CONTENT

 LABORATORY PLANNING

 LABORATORY MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUE

 CARE OF LABORATORY GLASS WEAR EQUIPMENTS INSTRUMENT AND

CHEMICAL

 LABORATORY SAFETY

 QUALITY CONTROL OF LABORATORY

 STORES ORGANIZATION

 RELATIONSHIP OTHER FUNCTION ANALYSIS

 STORE AND OFFICE USE STATIONERY

Laboratory
Laboratories used for scientific research take many forms because of the differing requirements
of specialists in the various fields of science and engineering. A physics laboratory might contain
a particle accelerator or vacuum chamber, while a metallurgy laboratory could have apparatus
for casting or refining metals or for testing their strength. A chemist or biologist might use a wet
laboratory, while a psychologist's laboratory might be a room with one-way mirrors and hidden
cameras in which to observe behavior. In some laboratories, such as those commonly used
by computer scientists, computers (sometimes supercomputers) are used for eithersimulations or
the analysis of data. Scientists in other fields will use still other types of
laboratories. Engineers use laboratories as well to design, build, and test technological devices.
Scientific laboratories can be found as research room and learning
spaces in schools and universities, industry, government, ormilitary facilities, and even
aboard ships and spacecraft.
Despite the underlying notion of the lab as a confined space for experts[1], the term "laboratory"
is also increasingly applied to workshop spaces such as Living Labs, Fab Labs, or Hackerspaces,
in which people meet to work on societal problems or makeprototypes, working collaboratively
or sharing resources.[2][3][4] This development is inspired by new, participatory approaches to
science and innovation and relies on user-centred design methods[5] and concepts like Open
innovation or User innovation,[6][7]. One distinctive feature of work in Open Labs is phenomena
of translation, driven by the different backgrounds and levels of expertise of the people
involved[8].
Techniques[edit]
Laboratory techniques are the set of procedures used on natural sciences such
as chemistry, biology, physics in order to conduct an experiment, all of them follow thescientific
method; while some of them involve the use of complex laboratory equipment from laboratory
glassware to electrical devices, and others require more specific or expensive supplies.
Equipment and supplies[edit]
Three beakers, an Erlenmeyer flask, agraduated cylinder and a volumetric flask
Laboratory equipment refers to the various tools and equipment used by scientists working in a
laboratory:
The classical equipment includes tools such as Bunsen burners and microscopes as well as
specialty equipment such as operant conditioning
chambers, spectrophotometers and calorimeters.
Chemical laboratories
 laboratory glassware such as the beaker or reagent bottle
 Analytical devices as HPLC or spectrophotometers
Molecular biology laboratories + Life science laboratories

Autoclavable bench-top laboratory bioreactor and fermenter

 autoclave
 microscope
 Centrifuges
 Shakers & mixers
 Pipette
 Thermal cyclers (PCR)
 Photometer
 Refrigerators and Freezers
 Universal testing machine
 ULT Freezers
 Incubators
 bioreactor
 Biological safety cabinets
 Sequencing instruments
 fume hoods
 Environmental chamber
 Humidifier
 weighing scale
 Reagents (supply)
 Pipettes tips (supply)
 Polymer (supply) consumables for small volumes (µL and mL scale), mainly sterile
Laboratory equipment is generally used to either perform an experiment or to
take measurements and gather data. Larger or more sophisticated equipment is generally called
a scientific instrument.

GENERAL PRINCIPAL OF LABORATORY

Laboratory equipment refers to the various tools and equipment used by scientists working in
a laboratory: The classical equipment includes tools such as Bunsen burners and microscopes as
well as specialty equipment such as operant conditioning chambers, spectrophotometers and
calorimeters. Chemical laboratories.
Good laboratory practice or GLP is a set of principles intended to assure the quality and
integrity of non-clinical laboratory studies that are intended to support research or marketing
permits for products regulated by government agencies

different level of laboratory

A medical laboratory or clinical laboratory is a laboratory where tests are usually done on
clinical specimens in order to obtain information about the health of a patient as pertaining to the
diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of disease.[1] Clinical laboratories are thus focused
on applied science mainly on a production-like basis, as opposed to research laboratories that
focus on basic science on an academic basis.
Departments[edit]
Laboratory medicine is generally divided into two sections, each of which being subdivided into
multiple units. These two sections are
 Anatomic pathology: units included here are histopathology, cytopathology, and electron
microscopy. Academically, each unit is studied alone in one course. Other courses pertaining
to this section include anatomy, physiology, histology, pathology, and pathophysiology.
 Clinical pathology, which includes:
 Clinical Microbiology: This encompasses five different sciences (units). These
include bacteriology, virology, parasitology, immunology, and mycology.
  Clinical Chemistry: Units under this busy section include instrumental analysis of blood
components, enzymology, toxicology and endocrinology.
 Hematology: This section consists of automated and manual analysis of blood cells. It
includes two subunits, which are coagulation and blood bank.
 Genetics is also studied along with a subspecialty known as cytogenetics.
 Reproductive biology: Semen analysis, Sperm bank and assisted reproductive
technology.
Distribution of clinical laboratories in health institutions varies greatly from one place to another.
For instance, for microbiology, some health facilities have a single laboratory for microbiology,
while others have a separate lab for each unit, with nothing called a "microbiology" lab.

Laboratory equipment forhematology (black analyser) andurinalysis (left of the open centrifuge).
The following is a detailed breakdown of the responsibilities of each unit:
 Microbiology receives almost any clinical specimen, including
swabs, feces, urine, blood, sputum, cerebrospinal fluid, synovial fluid, as well as possible
infected tissue. The work here is mainly concerned with cultures, to look for suspected
pathogens which, if found, are further identified based on biochemical tests. Also, sensitivity
testing is carried out to determine whether the pathogen is sensitive or resistant to a
suggested medicine. Results are reported with the identified organism(s) and the type and
amount of drug(s) that should be prescribed for the patient.
 Parasitology responsible for examining parasites, feces samples may be examined for
evidence of intestinal parasites such as tapeworms or hookworms and others.
 Virology is concerned with identification of viruses in specimens such as blood, urine,
and cerebrospinal fluid.
 Hematology works with whole blood to do full blood counts, and blood films as well as
many other specialised tests.
 Coagulation requires citrated blood samples to analyze blood clotting times and coagulation
factors.
 Clinical Biochemistry usually receives serum or plasma. They test the serum for chemicals
present in blood. These include a wide array of substances, such as lipids, blood
sugar, enzymes, and hormones.
 Toxicology mainly tests for pharmaceutical and recreational drugs. Urine and blood samples
are submitted to this lab.
 Immunology/Serology uses the concept of antigen-antibody interaction as a diagnostic tool.
Compatibility of transplanted organs is also determined.
 Immunohaematology, or Blood bank determines blood groups, and performs compatibility
testing on donor blood and recipients. It also prepares blood components, derivatives, and
products for transfusion. Regulated by the FDA since giving blood is considered a drug, this
unit determines a patient's blood type and Rh status, checks for antibodies to common
antigens found on red blood cells, and cross matches units that are negative for the antigen.
 Urinalysis tests urine for many analytes. Some health care providers have a urinalysis
laboratory, while others don't. Instead, each component of the urinalysis is performed at the
corresponding unit. If measuring urine chemicals is required, the specimen is processed in
the clinical biochemistry lab, but if cell studies are indicated, the specimen should be
submitted to the cytopathology lab, and so on.
 Histopathology processes solid tissue removed from the body (biopsies) for evaluation at the
microscopic level.
 Cytopathology examines smears of cells from all over the body (such as from the cervix) for
evidence of inflammation, cancer, and other conditions.
 Electron microscopy prepares specimens and takes micrographs of very fine details by
means of TEM and SEM.
 Genetics mainly performs DNA analysis.
 Cytogenetics involves using blood and other cells to get a karyotype. This can be helpful in
prenatal diagnosis (e.g. Down's syndrome) as well as in cancer (some cancers have
abnormal chromosomes).
 Surgical pathology examines organs, limbs, tumors, fetuses, and other tissues biopsied in
surgery such as breast mastectomies.

PLANNING FOR HOSPITAL LAB SERVICE

The medical facility smaller than a hospital is generally called a clinic, and often is run by
a government agency for health services or a privatepartnership of physicians (in nations where
private practise is allowed). Clinics generally provide only outpatient services.
Departments or wards[edit]

Resuscitation room bed after atrauma intervention, showing the highly technical equipment of
modern hospitals
Hospitals consist of departments, traditionally called wards, especially when they have beds
for inpatients, when they are sometimes also called inpatient wards. Hospitals may have acute
services such as an emergency department or specialist trauma centre, burn unit, surgery,
or urgent care. These may then be backed up by more specialist units such as the following:
 Emergency department
 Cardiology
 Intensive care unit
 Paediatric intensive care unit
 Neonatal intensive care unit
 Cardiovascular intensive care unit
 Neurology
 Oncology
 Obstetrics and gynaecology, colloquially, maternity ward
In addition, there is the department of nursing, often headed by a chief nursing officer or director
of nursing. This department is responsible for the administration of professional nursing
practice, research, and policy for the hospital. Nursing permeates every part of a hospital. Many
units or wards have both a nursing and a medical director that serve as administrators for their
respective disciplines within that specialty. For example, in an intensive care nursery, the
director of neonatology is responsible for the medical staff and medical care while the nursing
manager/director for the intensive care nursery is responsible for all of the nurses and nursing
care in that unit/ward.
Some hospitals have outpatient departments and some have chronic treatment units such
as behavioral health services, dentistry,dermatology, psychiatric ward, rehabilitation services,
and physical therapy.
 Common support units include a dispensary or pharmacy, pathology, and radiology. On the non-
medical side, there often are medical records departments, release of information departments,
information management (a.k.a. IM, IT or IS), clinical engineering (a.k.a. biomed), facilities
management, plant ops (operations, also known as maintenance), dining services, and security
departments.

SECTION FOR HOSPITAL LABORATORY

TYPE OF LABORATORY SERVICES

Laboratory is equipped with state of art equipments and further divided into various sections:
 Haematology & Clinical Pathology
 Micro-Biology
 Biochemistry
 Histopathology & Cytopathology
 Bio-Chemistry and a dedicated separate area for sample collection.
Lab has well defined TAT (turn around time) for all the tests and most of the reports are
available on same day.

HAEMATOLOGY AND CLINICAL PATHOLOGY

The Department of Haematology and Clinical Pathology works round the clock.Department has
its own SOPs and protocols and has accreditation for the laboratory services from the National
Accreditation Board for Testing Laboratories (NABL).

Haematology division is fully equipped with latest instruments. There are two fully automated
five parts cell counters from Beckmen coulter and Horiba, Other instruments like Coagulometer,
ESR Analyser and Urinometer to process urine samples are also available.
Test available in the Department :
 ACT-2 Semi Automated Coagulometer from Compact Diagnostics.
 Peripheral smear examination
 CBC (Complete Blood Counts)
 Antigen testing for malarial parasites
 Microfilarial detectio
 G6PD Screening
 Sickle cell demonstration
 LE Cell demonstration
 Microalbuminuria (MAU)
 Glycosylated Haemoglobin (HbA1C)
 D.Dimer
 Procalcitonin (PCT)
 B-Type Natriuretic Peptide (BNP)
 Bone Marrow Examination
 Coagulation tests like PT & APTT
 Clinical Pathology
 Immunoflorescence for ANA detection
CLINICAL PATHOLOGY
Urine analysis carried out on UroMeter 120 urine analyser.
Urine Routine and Microscopic Examination.
Special Tests : Urobilinogen, Porphobilinogen, Haemoglobin, Myoglobin, Bence jones protein.
Body Fluids : Ascitic fluid. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), Gastric aspirate for neutrophils,
Pericardial fluid, Pleural fluid, Synovial fluid, Semen analysis.

Accreditation
The laboratory is NABL accredited.

Quality Assurance
Quality assurance is a major concern of the department. It covers all aspects of laboratory
functioning i.e. pre-analytical, analytical and post-analytical; turn around time; maintenance of
equipment; selection of tests & reagents; standardization & validation of tests before they are
introduced; and training of personnel & Running of Quality Control and Participating EQAS
programmed.

MICROBIOLOGY
The microbiology laboratory aims at providing the reliable and quality based clinical laboratory
services to patients constant upgradation of the laboratory to automation, reliable methods and
strict quality assurance are the hall marks. Laboratory has experienced and skilled team to
manage the quality and accuracy. The microbiology laboratory caters to the needs of the hospital
as well as nearby small size laboratories.

