OffICIal JOUrnal Of The

InSTITUTe Of exPlOSIveS engIneerS

MarCh/aPrIl 2015

explosives
engineering
Page 14
Characterisation of blast
loading: current research at
The University of Sheffield
Page 24
The Improvised threat
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Explosives Engineers
Educational and
Research Trust
The Trust was formed in 1982 to
advance the theoretical and practical
education and training of persons
engaged in the explosives engineering
industry by the provision of training
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 Contents

Contents
Features Regulars
08 Blasting and mining 02 Institute News
raleke Chinedu Okeke BSc aIexpe
30 Sidney Alford column
14 Characterisation of blast loading:
current research at The University of Sheffield 31 The Bennett file
Dr Samuel e rigby Meng PhD
and Dr Samuel D Clarke Meng PhD 32 Tech Spec

18 Experimental study on novel cut blasting 34 Industry News

technology with a radial jet cutter
Wei Chen PhD student, associate Professor 36 Conferences/Exhibition Diary
honghao Ma PhD, Professor Zhaowu Shen MSc
and Debao Wang MSc student 36 In a flash: Alan Combe MIexpe

22 Optimising burden at Cornish china clay operations

Joseph Coxson Beng(undergraduate) and Benjamin Keverne Meng aCSM

24 The Improvised threat

Sally Sterling

28 AWE leading the way in high-speed imaging techniques

Paul Sagoo

Explosives Engineering The Institute of Explosives Engineers

Distributed quarterly to all members of the Institute of explosives engineers. To non- Suite 3, 7–8 Mill Street, Stafford ST16 2aJ
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To obtain copies, contact explosives engineering Subscriptions at the Institute address Institute of Explosives Engineers
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Papers, articles and letters to the editor are welcome and should be sent to the editor at
Company no. 07905911
her email address, or by post to the Institute address.
Company limited by guarantee
Opinions expressed in the Journal are those of the authors concerned. They do not
Editor
necessarily represent the views of the Institute.
Diane hall
Telephone: +44 (0)1729 840765
Mobile: +44 (0)7778 063373
email: editor@iexpe.org
DianeThall@aol.com

