the electrical conductivity of a

cylindrical silicon specimen 7.0 mm (0.28 in.)
diameter and 57 mm (2.25 in.) in length in which a
current of 0.25 A passes in an axial direction. A
voltage of 24 V is measured across two probes
that are separated by 45 mm (1.75 in.).

(b) Compute the resistance over the entire

57 mm (2.25 in.) of the specimen.

28