Blood culture for aerobic bacteria, fungi and mycobacteria are done on automated system which
detects the organisms from 3 hours onwards by continuous monitoring of the bottles.
Identification and sensitivity of most of the organisms grown is done on automated system for
accurate and reliable reports. Conventional culture for bacteria, fungi from clinical samples other
than blood is done on appropriate media following international guidelines. Automated system
for culture of Mycobacteria indicates positivity from seventh day onwards. Once culture positive,
identification & sensitivity can be reported in approximately 7 days time. A variety of
serological tests are performed in the department by conventional rapid card and line
immunoassay methodologies. Laboratory’s main armory is its hold on quality and reliability.
Special emphasis is being given on daily quality checks i.e internal quality control as well as
External quality control standards. Laboratory participates in EQAS (External Quality Assurance
Scheme) run by IAMM (Indian Association of Medical Microbiologist) for constant checking
and improvement in quality policies.

Department is actively involved in infection control activities, epidemiology and surceillance of

hospital associated infection. Infection control guidelines for the hospital and antibiogram of
various areas of the hospital are issued from time to time. Department is involved in teaching and
training of MSc students, laboratory technicians and DMLT (Diploma Medical Laboratory
Technology) students of IMA affiliated DMLT course of JGH.
Department participates in teaching of DNB students and one Phd thesis has been completed in
the department.

BIOCHEMISTRY
The Biochemistry department is equipped with fully automated high precision state of the art
equipments namely Dade Behring (Siemens) for biochemistry, Minividas (Biomerieux)for
immunoassays Ilyte & Gem 3000 (Instrumentation Laboratory ) for electrolytes & blood gas
respectively.
Department is managed by a fulltime Biochemist who is the quality manager as well. Apart from
routine biochemistry parameters special hormones and cancer markers are also available on daily
basis. We have introduced Vitamin D in the test menu which is also reported daily .
Well defined internal quality control system is established in order to ensure day to day report
quality. Quality indicators are employed to assess the quality improvements. Timely scheduled
calibration & PM of the equipment ensures smooth functioning ,reduction of breakdowns & thus
achieve the established Turn Around Time(TAT) Department participates in the EQAS
programme conducted by BIO-RAD for biochemistry & Immunoassay and stands excellent.
Available tests in the department are as follows Routine tests KFT, LFT, Lipid profile, Diabetic
profile, Hormone assays – fertility profile, thyroid profile, & Cancer markers etc.

HISTOPATHOLOGY & CYTOLOGY

This section of lab holds a special place in this hospitals. Where all the surgical
specimens are sent in the labs for an accurate diagnosis and its further management .
Various tests facilities available in sections are:-
Small endoscopic biopsies like colonoscopic, EBUS-TBNA (Endobronchial ultrasounded
transbronchial needle aspiration) and EUS-FNA (Endoscopic ultrasound guided FNA) are
processed on the same day after fixation and reports are available on the very next day.
Fully automated tissue processor as well microtome for histopathology to cope up with the
increasing load of samples and reports are available within in three days. PAP’s smear
examination for quick screening of cervical cancers in female patients. Body fluids including
exfoliative cytology BAL fluids and brush cytologies whether bronchial or from G.I tract are
processed and report is available on the very same day. CT guided and USG guided
trans thoracic and transabdominal FNAC s to reach difficult distant deep seated lesions
and diagnosis is available on the very same day .

Preoperative / Intraoperative scrappe cytology , touch and imprint smears for an immediate
diagnosis. Histopath Lab is equipped with Automatic tissue processor, fully automated
embedding station & very fine microtome with a team of well trained staff.Cytology is also done
on all types of material including, various types of fluid for malignant cells (Pleural, Peritoneal,
Pericardial and CSF)using cytospin for quality reporting. FNAC is routinely done on OPD/IPD
patient by the pathologist, CT/Ultra Sound guided FNAC is also done for intra abdominal/intra
thoracic masses. PAP screening is also routinely done. All routine stains and immuno histo
chemistry is done for typing of malignancy & confirmation of fungal/Protozal/Bacterial
infection.

Other Activities
Besides testing and participating in various Quality Assurance Programmes. Lab provide training
facilities to DNB students from Surgery, Gynae, Paediatrics & Medicine departments. Lab also
conducts training cources for DMLT (Diploma in Medical Laboratory Technology) students
approved by IMA (Indian Medical Association)
Designing clinical labs
While clinical laboratories are among the most important spaces hospitals and related health care
facilities may operate, their functional designs are sometimes less noticed than those of higher
profile areas.
However, technological breakthroughs that are changing the way clinical laboratories function
are attracting the attention of the health care industry’s top designers as they help these spaces to
play an important role in improving the flow of staff and specimens.
Four major changes
Key components of these breakthroughs are four major changes that are contributing to
improved clinical laboratory efficiencies and helping hospitals to answer new challenges.
As lab work continues to move away from manual bench testing to increasingly more automated
processes, for instance, open-plan designs are providing the flexibility necessary for labs to
easily add analyzers or adapt to provide more efficient workflows.
Likewise, as attention to possible threats from new and emerging infectious diseases and
bioterrorism increases, designs with the architecture and engineering features needed to isolate
and safely handle biohazardous materials are more important than ever, facilitating a rise in the
construction of Biosafety Level 3 (BSL-3) containment environments.
And, with the emergence of molecular testing as a new tool for diagnosing and treating disease,
labs are being designed to prevent the contamination of specimens used in this type of analysis.
1 Open-plan designs. In the past, clinical laboratories were compartmentalized. Labs were
designed for manual bench testing, with techs working in separate, walled-off environments.
Many hospital labs are now struggling with the physical layout of their spaces. Across the United
States, hospitals with older labs are faced with the prospect of tearing down walls or built-in
cabinetry to expand operations or add new equipment.
The latest lab designs feature wide-open spaces. With the open plan or big room concept, a lab is
built with no interior walls to allow the layout to be reconfigured as necessary. Power, data and
gases are mounted overhead, rather than provided through the floor or walls. Modular casework,
which often is equipped with wheels for easy relocation, is used in place of fixed cabinetry.
Sinks and floor drains, which cannot be moved without major construction, are placed in areas
that are unlikely to change, such as aisle walkways. Drains also can be installed in a regular grid
formation throughout the lab, to be capped or uncapped as needed. This arrangement is
especially useful with analyzers that require a deionized water feed and need access to a nearby
drain to discharge wastewater.
Using an open-plan design, a lab director and technician could reconfigure a portion of the lab
themselves over a weekend to add an analyzer and be up and running for testing on Monday.
There’s no need to engage a contractor or the hospital’s construction services department to put
up temporary barriers, cut down gypsum board and stud walls, or reroute plumbing. Hospitals
don’t have to develop phasing plans or suspend operations to update lab workspace.
Many hospital clinical labs are adopting Lean operational models to prevent errors and wasted
movement, wasted space, wasted energy and wasted time. Open-plan labs help to facilitate the
implementation and continued operational goals of Lean design.
Open-plan lab design and movable casework are also useful for new instrument validation.
Before making the final decision to buy a new analyzer or change vendors, the lab can bring in
an analyzer for a “test drive” or to benchmark its performance against existing equipment,
without worrying about where the instrument under consideration can fit into the lab.
For instance, the lab at Huntsville (Ala.) Hospital, which opened last fall, covers 30,800 sq. ft.
over two floors. The main floor, which houses all of the 24-hour and STAT testing departments,
including the core lab, microbiology and blood bank, has an approximately 12,000-sq. ft. floor
plate. In this area, the only fixed building features are the structural columns needed to support
the roof. The floor drains are installed along a 16-foot grid so that no one location is more than 8
feet from a drain; cover plates are used to cap off drains that are not in use. On average, the
hospital lab needs to update analyzers or the physical layout of the space at least every three
years; this design is intended to maximize long-term flexibility by minimizing the amount of
work required by a contractor to rearrange the space.
Likewise, Northern Colorado Medical Center (NCMC) in Greeley, part of the Phoenix-based
Banner Health system, opened a new 14,495-sq. ft. open-plan lab last year. The hospital’s
previous lab, which was more than 30 years old, was compartmentalized, with high cabinetry
that made it difficult to see more than 5 feet across in several areas. Matt Hailey, NCMC director
of laboratory services, Banner Health, says the design interfered with communication among
techs. The new layout provides the flexibility to add or adjust the lab’s services, platforms or test
menu in the future, as well as the ability to cross-train staff members to operate more efficiently
today.
2 Automated testing. Automated testing systems, an advancing lab technology, is facilitated by
open-plan lab design. In an automated system, analyzers are arranged along a robotic track that
operates much like a conveyor belt. Depending on the number of analyzers, automated systems
may involve 50 to 60 feet of linear track bolted to the floor. The automation line functions as the
backbone of the lab. The line should be located where it won’t act as a barrier or bisect any
traffic or workflow to other, more manual testing areas of the lab. In addition, the front end, or
pre-analytic, section of the line should be placed as close as possible to where specimens come
into the lab. Ideally, a specimen processor sitting next to the lab’s pneumatic tube station will be
able to take specimens out of the tube and simply turn his or her chair to drop the specimens
directly into the inlet of the automated testing line, with no wasted movement or time.
Because most automated lab systems are scalable, they function well in labs with open-plan
designs. A lab can start, for example, with two chemistry analyzers; in a few years, the lab could
easily extend the line to include a third analyzer. Or the lab could replace an analyzer with one
that can perform a higher number of tests per hour. The open-plan design allows for modular
growth.
For instance, when NCMC opened its new lab last year, the hospital went from stand-alone
analyzers to a full-blown automated line. NCMC handles all the STAT testing for its own
emergency department and Level II trauma center, plus outreach testing for several other Banner
Health facilities in the region.
Since automating, NCMC’s volume of billable tests has risen from 610,346 to 1,017,244. Cost
and productivity metrics, as measured by Chi Solutions Inc., Ann Arbor, Mich., also have
improved. Compared with national peer group benchmarks, the lab has moved from the 77th to
the 87th percentile for total cost per test, from the 66th to the 89th percentile for labor cost per
test, and from the 86th to the 97th percentile for the number of tests per worked hour with no
additional staff.
3 Biosafety Level 3. Lab design is also being affected by a resurgence in BSL-3 containment.
Traditionally, this level of containment has been the province of large academic medical centers
and military facilities. Today, with increased concern about infectious disease following
outbreaks of severe acute respiratory syndrome, swine flu, bird flu, Ebola and Middle East
Respiratory Syndrome, as well as increased concern about bioterrorism, even small community
hospitals are becoming interested in providing this level of protection in the lab to ensure safe
handling of specimens, even if only to send them out for further testing.
McKee Medical Center, Loveland, Colo., also a member of Banner Health, recently installed a
small BSL-3 lab. The hospital does not plan to perform identification testing or culture
specimens in-house but wants to be able to safely manage suspected dangerous pathogens such
as Ebola, anthrax or multidrug-resistant tuberculosis.
BSL-3 labs require specialty design and construction. This includes nonporous materials, so
pathogens cannot, for example, get into the plywood substrate of a countertop and multiply.
Hardened epoxy-coated or protected walls are necessary so scratches in paint can’t present a
similar hazard. Plumbing and vacuum lines must be fitted with multiple vacuum breakers and all
penetrations into the room must be sealed so that pathogens cannot escape in the event of a loss
of pressure. All plumbing leaving these areas should be either thermally or chemically
disinfected. Pass-through sterilizers/autoclaves are recommended between the testing room and
the anteroom, so that everything is run through a terminal sterilizer before being thrown into the
biohazardous trash.
Specialized standard operating procedures and additional training are essential to the safe
operation of a BSL-3 lab, but proper design is just as important. The architecture and mechanical
and plumbing systems have to be designed appropriately to ensure safety.
4 Molecular testing. Another recent medical advance that’s influencing the design of clinical
labs is molecular testing. Molecular diagnostics and testing quickly are replacing traditional
microbiology and are the fastest-growing areas of the clinical lab. Molecular testing is an
essential component of personalized medicine, which is based on a patient’s individual genetic
makeup.
With molecular testing, lab techs can, for example, directly test the blood of a patient with a
suspected systemic blood infection. It’s not necessary to incubate a specimen for a lengthy
period. Directly testing a blood sample for DNA markers from specific organisms can produce
results in an afternoon, rather than overnight or over several days. Based on specific genetic
markers in the sample, techs can determine what type of bacteria, virus or parasite is present and
whether or not it’s carrying, say, the genes for amoxicillin resistance.
Molecular testing also can be used to identify cancer markers in tissue samples. Instead of
sending a sample of a suspected cancer to an anatomical pathology lab for overnight tissue
processing and review by a pathologist, the tissue can be tested directly for specific genetic
mutations that can reveal exactly what type of tumor is present. The tumor then can be treated
using the best chemotherapy for that type of mutation; a database matching cancers to effective
chemotherapies is under development.
Pharmacogenomics is another promising area for molecular testing. Some people metabolize
medicines differently than others, due to their genetic makeup. A medicine may work for one
patient but not another, or may present negative side effects, based on an individual’s genes.
Molecular testing can help to establish, for example, whether a patient would be better served by
chemotherapy or an immunotherapy treatment. This is medicine targeted at a specific patient’s
immune system, body chemistry or condition.
Large volumes of specimens aren’t needed for molecular testing. Specimens are amplified during
the process so that certain genes or portions of DNA that normally occur in small numbers are
multiplied up to tens of millions of times. To avoid contaminating specimens — and then
amplifying that contamination — a controlled lab environment is needed. The front-end
extraction and amplification process requires a specific type of environment and specific
unidirectional workflow to avoid contamination.
Simply converting an old manager’s office into an extraction room and a storage room halfway
across the lab to be the amplification room won’t work; a specimen or tech should never pass
back through an area until after the specimen has been amplified and stabilized. Extraction and
amplification rooms should be built in a linear fashion, with features like pass-through cabinetry
and interlock doors that allow only one door to be opened at a time, to minimize the risk of
cross-contaminating or recontaminating a specimen.
Air handling and room finishes are critical to the success of molecular testing. A single speck of
dust can carry bacteria that will contaminate a specimen. Seamless floors with cove bases;
monolithic ceilings; and impervious, easily cleanable materials help keep extraction and
amplification rooms free of potential contaminants. While the primary goal of typical BSL
containment found in other lab testing areas is to protect the staff and environment from the
specimens, the goal of molecular testing rooms is to protect the specimens themselves from
contamination by the staff and environment.
Long-term success
Well-designed clinical labs provide ample space for maximum flexibility to enable labs to grow,
change and adapt into the future. They also provide the infrastructure and layout needed to take
advantage of the latest developments in technology and medicine. Sufficient power and data,
robust heating and ventilation, careful design of engineering systems and the selection of
appropriate materials and finishes are critical to the long-term success of clinical labs.
laboratory management technique
he management of a prep-room and laboratory environment with the various educational
demands places heavy demands on the Science and Technology support staff.
Managers are not born. You have to acquire and develop the skills somehow. This is achieved
either by on-the-job experience, specific training and normally this is usually a combination of
both.
A technician may find that he/she has a level of responsibility for several laboratories by virtue
of;
 Lone working - the only technician within the department.
 Promoted into the role of Senior technician
 Started work in a new school as a Senior technician.
 Responsibility delegated/forced upon the technician individual by line management.
Whatever the reason, we all have to employ management skills in our jobs to varying degrees.
You may not have realised it!
The range of these skills (and therefore the work that a technician undertakes) is extremely
complex and this is covered in more detail in CLEAPSS Guide L228 - Technicians and their
jobs.
In general, the main skills break down as follows;
 Planning and Organisational Skills
 There are three levels to consider here;
 Strategic - Extremely Long term (3 - 5 years). Very few (if any) technicians. Mostly
Higher line management staff eg., HOD/Head of Science
 Intermediate - Slightly less time period (termly/annually) eg., stock ordering,
training & appraisal. Mostly carried out by senior (Level) 4 technicians
  Operational - The day to day work that we do. Generally carried out all Level 2/3
technicans
 Communication - We consider here both verbal, written and the use of technology
 Internally with other technicians, or line management.
 Externally with suppliers, other technicians, reps etc.,
 Supervisory and Management
 Time Management
 Discipline of subordinate staff
 Possibly handling grievances
 Managing work-flows
 Carrying out appraisal on performance to subordinates
 Providing timely feedback
 Teamwork and team building
 Health and Safety
 Good Housekeeping
 Knowledge
 Good storage
 Safe working practices
 Technical & Specialist skills (NVQ)
 Setting up apparatus
 A Level of understanding of Science proportional to the needs of the task
 Recruitment, Training & development
 Induction and training of staff see CLEAPSS L234
 Monitoring the effectiveness of training
 Arranging training for staff
 Recruitment
 Leadership.
 Demonstrating a positive working style and ethos to the job, people within the job and
the objectives of the job.
 Obtaining relevant and timely information and providing the same to others.
 Group and Personal needs
GENERAL PRINCIPAL
Lab Management. ... Adding to the irony is the fact that they typically receive very
little management training. Running a lab poses many challenges, includingmanaging people,
projects, and finances and establishing workplace practices that encourage productivity, safety,
ethics, and high employee morale.
Component and function of laboratory
 Anatomic pathology: units included here are histopathology, cytopathology, and electron
microscopy. Academically, each unit is studied alone in one course. Other courses pertaining
to this section include anatomy, physiology, histology, pathology, and pathophysiology.
 Clinical pathology, which includes:
 Clinical Microbiology: This encompasses five different sciences (units). These
include bacteriology, virology, parasitology, immunology, and mycology.
 Clinical Chemistry: Units under this busy section include instrumental analysis of blood
components, enzymology, toxicology and endocrinology.
 Hematology: This section consists of automated and manual analysis of blood cells. It
includes two subunits, which are coagulation and blood bank.
 Genetics is also studied along with a subspecialty known as cytogenetics.
 Reproductive biology: Semen analysis, Sperm bank and assisted reproductive
technology.
Distribution of clinical laboratories in health institutions varies greatly from one place to another.
For instance, for microbiology, some health facilities have a single laboratory for microbiology,
while others have a separate lab for each unit, with nothing called a "microbiology" lab.

Laboratory equipment forhematology (black analyser) andurinalysis (left of the open centrifuge).
The following is a detailed breakdown of the responsibilities of each unit:
 Microbiology receives almost any clinical specimen, including
swabs, feces, urine, blood, sputum, cerebrospinal fluid, synovial fluid, as well as possible
infected tissue. The work here is mainly concerned with cultures, to look for suspected
pathogens which, if found, are further identified based on biochemical tests. Also, sensitivity
testing is carried out to determine whether the pathogen is sensitive or resistant to a
suggested medicine. Results are reported with the identified organism(s) and the type and
amount of drug(s) that should be prescribed for the patient.
 Parasitology responsible for examining parasites, feces samples may be examined for
evidence of intestinal parasites such as tapeworms or hookworms and others.
 Virology is concerned with identification of viruses in specimens such as blood, urine,
and cerebrospinal fluid.
 Hematology works with whole blood to do full blood counts, and blood films as well as
many other specialised tests.
 Coagulation requires citrated blood samples to analyze blood clotting times and coagulation
factors.
 Clinical Biochemistry usually receives serum or plasma. They test the serum for chemicals
present in blood. These include a wide array of substances, such as lipids, blood
sugar, enzymes, and hormones.
 Toxicology mainly tests for pharmaceutical and recreational drugs. Urine and blood samples
are submitted to this lab.
 Immunology/Serology uses the concept of antigen-antibody interaction as a diagnostic tool.
Compatibility of transplanted organs is also determined.
 Immunohaematology, or Blood bank determines blood groups, and performs compatibility
testing on donor blood and recipients. It also prepares blood components, derivatives, and
products for transfusion. Regulated by the FDA since giving blood is considered a drug, this
unit determines a patient's blood type and Rh status, checks for antibodies to common
antigens found on red blood cells, and cross matches units that are negative for the antigen.
 Urinalysis tests urine for many analytes. Some health care providers have a urinalysis
laboratory, while others don't. Instead, each component of the urinalysis is performed at the
corresponding unit. If measuring urine chemicals is required, the specimen is processed in
the clinical biochemistry lab, but if cell studies are indicated, the specimen should be
submitted to the cytopathology lab, and so on.
 Histopathology processes solid tissue removed from the body (biopsies) for evaluation at the
microscopic level.
 Cytopathology examines smears of cells from all over the body (such as from the cervix) for
evidence of inflammation, cancer, and other conditions.
 Electron microscopy prepares specimens and takes micrographs of very fine details by
means of TEM and SEM.
 Genetics mainly performs DNA analysis.
 Cytogenetics involves using blood and other cells to get a karyotype. This can be helpful in
prenatal diagnosis (e.g. Down's syndrome) as well as in cancer (some cancers have
abnormal chromosomes).
 Surgical pathology examines organs, limbs, tumors, fetuses, and other tissues biopsied in
surgery such as breast mastectomies.
LABORATORY STAFF

Medical laboratory staff[edit]

Clinical laboratory in a Hospital setting with two technologists shown.
The staff of clinical laboratories may include:
 Pathologist
 Clinical Biochemist
 Pathologists' Assistant (PA)
 Biomedical Scientist (BMS) in the UK, Medical Laboratory Scientist (MT, MLS or CLS) in
the US or Medical Laboratory Technologistin Canada
 Medical Laboratory Technician (MLT in US)
 Medical Laboratory Assistant (MLA)
 Phlebotomist (PBT)
 Histotechnologist/Histology Technician

job specification
Sample processing will usually start with a set of samples and a request form.
Typically a set of vacutainer tubes containing blood, or any other specimen, will arrive to the
laboratory in a small plastic bag, along with the form.
The form and the specimens are given a laboratory number. The specimens will usually all
receive the same number, often as a sticker that can be placed on the tubes and form. This label
has a barcode that can be scanned by automated analyzers and test requests uploaded from
the LIS. Entry of requests onto a laboratory management system involves typing, or scanning
(where barcodes are used) in the laboratory number, and entering the patient identification, as
well as any tests requested. This allows laboratory machines, computers and staff to know what
tests are pending, and also gives a place (such as a hospital department, doctor or other customer)
for results to go.
For biochemistry samples, blood is usually centrifuged and serum is separated. If the serum
needs to go on more than one machine, it can be divided into separate tubes.
Many specimens end up in one or more sophisticated automated analysers, that process a fraction
of the sample and return one or more "results". Some laboratories use robotic sample handlers
(Laboratory automation) to optimize the workflow and reduce contamination risk and sample
handling of the staff.
The work flow in a lab is usually heavy from 2:00 am to 10:00 am. Nurses and doctors generally
have their patients tested at least once a day with general complete blood counts and chemistry
profiles. These orders are then drawn during a morning run by phlebotomists for results to be
available in the patient's charts for the attending physicians to consult during their morning
rounds. Another busy time for the lab is after 3:00 pm when private practice physician offices are
closing. Couriers will pick up specimens that have been drawn throughout the day and deliver
them to the lab. Also, couriers will stop at outpatient drawing centers and pick up specimens.
These specimens will be processed in the evening and overnight to ensure results will be
available the following day.

work schedule
According to ISO 15189 norm, all pathological results must be verified by a competent
professional. In some countries staff like clinical scientists do the majority of this work inside the
laboratory with abnormal results referred to the relevant pathologist. In others, only medical staff
(pathologist or clinical biologist) is concerned by this phase. It can be assisted by some software
in order to validate normal or non modified results. Medical staff are sometimes also required in
order to explain pathology results tophysicians. For a simple result given by phone or for a
technical problem it's a medical technologist or medical lab scientist explaining it to a registered
nurse.
Departments in some countries are exclusively directed by a specialized pathologist, in others a
consultant, medical or non-medical, may be the Head of Department. Clinical scientists have the
right to interpret and discuss pathology results in their discipline in many countries, in Europe
they are qualified to at least Masters level, may have a PhD and can have an exit qualification
equivalent to medical staff (e.g., FRCPath in the UK). In France, only medical staff
(Pharm.D. and M.D. specialized in anatomical pathology orclinical biology) can discuss
pathological results,

care of glass wear, instrument and glasswear

 Tips for Proper Lab Equipment Maintenance

Proper maintenance of equipment is of the utmost importance in any laboratory—

contamination can stop a project in its tracks or invalidate lab results altogether. While
maintenance is generally one of the most expensive operating costs in a laboratory’s budget,
they are simply necessary for proper operation. This article will explore tips on properly
maintaining lab equipment. First, let’s take a look at the role of lab technicians.

Lab Technicians: An Important Role

Laboratory technicians can be found in a variety of settings, from the pharmaceutical industry,
to education, to the medical industry, to government-run organizations. The tasks a lab
technician performs often depend on the specific needs of their industry and employer. Duties
can include:

 Receiving, recording, and conducting tests on samples and specimens

 Cleaning and maintaining laboratory equipment
 Working with and ensuring proper handling and storage of chemicals
 Running reports and performing database updates

Many lab technicians also have the important responsibility of keeping the lab clean, organized,
and well maintained. This can involve cataloging equipment, and sanitizing surfaces and
equipment before and after use, as well as disposing of lab specimens, chemicals, and bio-
hazardous waste in accordance with applicable laws.

Medical/Clinical Laboratory Technicians

Medical and clinical laboratory technicians play an important role in the healthcare process.
Their work aids doctors in the prevention, early detection, and diagnosis of diseases like
diabetes, infectious diseases, and cancer. Medical lab technicians typically work under the
supervision of a physician, medical technologist, or lab manager, and perform various
laboratory tests and other functions. Areas in which medical lab technicians may specialize
include:

 Microbiology
 Immunology
 Hematology
 Molecular biology
 Cytotechonology
 Clinical chemistry

Medical lab technicians perform various functions, including preparing specimens and
collecting and analyzing blood, urine, and tissue samples. Lab technicians may match blood
compatibility for transfusions, set up and sanitize laboratories, log data from tests, and update
patient medical records. They are often required to handle sophisticated lab equipment,
including microscopes, centrifuges, hydrometers, automated analyzers, and cell counters.
 Keeping the Lab Sterile and Organized

To avoid cross-contamination and ensure accurate results, organization and proper sanitation of
lab supplies are critical. Let’s take a look at some best practices in the laboratory environment.

Protective Clothing and Gear

 The workplace should be sanitized and well lit
 Lab technicians should always wear a lab coat, mask, lab gloves, and goggles when handling
specimens
 Heavy-duty protective gear should be worn when working with potentially hazardous
chemicals or when cleaning equipment used to hold noxious chemicals that can damage the
eyes, skin, and mucous membranes.

Cleaning Laboratory Glassware

Clean, sterile glassware is absolutely essential, especially in a medical laboratory setting.

Contamination can result in erroneous test results. All glassware needs to be completely free of
grease and other contaminants.

It’s especially important to make sure glassware is clean when it’s being used to measure the
volume of liquids. Grease or other contaminants will prevent the glass from becoming
uniformly wetted. This will prevent the liquid from adhering uniformly to the walls, which can
result in incorrect volume measurements.

Here are some tips for cleaning glassware:

 Use a detergent designed for lab glassware, such as Alconox or Liquinox.

 Generally speaking, rinse glassware in the proper solvent, followed by several rinses with
distilled water and, finally, rinses with deionized water.
 For common lab chemicals that are water soluble (e.g. sucrose solution), rinse glassware three
to four times with deionized water followed by a final rinse with distilled water.
 For common lab chemicals that are water insoluble solutions (e.g. hexane), rinse two to three
times with ethanol or acetone, followed by three to four rinses with deionized water.
 Glassware with stuck-on, water insoluble residues should be scrubbed thoroughly with a brush.
 For strong acids (e.g. hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid), carefully rinse the glassware under the
fume hood with tap water, and then rinse several times with deionized water.
 For weak acids (e.g. acetic acid, nitrous acid, and dilutions of strong acids), rinse several times
with deionized water.
 For strong bases (e.g. sodium hydroxide), carefully rinse the glassware under a fume hood
with tap water, and then rinse several times with deionized water.
 For weak bases (e.g. ammonia), rinse with tap water, and then rise three to four times with
deionized water
 Always start with gentle solvents before moving on to more aggressive methods.

Drying (or Not Drying) Glassware

Drying glassware with paper towels or using forced air is inadvisable, as these methods
can introduce fibers and impurities that can cause contamination of a solution. Allow
glassware to air dry on the shelf. Leaving glassware wet is fine if you plan to add water to
it shortly thereafter—however, note that this could impact the concentration of the final
solution.

If glassware needs to be used immediately, or soon after washing, but must be dry before
use, rinse it two to three times with acetone, which will remove any water, and the acetone
will dry quickly.

General Safety Rules in the Lab

 Ensure chemicals, specimens, and samples are well marked and organized.
 Never pipette with your mouth! Regardless of the substance—even if it’s only water—you
should never pipette by mouth. Use an automated pipette or pipette bulb.
 Always dress appropriately—long pants are preferable to shorts or short skirts; no sandals; and
no contact lenses. Always wear safety goggles and a lab coat.
 Learn how to use safety equipment, including eyewash, shower, fire blankets, fire
extinguishers, etc.
 Never eat and drink in the lab, as tempting as it may be. Food and drinks can cause
contamination or become contaminated.
 Dispose of chemicals properly. While some chemicals can legally be washed down the drain,
others require special handling. Know which chemicals are safe to be washed down the drain.
 If you feel dizzy or sick while working in the lab, especially near the fume hood, leave the lab
and report your symptoms to your supervisor immediately.
 If you spill mercury or break a thermometer, don’t clean it up unless you’ve received special
training. Otherwise, call the appropriate clean-up crew.

Properly maintaining and cleaning lab equipment, and exercising safety rules in the lab, will
help you avoid contamination and accidents and ensure safety and efficiency.

Principal of cleaning
For getting successful results from the experiments performed in a laboratory, it is essential that
the lab glassware gets perfectly cleaned. However cleaning laboratory glassware is not a very
easy task. Laboratory glassware cleaning has to be done physically as well as chemically so that
they become free of any germs.

However it is to be kept in mind that as such there is no single best laboratory glassware cleaning
solution that can be termed as the "best" for all conditions.

LABORATORY GLASSWARE CLEANING BASICS

Laboratory Glassware Cleaning
If the lab glassware is cleaned immediately after use then the
problems associated with dirt can be controlled to a great extent.
If detergent is used for laboratory glassware washing, it should
be the one that is specially designed for lab glassware cleaning.
These detergents are always to be used in place of the normal
dish washing detergents used in homes.

It has been seen that for cleaning lab glasswares most of the times there is no requirement of
detergents or tap water. What is needed is rinsing by the appropriate solvent and a couple of
rinses with distilled water. This is enough for cleaning laboratory glassware.

However removing grease while cleaning laboratory glassware is not that easy. Grease can be
removed by boiling the lab glassware in a very weak solution of sodium carbonate. Alternately
acetone or any other fat solvent can also be applied. Strong alkalis are not preferred and should
be avoided. For removal of Silicone, grease soaking the glassware in decahydronaphthalene for
at least for 2 hours is the only solution. A word of caution here- in case the lab glasswares are
cleaned using hands then to prevent cuts heavy gloves should be worn. Glassware cuts are very
common and can be serious. Glasswares used in the lab can be cleaned by hand washing or by
using washing equipment of various types. In this section washing by hand is described.

care and cleaning of glasswear

Here are given some important points, which should be followed while cleaning the glass joints
 Dust in glass joints may cause leakage. So all types of glass joints should be kept
completely free from dirt.
 The glass joints should be kept free from grit because they may cause breakage.
 Glass joints should be wiped before use to make it free from foreign matter.
 Glass joints should be separated after use as soon as possible, preferably while still warm
to prevent seizure
LAB GLASSWARE CARING
Caring for laboratory glassware include a lots of things- dealing with broken lab glassware,
variations in temperatures and even proper disposal of used laboratory glassware.
Repairing of Broken Glassware
Star cracks along with other small defects can be repaired effectively at the Glass shop by a
process known as annealing. Annealing is a technique of heating glass to a specified temperature
then typically following it up with a slow cooling. Harder is the glass, higher the temperature to
be applied. Annealing can remove stress, thus making the glassware more safer and reliable.
However prior to the glassware being taken for for repair, they should be emptied and cleaned
thoroughly. If acetone or any other flammable solvents have been used, the glassware should be
rinsed with water and then dried.
Borosilicate Glass Temperatures
Washing glass labware in mechanical ovens or furnaces with a heat of more than 500 degrees for
long intervals can lead to weakening of the glass. In some cases, it may even fail. It will also
shorten the life of the glassware. Optimum temperature values are given for the Borosilicate
glasses.
 Standard use — up to 230-240°C
 Extreme use — for short intervals — 490-500°C
 Maximum temperature - 500°C
Glass Disposal
Prior to disposal of used and/or broken glassware it should be made sure that they are free
from any chemical and biological hazards. The glass should be placed in a puncture-
resistant box, labelled as “BROKEN GLASS,” and then secured properly using tape. The
box should be placed in a trash dumpster
care of instrument and equipment
Instruments used in surgery are the products of a few highly skilled craftsmen. At their best, they
not only reflect craftsmanship but a high degree of artistic ability in design. When such
Instruments are given the very special care, which they deserve, they will retain their
workmanship and function well for long.

1. Treatment of brand new Instruments

Brand new instruments must be cleaned before the first sterilization or use. Protective
 caps and protective films must be removed completely, for example in the case of chisels,
raspatories or microsurgical instruments.
2. After Use
a. For machine cleaning, place instrument in a wire basket suitable for the cleaning
process (make sure cleaning solution and rinse water from machine comes into
contact with all parts of instrument).
b. Completely dismantle any dismantable instruments.
c. Preferably dry disposal. For wet disposal, use an active cleaning disinfectant.
Rinse the instrument thoroughly with clear, flowing water before machine
cleaning and disinfection.
d. If necessary, treat with ultrasound according to the manufacture's instructions:
i. For effective mechanical support during manual cleaning.
ii. For pre-treatment of instruments with dried-on grime before machine
cleaning.
iii. Microsurgical instruments and instruments with fine working ends should
not be treated with ultrasound. They should be cleaned either manually or
in the washing machine. In case of cleaning in a machine please use a
suitable storage rack.
e. Clean manually or in a machine. Follow manufacturer's instructions.
3. Manual Cleaning / Disinfection
a. Place instrument into a suitable disinfectant with active cleaning properties so that
all surfaces, inner cavities, lumens and openings come into contact with the
solution.
b. Follow the disinfectant manufacturer's instructions. After chemical disinfection,
always rinse thoroughly with clear, flowing water. Follow the instructions
provided by the manufacturer of disinfectant.
c. Remove any dirt still clinging to the instrument with a soft synthetic brush. Do
not use a scouring or metal brush.
d. Clean any lumens and conduits with soft, round, synthetic brushes. Please note,
the lumen and the brush must have the same diameter.
e. Final rinsing to be done with distilled or deionized water.
f. Dry instrument with an absorbent, soft and lint-free cloth.
g. Dry lumens and conduits with compressed air.
4. Care / Testing / Storage
a. Let instrument cool down to room temperature. Lubricate movable parts (e.g.
joints and ends) slightly with special sterilization-capable, vapour-permeable
lubricant.
b. After each cleaning, disinfection process, check the instrument to make sure it is
clean, it functions properly and it has not suffered any damage, e.g. bent, broken,
fractured or worn parts.
c. Discard any damaged and defective instruments and replace.
5. Storage
a. Place instruments with the fine working end and/or microsurgery instruments in a
suitable storage racks.
b. Secure instruments with lock in the first detent.
6. Machine Cleaning / Disinfection
 a. Select the program according to the material (e.g. stainless instrument steel,
aluminium) of the instrument to be cleaned. Follow the machine manufacturer's
instructions.
b. Final rinsing to be done with deionized water.
c. Leave sufficient time for drying.
d. Remove the instrument from the machine immediately after the program is do.
Care of Laboratory Chemicals and instrument
A chemical (short for “chemical compound,” “chemical substance” or “pure substance)1 is
characterized by composition and properties2often available from the literature that do not
change with time. However, this is the concept, or virtual, or symbolic chemical, represented by
a single formula (generally conventional3) that allows the symbolic handling of the chemical,
like writing possible chemical reactions and carrying out the relative zero-order stoichiometric
calculations.
The real chemical product (i.e., chemical or product) is different because 1) its composition,
generally shown on the label of the container, only approximates that of its conventional
formula, since it necessarily contains more or less small fractions of identified (such information
is labeled “chemical speciation”4) or unidentified diverse compounds; 2) it has time-dependent
properties5 due to the fact that it is subjected to several time-dependent interactions, both of the
field and contact type. Even the most important properties—elemental and molecular
composition—may change from those shown on the long-lasting container label, which thus can
potentially provide misleading indications. Worse, composition changes, if unnoticed, may be
dangerous, and can result in errors and increased dispersion of data from related measurements.6
A chemical is designated as “degraded” when the values of the properties of interest differ from
those acceptable for the programmed use. In many cases, the concentration of particular
substances7 must be below critical, very low, limits, attainable in solids by adsorption (or
physisorption) only.8
The successful use of a chemical requires knowledge of its current composition to establish
whether it is compatible with the intended operation. To avoid the time-consuming and
potentially useless analysis of each chemical prior to each use, it is possible to circumvent or
adjust, sometimes drastically, some of the interactions listed above, and update the label to show
reliable information.
Laboratory chemicals
The time dependence of the composition of ordinary, liquid or solid9 laboratory chemicals,
packed in a container with impermeable walls and reversible closure, is taken into account by
defining for each a characteristic life cycle10 that can span several orders of magnitude, from
days to indefinite. This consists of 1) a storage time, running from the purchase or preparation to
the first opening of the container to use the chemical; 2) a service time, from first opening of the
container to end of use of the contents and 3) postuse time.
Quality preservation in the former interval rests mainly on the expertise of the vendor,
sometimes adjustable on request, for instance, of packing under inert gas.11 The normally limited
usefulness of chemicals in time led to their classification in terms of shelf life, which (under
appropriate conditions) can be excellent (>5 years), good (3–5 years), fair (1–3 years), poor (<1
year)12a and the consequent expiration date.13
During the service period, parts of the contents are taken out several times, using procedures that
are dependent on the sensitivity of the product to the atmosphere. Here we concentrate on the
common handling of the product in the atmosphere, referring to published information for the
handling of the most sensitive, frequently very dangerous, products.14
Presently an enduring protective medium that permits (trained) handling in the atmosphere is
provided by vendors only in the cases of substances that are very sensitive15 to atmospheric
components. Examples are Li, Na, K (kept under mineral oil) and yellow P (kept under water).
To reduce the introduction of atmospheric moisture, but not oxygen, containers may be kept in
dessiccators. Recently a proprietary packing claimed similar results.16 The concentration of water
is kept low by the addition of insoluble dessiccants such as an appropriate molecular sieve
sometimes enclosed in a gas-permeable container attached to the cap, known as a water trap.
The effects of atmospheric oxygen are generally kept to a minimum by the addition of stabilizers
(hydroquinone, H3PO2, 2,6-di-t-butyl-4 methyl phenol or BTU). Contamination by atmospheric
components is prevented in closed, dedicated systems for high-purity liquids.17 However, the
only published device and procedure usable for opening and closing the container of liquids in
the atmosphere that is very sensitive to atmospheric components is that described in Ref. 18. For
normal chemicals, we found that simpler practices, indicated below, meet most needs, provided
adequate attention is given to the cap and the volume of the containers.
The “postuse time” basically consists of checking and/or purifying for a new storage period, or
disposing of the remaining product. In the laboratory, this phase can easily be minimized.
Laboratory personnel should be certain that all electrical equipment is well maintained, properly
located, and safely used. To do this, review the following precautions and make the necessary
adjustments prior to working in the laboratory:
 Insulate all electrical equipment properly. Visually inspect all electrical cords monthly,
especially in any laboratory where flooding can occur. Keep in mind that rubber-covered
cords can be eroded by organic solvents, ozone (produced by ultraviolet lamps), and
long-term air oxidation.
 Properly replace all frayed or damaged cords before any further use of the equipment is
permitted. Qualified personnel should conduct the replacement.
 Ensure the complete electrical isolation of electrical equipment and power supplies.
Enclose all power supplies in a manner that makes accidental contact with power circuits
impossible. In every experimental setup, including temporary ones, use suitable barriers
or enclosures to protect against accidental contact with electrical circuits.
 Many laboratory locations are classified under fire and electrical codes with a mandate
for nonsparking explosion-proof motors and electrical equipment. Areas where large
amounts of flammable solvents are in use also require explosion-proof lighting and
electrical fixtures. The owners of such facilities are responsible for ensuring that all
electrical equipment and fixtures meet these codes and regulations.
 Equip motor-driven electrical equipment used in a laboratory where volatile flammable
materials may be present with either nonsparking induction motors that meet Class 1,
Division 2, Group C-D electrical standards (Earley, 2008; NFPA, 2008) or air motors
instead of series-wound motors that use carbon brushes, such as those generally used in
vacuum pumps, mechanical shakers, stirring motors, magnetic stirrers, and rotary
evaporators. Do not use variable autotransformers to control the speed of an induction
motor. The speed of an induction motor is determined by the AC frequency rather than
the voltage. Thus, using a variable autotransformer that controls voltage and not
frequency could cause the motor to overheat and presents a fire hazard.
  Because series-wound motors cannot be modified to make them spark-free, do not use
appliances (e.g., kitchen refrigerators, mixers, and blenders) with such motors in
laboratories where flammable materials may be present.
 When bringing ordinary electrical equipment such as vacuum cleaners and portable
electric drills having series-wound motors into the laboratory for special purposes, take
specific precautions to ensure that no flammable vapors are present before such
equipment is used (see Chapter 6, section 6.G).
 Locate electrical equipment to minimize the possibility of spills onto the equipment or
flammable vapors carried into it. If water or any chemical is spilled on electrical
equipment, shut off the power immediately at a main switch or circuit breaker and unplug
the apparatus using insulated rubber gloves.
 Minimize condensation that may enter electrical equipment if it is placed in a cold room
or a large refrigerator. Cold rooms pose a particular risk in this respect because the
atmosphere is frequently at a high relative humidity, and the potential for water
condensation is significant.
 If electrical equipment must be placed in such areas, mount the equipment on a wall or
vertical panel. This precaution reduces, but does not eliminate, the effects of
condensation.
 Condensation can also cause electrical equipment to overheat, smoke, or catch fire. In
such a case, shut off the power to the equipment immediately at a main switch or circuit
breaker and unplug the apparatus using insulated rubber gloves.
 To minimize the possibility of electrical shock, carefully ground the equipment using a
suitable flooring material, and install GFCIs.
Labelling
Labelling or labeling is describing someone or something in a word or short phrase.[1] For
example, describing someone who has broken a law as a criminal. Labelling theory is a theory
in sociology which ascribes labelling of people to control and identification of deviant behaviour.
It has been argued that labelling is necessary for communication.[2] However, the use of the term
is often intended to highlight the fact that the label is a description applied from the outside,
rather than something intrinsic to the labelled thing. This can be done for several reasons:
 To provoke a discussion about what the best description is
 To reject a particular label
 To reject the whole idea that the labelled thing can be described in a short phrase.
This last usage can be seen as an accusation that such a short description is overly-reductive.
Giving something a label can be seen as positive, but the term label is not usually used in this
case. For example, giving a name to a common identity is seen as essential inidentity politics.
Labelling is often equivalent to pigeonholing or the use of stereotypes and can suffer from the
same problems as these activities.
The labelling of people can be related to a reference group. For example, the
labels black and white are related to black people and white people; the labels young and old are
related to young people and old people.
The labelling of works of art can be related to genre. For example, a piece of music may be
described as progressive rock or indie or ragga jungle drum and bass. However, there are other
labels that can be applied to a work, such as derivative, low or high. The use of the word
labelling is less common in the context of works of art than people. However, it also often
represents the rejection of a label. For example, an artist may feel that the labeller is attempting
to restrict the scope of the artist's work to that which is covered by the label.

Laboratory safety

Many laboratories contain significant risks, and the prevention of laboratory accidents requires
great care and constant vigilance. Examples of risk factors include high voltages, high and low
pressures and temperatures, corrosive and toxic chemicals, and biohazards including infective
organisms and their toxins.
Measures to protect against laboratory accidents include safety training and enforcement of
laboratory safety policies, safety review of experimental designs, the use ofpersonal protective
equipment, and the use of the buddy system for particularly risky operations.
In many countries, laboratory work is subject by health and safety legislation. In some cases,
laboratory activities can also present environmental health risks, for example, the accidental or
deliberate discharge of toxic or infective material from the laboratory into the environment.

general principal
Hazardous chemicals present physical and/or health threats to workers in clinical,
industrial, and academic laboratories. Laboratory chemicals include cancer-causing agents
(carcinogens), toxins (e.g., those affecting the liver, kidney, and nervous system), irritants,
corrosives, sensitizers, as well as agents that act on the blood system or damage
the lungs, skin, eyes, or mucous membranes.

laboratory hazards
Biological agents and biological toxins[edit]
Many laboratory workers encounter daily exposure to biological hazards. These hazards are
present in various sources throughout the laboratory such as blood and body fluids, culture
specimens, body tissue and cadavers, and laboratory animals, as well as other workers.
These are federally regulated biological agents (e.g., viruses, bacteria, fungi, and prions) and
toxins that have the potential to pose a severe threat to public health and safety, to animal or
plant health, or to animal or plant products.[2][3]
1. Anthrax - Anthrax is an acute infectious disease caused by a spore-forming bacterium
called Bacillus anthracis.
2. Avian Flu - Avian influenza is caused by Influenza A viruses.
3. Botulism - Cases of botulism are usually associated with consumption of preserved
foods.
4. Foodborne Disease - Foodborne illnesses are caused by viruses, bacteria, parasites,
toxins, metals, and prions (microscopic protein particles). Symptoms range from mild
gastroenteritis to life-threatening neurologic, hepatic and renal syndromes.
5. Hantavirus - Hantaviruses are transmitted to humans from the dried droppings, urine, or
saliva of mice and rats.
6. Legionnaires’ Disease - Legionnaires’ disease is a bacterial disease commonly
associated with water-based aerosols.
7. Molds and Fungi - Molds and fungi produce and release millions of spores small enough
to be air, water, or insect-borne which may have negative effects on human health
including, allergic reactions, asthma, and other respiratory problems.
 8. Plague - The World Health Organization reports 1,000 to 3,000 cases of plague every
year. A bioterrorist release of plague could result in a rapid spread of the pneumonic
form of the disease, which could have devastating consequences.
9. Ricin - Ricin is one of the most toxic and easily produced plant toxins. It has been used
in the past as a bioterrorist weapon and remains a serious threat.
10. Smallpox - Smallpox is a highly contagious disease unique to humans. It is estimated
that no more than 20 percent of the population has any immunity from previous
vaccination.
11. Tularemia - Tularemia is also known as "rabbit fever" or "deer fly fever" and is
extremely infectious. Relatively few bacteria are required to cause the disease, which is
why it is an attractive weapon for use in bioterrorism.
Physical hazards and others[edit]
Besides exposure to chemicals and biological agents, laboratory workers can also be exposed to
a number of physical hazards. Some of the common physical hazards that they may encounter
include the following: ergonomic, ionizing radiation, non-ionizing radiation and noise hazards.
Ergonomic Hazards[edit]
Laboratory workers are at risk for repetitive motion injuries during routine laboratory procedures
such as pipetting, working at microscopes, operating microtomes, using cell counters and
keyboarding at computer workstations. Repetitive motion injuries develop over time and occur
when muscles and joints are stressed, tendons are inflamed, nerves are pinched and the flow of
blood is restricted. Standing and working in awkward positions in front of laboratory
hoods/biological safety cabinets can also present ergonomic problems.[4][5]
Ionizing Radiation[edit]
Danger radiation zone warning sign
Ionizing radiation sources are found in a wide range of occupational settings, including
laboratories. These radiation sources can pose a considerable health risk to affected workers if
not properly controlled. Any laboratory possessing or using radioactive isotopes must be licensed
by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) and/or by a state agency that has been approved
by the NRC, 10 CFR 31.11 and 10 CFR 35.12.[6]
The fundamental objectives of radiation protection measures are:
1. to limit entry of radionuclides into the human body (via ingestion, inhalation, absorption,
or through open wounds) to quantities as low as reasonably achievable (ALARA) and
always within the established limits;
1.
to limit exposure to external radiation to levels that are within established dose limits and
as far below these limits as is reasonably achievable.

safety programme
Safety hazards[edit]
Autoclaves and sterilizers[edit]
Workers should be trained to recognize the potential for exposure to burns or cuts that can occur
from handling or sorting hot sterilized items or sharp instruments when removing them
from autoclaves/sterilizers or from steam lines that service the autoclaves.[7]
Centrifuges[edit]
Centrifuges, due to the high speed at which they operate, have great potential for injuring users
if not operated properly. Unbalanced centrifuge rotors can result in injury, even death. Sample
container breakage can generate aerosols that may be harmful if inhaled. The majority of all
centrifuge accidents are the result of user error.
Compressed gases[edit]
Compressed gas cylinders.mapp and oxygen.triddle
Laboratory standard for compressed gas
1. Is a gas or mixture of gases in a container having an absolute pressure exceeding 40
pounds per square inch (psi) at 70 °F (21.1 °C); or[8]
2. Is a gas or mixture of gases having an absolute pressure exceeding 104 psi at 130 °F
(54.4 °C) regardless of the pressure at 70 °F (21.1 °C); or[8]
3. Is a liquid having a vapor pressure exceeding 40 psi at 100 °F (37.8 °C) as determined by
ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials)
Within laboratories, compressed gases are usually supplied either through fixed piped gas
systems or individual cylinders of gases. Compressed gases can
be toxic, flammable, oxidizing, corrosive, or inert. Leakage of any of these gases can be
hazardous.[9]
Store, handle, and use compressed gases[edit]
 All cylinders whether empty or full must be stored upright.[10]
 Secure cylinders of compressed gases. Cylinders should never be dropped or allowed to
strike each other with force.[10]
 Transport compressed gas cylinders with protective caps in place and do not roll or drag the
cylinders.[10]
Cryogens and dry ice[edit]
Cryogens, substances used to produce very low temperatures [below -153 °C (-243 °F)], such
as liquid nitrogen (LN2) which has a boiling point of -196 °C (-321 °F), are commonly used in
laboratories.[11]
Although not a cryogen, solid carbon dioxide or dry ice which converts directly to carbon
dioxide gas at -78 °C (-109 °F) is also often used in laboratories. Shipments packed with dry ice,
samples preserved with liquid nitrogen, and in some cases, techniques that use cryogenic liquids,
such as cryogenic grinding of samples, present potential hazards in the laboratory.[11]
Hand protection is required to guard against the hazard of touching cold surfaces. It is
recommended that Cryogen Safety Gloves be used by the worker.[12][13]
Eye protection is required at all times when working with cryogenic fluids. When pouring a
cryogen, working with a wide-mouth Dewar flask or around the exhaust of cold boil-off gas, use
of a full face shield is recommended.[14]
Personal protective equipments[edit]
Main article: Personal protective equipment
Personal protective equipment or PPE are equipments worn to prevent against exposure of
hazardous substances.[15] Although, PPE does not eliminate the risks of hazards but it helps
protect the user from the exposure.[16] To make a workplace safer, it should provide instructions
and training of how to use and choose proper PPE in different situations.[15]
Nitrile gloves
PPE includes:
 Long-sleeved shirts, lab coats, aprons.[14]
 goggles[14]
 Safety gloves;[14]
  There are 2 common types of safety gloves that are widely used in high school or
university laboratory, Latex and Nitrile gloves. Latex gloves have a high sensitivity
when it comes to contact and fine control which is very suitable for surgery.[17] On the
other hands, Nitrile gloves are the gloves that do not have latex protein which cost twice.
It was known as the most durable, resisted to tear and many chemicals. Beside all the
benefits, Nitrile gloves also have drawbacks since it can oxidize silver and high reactive
metals as these metals can react with sulfur.[17]Therefore, wearer should have an extra
care while wearing this type of protective gloves.
 Face shield or safety
Electrical[edit]
In the laboratory, there is the potential for workers to be exposed to electrical hazards
including electric shock, electrocutions, fires and explosions. Damaged electrical cords can lead
to possible shocks or electrocutions. A flexible electrical cord may be damaged by door or
window edges, by staples and fastenings, by equipment rolling over it, or simply by aging.[18]
The potential for possible electrocution or electric shock or contact with electrical hazards can
result from a number of factors, including the following:
 Faulty electrical equipment/instrumentation or wiring;[19]
 Damaged receptacles and connectors;[19] and
 Unsafe work practices.[19]
Fire[edit]
Fire
Fire is the most common serious hazard that one faces in a typical laboratory. While proper
procedures and training can minimize the chances of an accidental fire, laboratory workers
should still be prepared to deal with a fire emergency should it occur. In dealing with a
laboratory fire, all containers of infectious materials should be placed into autoclaves, incubators,
refrigerators, or freezers for containment.[20]
Small bench-top fires in laboratory spaces are not uncommon. Large laboratory fires are rare.
However, the risk of severe injury or death is significant because fuel load and hazard levels in
labs are typically very high. Laboratories, especially those using solvents in any quantity, have
the potential for flash fires, explosion, rapid spread of fire, and high toxicity of products of
combustion (heat, smoke, and flame)

first aid
First aid is the assistance given to any person suffering a sudden illness or injury,[1] with care
provided to preserve life, prevent the condition from worsening, or to promote recovery. It
includes initial intervention in a serious condition prior to professional medical help being
available, such as performing CPR while awaiting an ambulance, as well as the complete
treatment of minor conditions, such as applying a plaster to a cut. First aid is generally performed
by the layperson, with many people trained in providing basic levels of first aid, and others
willing to do so from acquired knowledge. Mental health first aid is an extension of the concept
of first aid to cover mental health.
There are many situations which may require first aid, and many countries have legislation,
regulation, or guidance which specifies a minimum level of first aid provision in certain
circumstances. This can include specific training or equipment to be available in the workplace
(such as an Automated External Defibrillator), the provision of specialist first aid cover at public
gatherings, or mandatory first aid training within schools. First aid, however, does not
necessarily require any particular equipment or prior knowledge, and can involve improvisation
with materials available at the time, often by untrained persons.[2]
First aid can be performed on all mammals, although this article relates to the care of human
patients.
Formalization of life saving treatments[edit]
During the late 18th century, drowning as a cause of death was a major concern amongst the
population. In 1767, a society for the preservation of life from accidents in water was started
in Amsterdam, and in 1773, physician William Hawes began publicizing the power of artificial
respiration as means of resuscitation of those who appeared drowned. This led to the formation,
in 1774, of the Society for the Recovery of Persons Apparently Drowned, later the Royal
Humane Society, who did much to promote resuscitation.[7][8]
Napoleon's surgeon, Baron Dominique-Jean Larrey, is credited with creating an ambulance corps
(the ambulance volantes), which included medical assistants, tasked to administer first aid in
battle.
In 1859 Jean-Henri Dunant witnessed the aftermath of the Battle of Solferino, and his work led
to the formation of the Red Cross, with a key stated aim of "aid to sick and wounded soldiers in
the field".[6] The Red Cross and Red Crescent are still the largest provider of first aid
worldwide.[9]
Esmarch bandage showing soldiers how to perform first aid
In 1870, Prussian military surgeon Friedrich von Esmarch introduced formalized first aid to the
military, and first coined the term "erste hilfe" (translating to 'first aid'), including training for
soldiers in the Franco-Prussian War on care for wounded comrades using pre-learnt bandaging
and splinting skills, and making use of the Esmarch bandage which he designed.[3] The bandage
was issued as standard to the Prussian combatants, and also included aide-memoire pictures
showing common uses.
In 1872, the Order of Saint John of Jerusalem in England changed its focus from hospice care,
and set out to start a system of practical medical help, starting with making a grant towards the
establishment of the UK's first ambulance service. This was followed by creating its own
wheeled transport litter in 1875 (the St John Ambulance), and in 1877 established the St John
Ambulance Association (the forerunner of modern-day St John Ambulance) "to train men and
women for the benefit of the sick and wounded".[10]
Also in the UK, Surgeon-Major Peter Shepherd had seen the advantages of von Esmarch's new
teaching of first aid, and introduced an equivalent programme for the British Army, and so being
the first user of "first aid for the injured" in English, disseminating information through a series
of lectures. Following this, in 1878, Shepherd and Colonel Francis Duncan took advantage of the
newly charitable focus of St John,[3] and established the concept of teaching first aid skills to
civilians. The first classes were conducted in the hall of the Presbyterian school in Woolwich
(near Woolwich barracks where Shepherd was based) using a comprehensive first aid
curriculum.
First aid training began to spread through the British Empire through organisations such as St
John, often starting, as in the UK, with high risk activities such as ports and railways.[11]
Aims[edit]
The key aims of first aid can be summarised in three key points, sometimes known as 'the three
P's':-[12]
 Preserve life: The overriding aim of all medical care which includes first aid, is to save lives
and minimize the threat of death.
 Prevent further harm: Prevent further harm also sometimes called prevent the condition
from worsening, or danger of further injury, this covers both external factors, such as
moving a patient away from any cause of harm, and applying first aid techniques to prevent
worsening of the condition, such as applying pressure to stop a bleed becoming dangerous.
 Promote recovery: First aid also involves trying to start the recovery process from the
illness or injury, and in some cases might involve completing a treatment, such as in the case
of applying a plaster to a small wound.

Laboratory quality control

Laboratory quality control is designed to detect, reduce, and correct deficiencies in a
laboratory's internal analytical process prior to the release of patient results, in order to improve
the quality of the results reported by the laboratory. Quality control is a measure of precision, or
how well the measurement system reproduces the same result over time and under varying
operating conditions. Laboratory quality control material is usually run at the beginning of each
shift, after an instrument is serviced, when reagent lots are changed, after calibration, and
whenever patient results seem inappropriate.[1] Quality control material should approximate the
same matrix as patient specimens, taking into account properties such as viscosity, turbidity,
composition, and color. It should be simple to use, with minimal vial to vial variability, because
variability could be misinterpreted as systematic error in the method or instrument. It should be
stable for long periods of time, and available in large enough quantities for a single batch to last
at least one year. Liquid controls are more convenient than lyophilized controls because they do
not have to be reconstituted minimizing pipetting error.
Interpretation[edit]
Interpretation of quality control data involves both graphical and statistical methods. Quality
control data is most easily visualized using a Levey-Jennings chart. The dates of analyses are
plotted along the X-axis and control values are plotted on the Y-axis. The mean and one, two,
and three standard deviation limits are also marked on the Y-axis. Inspecting the pattern of
plotted points provides a simple way to detect increased random error and shifts or trends in
calibration.[2]
The control charts[edit]
The control charts: a statistical approach to the study of manufacturing process variation for the
purpose of improving the economic effectiveness of the process. These methods are based on
continuous monitoring of process variation. The control chart, also known as the 'Shewhart
chart' or 'process-behavior chart' is a statistical tool intended to assess the nature of variation
in a process and to facilitate forecasting and management. A control chart is a more specific kind
of a run chart. The control chart is one of the seven basic tools of quality control which include
the histogram, pareto chart, check sheet, control chart, cause and effect diagram, flowchart and
scatter diagram. Control charts prevents unnecessary process adjustments; provides information
about process capability; provides diagnostic information and it is a proven technique for
improving productivity.

STORE ORGANIZATION
Proper chemical management and storage is essential in assuring a safe work environment
for students, staff, faculty, and visitors. These guidelines will help you manage and store
chemicals safely in your work place. More detailed information is provided in the UC Davis
Chemical and Laboratory Safety Manual.
Storage
Chemicals must be segregated and stored with regard to compatibility and hazard classification.
Storage areas must be clearly labeled. Laboratories must establish separate storage areas for each
of the following:
 Flammable and combustible organic liquids and solvents,
 Corrosive inorganic acids,
 Dry poisons, dry salts and dry oxidizers,
 Corrosive bases,
 Corrosive organic acids,
 Reactives (air)/pyrophorics,
 Reactives (water),
 Reactives (light/wavelength),
 Explosives
Cabinets or shelving should be sturdy and secured to the wall. Shelves should be fitted with a
barrier or lip at least 1-1/2 inches high to prevent chemicals from falling off the shelves.
Corrosives should be stored in wooden or plastic laminate cabinets, if possible. Metal cabinets
are not recommended for storage of corrosives. Chemicals should not be stored under the sinks
in a lab. Secondary containment is advised for liquids and for reactives; for liquids secondary
containment may be a dish pan; for reactives secondary containment may be a Ziploc baggie.
When you initially sort your chemicals for storage, cross-reference the Safety Data Sheets
(SDSs) for the incompatibilities of each chemical with other chemicals in the laboratory. A list
of incompatible chemicals is available from EH&S.
Specific storage guidelines by chemical group are included at the end of this SafetyNet.

laboratory function
Laboratory functions. A Clinical Scientist is an experienced clinical / scientific / technical
professional, who has developed their skills and theoretical knowledge to a high standard,
performing a highly complex role and continuously developing clinical, scientific or technical
practice within a defined field.
Functions of a clinical laboratory
1. 1. Functions of a Clinical LaboratoryAny medical trial or clinical research is incomplete
without a clinical laboratory. Traditionally speaking, aclinical laboratory examines and
analyses components in blood, urine and body fluids... Blood grouping& Rh typing can
also be performed. The Clinical lab has the capability to perform quantitative
andqualitative analyses of urine, blood and other fluids as explained below:- ●
Qualitative Analysis is a test that is set up to identify the constituents of a substance or
mixture. The question addressed is what is in it? ● Quantitative Analysis is a test that is
set up to understand the amounts or proportion of the substance or mixture used. The
question addressed here is how many or how much is in it?In the recent past, with
medical activities gaining momentum in India, renowned CRO’s (clinical
researchorganization) have specialized in innovative clinical laboratory services. This
 laboratory forms thefoundation of medical studies and research. Accreditation by third
parties - NABL and CAP assures highstandards of quality and testing that are
internationally acceptable.. The lab is well equipped withstate-of-the-art infrastructure
and impeccable logistics. The prominent part of a clinical laboratory isthat it deploys
highly experienced and trained personnel; Laboratory Information System is used
foronline information transfer and ensures short turnaround time with commendable
levels of quality andconsistency.Clinical laboratory services include a wide range of
investigations. They are:- ● Hematology ● Coagulation ● Biochemistry ● Serology &
Immunology ● Urine Analysis ● Hormonal assaysClinical laboratories owned by Indian
CRO’s also help in conducting Phase I study by providing thenecessary lab support.. The
study includes the following aspects:-
2. 2. ● First-in-human ● Single Ascending Dose studies ● Multiple Ascending Dose studies
● New Chemical Entities ● Dose Escalating studiesA clinical laboratory is the backbone
of all experiments and drug developments. Hence it is essential toupgrade it from time to
time with adequate resources.Read Also On: Biometrics

organization and structure

The important organizational requirements for achieving a successful quality system include the
following. • Leadership—Laboratory leaders must be fully committed to implementation of the
system, and these leaders also will need vision, team-building and motivational skills, good
communication techniques, and the ability to use resources responsibly. • Organizational
structure—The structure of the organization should be clearly defined, and this should be
reflected by a functional organizational chart with clear assignment of responsibility. • Planning
process—Skills for planning are needed, and planning should address a time frame,
responsibility for conducting the activities, the availability and use of human resources,
management of workflow, and financial resources. • Implementation—Implementation requires
that a number of issues must be addressed by the management staff. These include management
of projects and activities, directing resources to accomplish plans, and assuring that timelines are
met and goals achieved. • Monitoring—As components of the quality management system are
put in place, processes for monitoring will be needed to assure that the system is working, that
benchmarks and standards are being met. This element is essential to the primary goal of a
quality system, which is continuous improvement.
DUTIES
type of storage
Storage of Laboratory Chemicals
The following general suggestions for safe storage of chemicals in the laboratory should be
implemented.
 The quantities of chemicals that are stored within a laboratory should be minimized, as
specified by NFPA 45 and OSHA. Many authorities recommend that the NFPA
guidelines for maximum quantities and sizes of containers should be reduced to one-half
or even one-third of the recommended values.
 Bulk quantities of chemicals (i.e., larger than one-gallon) must be stored in a separate
storage area. Transfer of flammable liquid from 5 gallon or larger metal containers may
not be done in the laboratory.
 Chemicals must be stored at an appropriate temperature and humidity level. This can be
especially problematic in hot, humid climates. As a rule, chemicals should not be stored
near heat sources, such as steam pipes or laboratory ovens. Chemicals should never be
stored in direct sunlight.
 Chemicals should be dated when received and when opened. If the chemical is one that
degrades in quality or becomes unsafe after prolonged storage, the shelf-life expiration
date should also be included.
 Visual inspection of the material and its container should be conducted routinely.
Indications for disposal include:
o cloudiness in liquids
o material changing color
o evidence of liquids in solids or solids in liquids
o "puddling" of material around outside of container o pressure build-up within
bottle
o obvious deterioration of container
 Chemicals should not be routinely stored on the benchtops. In such locations they are
unprotected from exposure and participation in a fire situation and are also more readily
knocked over. Each chemical should have a specific storage area and be returned there
after use. Large quantities of flammable materials should not be stored in the laboratory.
Only the amounts needed should be kept on benchtops, the remainder should be kept in
flammable storage cabinets.
 Laboratory shelves should have a raised lip along the outer edge to prevent containers
from falling. Never allow the container to hang off the edge of the shelf! Liquid or
corrosive chemicals should never be stored on shelves above eye-level. Glass containers
should not touch each other on the shelves. Secondary containers or trays should be used
for chemical storage whenever possible to minimize the flow of material should a spill or
rupture occur. Round bottom flasks should always be supported properly in cork rings or
by other means to keep them from tipping.
 Adequate security must be provided so that unauthorized personnel do not have access to
hazardous materials.
 Chemicals must never be stored on the floor, not even temporarily!
 Chemicals that are no longer to be used for research purposes should be properly
disposed of or given to another research group that has a use for it.
 Flammable materials must never be stored in domestic-type refrigerators. Only
explosion-proof or flammable material refrigerators should be used for storage of these
chemicals within a laboratory environment.
 All containers stored within the refrigerator should be tightly capped to keep vapors from
interacting with each other and to alleviate "smell" problems. Flasks with cork, rubber or
glass stoppers should be avoided because of the potential for leaking. All containers
stored in the refrigerator must be properly labeled.
 Inventory the materials in your refrigerator frequently to avoid overcrowding with
materials that have long since been forgotten. Also make it a point to defrost your
refrigerator occasionally so that chemicals do not become trapped in unique ice
formations!
 Before flammable materials are stored in a refrigerator, it should be determined if
keeping the material chilled will serve any purpose. No benefit is derived from
refrigerating a chemical that has a flash point below the temperature of the refrigerator.
Never store peroxide formers (i.e., ether) in a refrigerator!
 Fume hoods should not be used as general storage areas for chemicals. This may
seriously impair the ventilating capacity of the hood.
  Gas cylinders must be securely strapped to a permanent structure (wall, lab bench, etc.).
When they are not in use they should be capped off.
 On termination, graduation or transfer of any laboratory personnel, all hazardous
materials must be properly disposed of, or arrangements made to transfer them to the
laboratory supervisor.
Segregation Based on Hazard Classes
In addition to general safe storage practices, segregated storage of incompatible materials is a
must. As a minimum, laboratories should separate chemicals according to similar hazards, such
as flammability, corrosivity, sensitivity to water or air, and toxicity. The following major
categories of chemicals, each of which will be discussed in greater detail, are strongly
recommended:
 Flammables
 Oxidizers
 Corrosives
o acids
o bases
 Highly Reactives
 Extreme Toxics/Regulated Materials
 Low Hazard
However, problems may arise with a general segregation of chemicals. Below, you will find a
few of these potential problems.
 The actual identification of the hazards themselves. Recent legislation has made this task
somewhat easier since all chemical manufacturers are now required to list all hazards on
outgoing chemical containers and each chemical must be accompanied by a Safety Data
Sheet (SDS). The chemical label thus furnishes a quick method of determining whether
the material is a fire hazard, health hazard or reactivity hazard. The SDS furnishes more
detailed information regarding toxicity exposure levels, flashpoints, required safety
equipment and recommended procedures for spill containment.
 Multiple hazards for chemicals. Most chemicals have multiple hazards and a decision
must be made as to which storage area would be most appropriate for each specific
chemical. First you have to determine your priorities!
o When establishing a storage scheme, the number one consideration should be the
flammability characteristics of the material. If the material is flammable, it should
be stored in a flammable cabinet.
o If the material will contribute significantly to a fire (i.e., oxidizers), it should be
isolated from the flammables. If there were a fire in the lab and response to the
fire with water would exaggerate the situation, isolate the water reactive material
away from contact with water.
o Next look at the corrosivity of the material, and store accordingly.
o Finally, consider the toxicity of the material, with particular attention paid to
regulated materials. In some cases, this may mean that certain chemicals will be
isolated within a storage area, for instance, a material that is an extreme poison
but is also flammable, should be locked away in the flammable storage area to
protect it against accidental release. There will always be some chemicals that
will not fit neatly in one category or another, but with careful consideration of the
hazards involved, most of these cases can be handled in a reasonable fashion. For
 the safety of all personnel and to protect the integrity of the facilities, hazardous
materials must be segregated.

GOODS AND INWARD STORE

CLASSIFICATION OF STORES All stores to be procured shall be classified into three

categories viz NonConsumable stores, limited time asset stores and consumable stores. 3.1. Non-
consumable Stores(NCS): Stores satisfying any of the following condition shall be classified as
non-consumable stores: a) Stores which are intended to be used over prolonged periods before
becoming unusable or obsolete. b) Stores which are either fabricated or assembled equipment
which if brought as a single item would have been classified Non-Consumable stores. All Non-
Consumable stores have to be entered into the permanent asset register of the institute. Example:
(indicative but not exhaustive) Plant, machinery, equipment, fabricated equipment, instruments
motors, gas cylinders, workshop machines and books etc. 3.2 Limited Time Assets
Stores(LTAS): Stores satisfying any one of the following condition shall be classified as LTAS.
a) Stores, costing any amount, having useful life of less than five years. Such stores rapidly lose
their relevance and value with the lapse of time and have little or negligible disposal value. b)
Stores which can upgraded either by replacing component/part of which can be regarded
obsolete by the release of new versions or editions. c) Stores costing less than Rs. 10000/- which
can be used over any period of time (variable). Example: (indicative but not exhaustive) Personal
Computers including Laptops, Pocket PC’s, Computer accessories, Software, Mobile Phones,
Fax machines, Digital Cameras, Projectors, UPS less than 20 KVA etc. 3.3 Consumable Stores
(CS): Stores satisfying any of the following conditions shall be classified as CS. a) Stores which
exhaust rapidly with lapse of time. b) Stores which are rapidly rendered unusable due to normal
wear and tear. c) Stores which have negligible disposal values. d) Spares of equipment under
NCS or LTAS. The CS should be entered in the CS stock register. Examples: (indicative but not
exhaustive) Chemicals, medicines, stationery items, printer ribbons and cartridges, pen drives,
floppies, CD ROMs, Chips, Magnetic tape, Computers parts requiring replacements such as the
mother board, RAM, hard disc, etc. batteries of any kind(like those of UPS, laptops, mobiles,
portable instrument) electronic components like resistors, capacitors, electric wires, plugs,
switches, and hand tools etc. In case of any ambiguity with respect to classification of stores, the
decision of the Director shall be final.
GROUP PURCHASE COMMITTEE(GPC) / SPECIAL PURCHASE COMMITTEE(SPC)
There will be group Purchase Committee for all the schools/offices/other units of IIT Mandi at
present. The purpose of GPC will be recommendation of purchases falling under its domain.
Director may also appoint Special Purchase Committee (SPC) for specific need. The
composition of GPC/SPC will be decided by the Director. The GPC/SPC should meet regularly
and ensure that the purchase proposals are cleared very well within the stipulated validity of
quotations. Before recommending cases for Director or designated authority’s approval, it should
ensure that all guidelines have been followed. 7. PROCUREMENT OF GOODS ON SINGLE
QUOTATION BASIS. Procurement of goods on a single quotation may be permitted in the
following cases: i) It is in the knowledge of user Schools/Sections/Units that only a particular
firm is the manufacturer of the required goods. ii) When an existing machinery is to be upgraded
and / or spare parts are required for the existing machinery. iii) In case of emergency, the
required goods are to be purchased from a particular source. Justification for such a decision has
to be recorded. iv) In case of tenders invited through Institute website, advertisement in
newspapers and Indian Trade Journal, if only one quotation is received it should suffice. Any
decision in respect of (i) (ii) and (iii) above may be taken on the recommendation of the technical
committee appointed by CFA. For an item costing more than Rs. One lac a proprietary certificate
must be obtained from the supplier stating that they are the only source of supply / manufacture.

MAIN STORE

Laboratories used for scientific research take many forms because of the differing requirements
of specialists in the various fields of science and engineering. A physics laboratory might contain
a particle accelerator or vacuum chamber, while a metallurgy laboratory could have apparatus
for casting or refining metals or for testing their strength. A chemist or biologist might use a wet
laboratory, while a psychologist's laboratory might be a room with one-way mirrors and hidden
cameras in which to observe behavior. In some laboratories, such as those commonly used
by computer scientists, computers (sometimes supercomputers) are used for eithersimulations or
the analysis of data. Scientists in other fields will use still other types of
laboratories. Engineers use laboratories as well to design, build, and test technological devices.
Scientific laboratories can be found as research room and learning
spaces in schools and universities, industry, government, ormilitary facilities, and even
aboard ships and spacecraft.
Despite the underlying notion of the lab as a confined space for experts[1], the term "laboratory"
is also increasingly applied to workshop spaces such as Living Labs, Fab Labs, or Hackerspaces,
in which people meet to work on societal problems or makeprototypes, working collaboratively
or sharing resources.[2][3][4] This development is inspired by new, participatory approaches to
science and innovation and relies on user-centred design methods[5] and concepts like Open
innovation or User innovation,[6][7]. One distinctive feature of work in Open Labs is phenomena
of translation, driven by the different backgrounds and levels of expertise of the people
involved[8].

MAIN RECORD

LAB Records (pronounced lab) is an independent record label operating from Manchester,
England and founded by Mark Orr and Nathen McVittie in 2007.[1] The company also has a
creative and distribution division, LAB Exposure, as well as a New York-based management
company, LAB Partners.[2]
It releases music in the pop and rock genres, with bands primarily from the United States and
UK. As of 2014 artists includeCover Drive, Mike Dignam, Fort Hope, Bethan
Leadley, Cartel, The Hush Sound,[3] and William Becket,[4] and the label has released positively
reviewed albums such as The Way I Fell In by The Morning Of, Would It Kill
You? by Hellogoodbye, and It Hates Youby He Is Legend.
The label has a reputation for developing UK talent. Two LAB affiliated artists, Young
Kato (BMG Chrysalis),[5] and Katie Sky (Universal Music Group) both signed to labels in
2013,[6] while UK rock band Blitz Kids signed to Red Bull Records.[7] At the start of 2015, rock
band Fort Hope signed to Virgin EMI Records.[8]

RELATIONSHIP WITH OTHER FUNCTION

 The use of clinical laboratory test results in diagnostic decision making is an integral part of
clinical medicine. The menu of laboratory tests available to clinicians constitutes an impressive
array that has expanded exponentially since 1920 when Folin and Wu devised the first useful test
for the quantification of serum glucose concentration.3 The current list of tests offered by one
major reference laboratory includes nearly 3,000 analytes, which does not include the additional
array of more commonly ordered tests (eg, complete blood count [CBC], electrolytes [sodium,
potassium, chloride, carbon dioxide], thyroid stimulating hormone [TSH], glucose, etc.)
routinely performed on site by most hospital-based clinical laboratories. Despite this ever-
expanding plethora of useful and reliable clinical laboratory tests for diagnosing and monitoring
the myriad of diseases effecting mankind, the recent emphasis on reducing health care costs and
the emergence of managed care organizations led to efforts to reduce the abuse (over-ordering)
and misuse (eg, ordering the right test for the wrong purpose or vice versa) of these tests.
Medical Necessity
As private health maintenance organizations (HMOs) and government-sponsored agencies (eg,
Department of Health and Human Services [DHHS] and the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid
Services [CMS]) seek to provide quality medicine cost effectively, reduction in the ordering of
“unnecessary” laboratory tests has become a favorite target of these efforts. The critical question
facing physicians, however, is: What constitutes an unnecessary laboratory test? In the current
climate of business-oriented medicine, the answer should not be: Any test for which
reimbursement by a payer (eg, Medicare) is likely to be denied. The correct answer is: Any test
for which the results are not likely to be “medically necessary” in the appropriate management of
the patient’s medical condition. Thus, it is incumbent upon physicians and laboratorians to
understand which laboratory tests are appropriate to order in the diagnosis and follow up of a
patient’s medical condition.
Questions to Ask Before Ordering a Laboratory Test
An understanding of which laboratory tests are appropriate to order in the diagnosis and follow
up of a patient’s medical condition should include prior consideration of the answers to the
following questions:4
 Why is the test being ordered?
 What are the consequences of not ordering the test?
 How good is the test in discriminating between health versus disease?
 How are the test results interpreted?
 How will the test results influence patient management and outcome?
The answers to these questions are critical to the optimal selection and cost-effective use of
laboratory tests likely to benefit patient management. A major misconception among clinicians is
the feeling that a laboratory test is more objective than a patient’s history and physical
examination. Nevertheless, it is widely accepted that the judicious use of laboratory tests,
coupled with thoughtful interpretation of the results of these tests, can contribute significantly to
diagnostic decision making and patient management.
Reasons for Ordering a Laboratory Test
There are 4 major legitimate reasons for ordering a laboratory test:4
1. Diagnosis (to rule in or rule out a diagnosis).
2. Monitoring (eg, the effect of drug therapy).
3. Screening (eg, for congenital hypothyroidism via neonatal thyroxine testing).
4. Research (to understand the pathophysiology of a particular disease process).
 Approaches for Establishing a Diagnosis Based on Laboratory Test Results
The principal approaches for establishing a diagnosis based on laboratory test results include:4
 Hypothesis deduction.
 Pattern recognition.
 Medical algorithms.
 Rifle versus shotgun approach.
Hypothesis deduction involves establishing a differential diagnosis based on the patient’s history,
including family, social, and drug history, and physical exam findings, followed by the selection
of laboratory tests that are the most likely to confirm (ie, allow the clinician to deduce) a
diagnosis on the list of differential diagnoses.
Example 1Hypothesis deduction approach to laboratory test ordering: A 4-year-old child
presents to the emergency room (ER) with an upper respiratory tract infection (URI), fever
(102.2°F), and generalized seizures lasting 2 min. The clinician establishes a differential
diagnosis of meningitis versus febrile seizures and deduces that the most appropriate laboratory
tests to discriminate between these possibilities are the following tests performed on
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from a spinal tap:
 White blood cell (WBC) and red blood cell (RBC) counts.
 Total protein.
 Glucose.
 Gram stain.
 Bacterial, viral, and/or fungal cultures.
 Rapid polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay for a meningococcus-specific insertion sequence
(IS).
All results for these tests were either “normal,” “negative,” or “no growth” (cultures), supporting
a diagnosis of febrile seizure over bacterial, viral, or fungal meningitis.

Laboratory Stationery Equipment

Research Laboratory Notebooks

Material (cover): Paperboard, Ruled Line: 5mm grid Kay signed column, Paper Quality: High-
quality paper, Paper Thickness (g/m2): 75, Number of Sheets: 80 sheets (door 1 page,
Description 2 page, index page 5, the body 152 page), Type: Thread Kagari closed (binding
style), Size: No. 1 (A4), Dimension (mm): Vertical 297 x 210 Horizontal, Accessories: Back
heading seal 3 Katazuki

Replacement Core for Diamond Pen

Scientific Research, Development Products > Research Related Supplies, Laboratory
Necessities > Laboratory Stationery, Equipment >Diamond Pen, Glass Tube Cutting Devices
Captain Eppi
Eppendorf
The days when disorder and chaos ruled the lab are over. Here comes Captain Eppi! He takes
things in hand and guarantees that rotor keys no longer disappear in cupboards or dark corners.
And not only that: Captain Eppi provides a saf... Read more...
Request Pricing
2
CM5000 Guillotine Cutter
BioDot Inc.
Features: Cost Efficient - Friction-fed mini rollers eliminate unnecessary waste of the master
strip User Friendly Simple handheld operation Safety interlock device Easy blade cleaning
Flexible Adjustable material guide... Read more...

LM9000 Continuous Laminator

BioDot Inc.
The Automated Laminating system is a modular design to accommodate various numbers and
types of materials. Each material is fed from adjustable spindles through guides and under a
pressure roller to assure complete adhesion to the pla... Read more...

4
LM5000 Clamshell Laminator
BioDot Inc.
The LM5000 Clamshell is designed to assemble a lateral flow assay comprised of multiple
materials (typically a nitrocellulose membrane, a sample pad, a conjugate pad, and an absorbent
pad) onto an adhesive backing material. ...Read more...

VWR® Four-Channel Alarm Timer

(1)
VWR International Ltd
Four-Channel Alarm Timer Microcomputer chip permits setting four separate channels. Set any
time from 99 hours, 59 minutes, 59 seconds to one second. When zero is reached the timer starts
counting up to show time elapsed since alarmin... Read more...
6

VWR® Three-Channel Alarm Timer with Triple Display

(1)
VWR International Ltd
Time three separate lab operations simultaneously. Unit also serves as a stopwatch and a time-of-
day clock. Channels may be started individually or simultaneously. Program each channel from
one second to 99 hours, 59 minutes, 59 secon...Read more...

Laboratory Notebooks
Heathrow Scientific
Laboratory Notebooks For admissibility as court evidence, data on laboratory work, experiment
details, and design and development. Use these Heathrow Scientific lab notebooks to keep your
indispensable data. Numbered pages include ...Read more...
8

Drawer Organizers
Heathrow Scientific
Drawer Organizers - Keeps supplies organized and easily accessible Polystyrene drawer
organizers from Heathrow Scientific are perfect for storing and organizing small laboratory
supplies. Protect fragile items such as glassware. F... Read more...

Tubby® Containers
Heathrow Scientific
Tubby® Containers - Sturdy tubs with lids and dividers All versions of Heathrow Scientific's
handy Tubby stackable storage containers will help you organize your laboratory. Using the
removable dividers you can create as big or as smal... Read more...

10
Multipurpose Utility Tray
Heathrow Scientific
Multipurpose Utility Tray - Carry an assortment of items Organize a variety of items efficiently
using the compartments surrounding the handle, the supply drawer, and side pockets. The
centered soft rubber gripped handle keeps balance ... Read more...

11

Standard and Custom Log Books

Bookfactory
We can manufacture any bound log book you need. Our standard versions include equipment,
maintenance, temperature, balance calibration, analytics, and sample log books. We can quickly
layout and send PDF sample versions on you own logbook
ELECTROPHORESIS AND HEMOGLOBIN
Hemoglobin electrophoresis is the movement of hemoglobin proteins in an electric field at a
fixed pH Since different types of hemoglobin molecules are comprised of different combinations
of globin chains (normal or abnormal), they will demonstrate different degrees of mobility.
Typically, when a thalassemia or hemoglobinopathy is suspected, an alkaline electrophoresis is
performed which may be confirmed with acid electrophoresis. For an alkaline hemoglobin
electrophoresis, a hemolysate is applied to cellulose acetate which is electrophoresed in a buffer
at pH 8.4-8.6. At this pH hemoglobin proteins move from cathode to anode. The proteins are
visualized by the application of a dye which also makes them measurable by densitometry.
Very small samples of hemolysates prepared from whole blood are applied to the Cellulose
Acetate Plate. The hemoglobins in the sample are separated by electrophoresis using an alkaline
buffer (pH 8.2-8.6), and are stained with Ponceau’S Stain. The patterns are scanned on a
scanning densitometer, and the relative percent of each band determined.

LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY

High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC; formerly referred to as high-pressure

liquid chromatography), is a technique in analytical chemistry used to separate, identify, and
quantify each component in a mixture. It relies on pumps to pass a pressurized
liquid solvent containing the sample mixture through a column filled with a solid adsorbent
material. Each component in the sample interacts slightly differently with the adsorbent material,
causing different flow rates for the different components and leading to the separation of the
components as they flow out the column.

HPLC has been used for manufacturing (e.g. during the production process of pharmaceutical
and biological products), legal (e.g.detecting performance enhancement drugs in urine), research
(e.g. separating the components of a complex biological sample, or of similar synthetic
chemicals from each other), and medical (e.g. detecting vitamin D levels in blood serum)
purposes.[1]

Chromatography can be described as a mass transfer process involving adsorption. HPLC relies
on pumps to pass a pressurized liquid and a sample mixture through a column filled with
adsorbent, leading to the separation of the sample components. The active component of the
column, the adsorbent, is typically a granular material made of solid particles (e.g. silica,
polymers, etc.), 2–50 μm in size. The components of the sample mixture are separated from each
other due to their different degrees of interaction with the adsorbent particles. The pressurized
liquid is typically a mixture of solvents (e.g. water, acetonitrile and/or methanol) and is referred
to as a "mobile phase". Its composition and temperature play a major role in the separation
process by influencing the interactions taking place between sample components and adsorbent.
These interactions are physical in nature, such as hydrophobic (dispersive), dipole–dipole and
ionic, most often a combination.

HPLC is distinguished from traditional ("low pressure") liquid chromatography because

operational pressures are significantly higher (50–350 bar), while ordinary liquid
chromatography typically relies on the force of gravity to pass the mobile phase through the
column. Due to the small sample amount separated in analytical HPLC, typical column
dimensions are 2.1–4.6 mm diameter, and 30–250 mm length. Also HPLC columns are made
with smaller adsorbent particles (2–50 μm in average particle size). This gives HPLC superior
resolving power (the ability to distinguish between compounds) when separating mixtures, which
makes it a popular chromatographic technique.

The schematic of a HPLC instrument typically includes a degasser, sampler, pumps, and a
detector. The sampler brings the sample mixture into the mobile phase stream which carries it
into the column. The pumps deliver the desired flow and composition of the mobile phase
through the column. The detector generates a signal proportional to the amount of sample
component emerging from the column, hence allowing for quantitative analysis of the sample
components. A digital microprocessor and user software control the HPLC instrument and
provide data analysis. Some models of mechanical pumps in a HPLC instrument can mix
multiple solvents together in ratios changing in time, generating a composition gradient in the
mobile phase. Various detectors are in common use, such as UV/Vis, photodiode array (PDA) or
based on mass spectrometry. Most HPLC instruments also have a column oven that allows for
adjusting the temperature at which the separation is performed.