Design and Print/Production and

professional affiliate of ecuk
Advertising Manager
gordon hunt
gordon hunt Design
Telephone: +44 (0)1726 832594
email: design@gordon-hunt.co.uk
01
 Institute news
The President speaks
“It is not the strongest or the
most intelligent who will survive
but those who can best manage
the change”- Charles Darwin.
as you read this just before the annual general Meeting, I hope you
will be able to see the significant changes that have occurred over
the last 12 months. last year we identified some major challenges
not only to our internal processes, but also to the effectiveness of
the Institute’s website. additionally we were unable to demonstrate
equity in our routes to membership when mapped against the
national Occupational Standards (nOS).
I am now pleased to announce that we have delivered a significant
number of improvements including a new office IT system with a
Customer relations Management system (CrM), a new website
including rebranding, that serves both our individual and company
members, together with our stakeholders. The website is versatile
and will be easy to read on tablets and phones in addition to laptops
and desktops. It will enable the Institute to better reflect its
professional standing and capability alongside its much larger peers.
We have also accelerated the delivery of reconciling our routes to
membership as compared to national Occupational Standards and
QCf’s for the military, academic and vocational areas across the
explosives industry. This is a major achievement as it provides
equity and transparency for all those seeking membership. We still
have work to do in the specialised areas of special effects,
fireworks, demolition and quarrying. however, now the expectations
have been mapped out, I would hope these will be completed soon
with support from the Trust where applicable and the cooperation
of those industry groups. Can I thank all those 25 members who
volunteered to help us with this work, your offers are greatly
appreciated.
During the last year, we will also have delivered new contractual
arrangements for the SSSg, enabled the eUexcert erasmus Plus
application for training, developed career paths and CPD
registration through “My Career Path”, introduced a revised student
membership grade, promoted apprentice grants, increased
diversity, strengthened council competence, introduced an Institute
strategy, programme working and a risk register.
Early Careers Symposium
a two-day symposium for early careers engineers and
scientists* of all disciplines within the defence weapons and
explosives industry.
Topics will include: UK defence capability; communication and
personal effectiveness; technical presentations; emerging
technologies; protection, detection and analysis.
Location: heythrop Park, enstone, Chipping norton,
Oxfordshire Ox7 5Ue
Dates: 7th and 8th July, 2015
Cost: £300**
Sponsorship package available, contact email for details.
02
none of this could have been done without the considerable effort
and hard work of all the Council members, who all give their time
voluntarily to the benefit of the Institute. It is their efforts that have
now placed the institute in a far better place than it was 12 months ago.
however we do have a significant problem with succession planning
and we need you to put yourself forward for Council membership as a
significant number of the existing Council members will have retired
or will be up for re-election in 2016. To make this transition less
daunting, I have stated that prospective new members are welcome
to understudy existing Council members during 2015 in order for
them to be ready for taking over in 2016. If you are interested then
please contact me by email or speak to me at the conference.
Can I say thank you to Tony Slate and Mike goodwin who have
regrettably had to leave us, but have made a significant contribution
to the Council’s undertaking and the explosives industry in general
over a considerable number of years.
next turning to the Journal awards competition for which we have
only had one submission. This response is very disappointing as the
members present at last year’s agM requested that Council run the
competition again. The competition was widely publicised through
relevant university departments, places of work and journals as it had
been the previous year.
not last or least it is my pleasure, on my own behalf and that of the
membership, to wish Sidney alford congratulations on reaching a
significant birthday. Well done Sidney and I hope this edition finds you
well and I look forward to reading your valuable contributions to the
Journal for many years to come.
and finally, due to changes within the Office of nuclear regulation
(Onr), it is possible that I may have to pass on the President’s role to
others next year. I will confirm that decision one way or another at the
forthcoming agM
Consequently, as this may be the last President speaks that I will be
writing, I would like to thank all of those on Council and across the
membership who have worked hard as a team to deliver a broad
range of significant improvements and made my presidential year so
rewarding and fulfilling. I have accomplished what I set out to do and
enjoyed my time in doing it. I believe that as a result of those
improvements, the Institute will better represent your interests in
the future. all that will remain is to “pass the baton on”.
John Wolstenholme Ceng fIStrute MICe MIexpe
The early Careers Symposium provides an opportunity to:
Meet and speak to industry figureheads
network with peers from across the industry
attend technical lectures on a range of defence subjects
attend a lively personal effectiveness workshop
Be part of a new defence weapons and explosives community
To register interest please email: earlycareerssymposium@gmail.com
* aimed at those within the first 10 years (or so) of their careers in this
industry.
** Includes full use of conference facilities, food, drink, accommodation
with a networking reception and dinner.
Holli Kimble Meng MSc MIexpe

Institute website and
rebranding project
Your Council is delivering on its promise to update the website and freshen the
Institute “look” made at the 2014 agM. Those attending the 2014 agM will
recall that Council briefed members on the IT support and website study that
took place in the first quarter of 2014. Members had the opportunity at the
agM to provide input to the look and feel of the website. The two strands of the
study were separated out with your two vPs each taking the lead for one strand.
Council took a radical look at the place of the Institute in the marketplace and
determined that a fresh look would help us meet our aspirations of increasing
membership, reaching out to a younger audience, both nationally and
internationally and help us become the voice of the explosives industry. We
recognise that in this electronic age our site must be easy to load and accessible
on a variety of platforms (phones, tablets, laptops); our voice must be clear and
confident; we must be contemporary but our brand must have longevity, just as
our brand and logo has been for the past 40 years; and we should look at having
a full brand logo along with a recognisable association mark that can be used in
differing circumstances.
To achieve this we engaged a brand developer, Peloton
(www.pelotondesign.co.uk ). Working with them from October to December
2014, the team worked through a five step process of receive, research,
reflect, respond and resolve in order to Deliver our new brand. We looked at
“competitors” (other Institutes and companies in the explosives industry) to
determine how to stand out from the crowd whilst positioning the Institute with
a symbol of credibility as a progressive organisation and home of the explosives
industries. We looked at the use of colour for differentiation, a variety of marks
and emblems to represent the Institute and potential strap lines. The team
looked at the use of these on the website, membership cards, letterheads, our
marketing pop-up banners, the journal, on merchandise and logos for use by our
corporate members on their clothing and vehicles. We will use colour
differentiation in the future and on the website, but both our brand logo and
association mark are primarily delivered in black.
With the brand resolved and an Iexpe identity guidelines document in place, this
was handed across to our website designer, Satsuma Media
(www.satsumamedia.co.uk ) just before Christmas. Both the brand and web
designers have worked closely together on many previous projects and it was
because of this known working relationship that both companies were engaged
as a team. Satsuma Media provided the format for the website, following the
Institute’s brief formed from members’ points and ideas. Satsuma gave an initial
brief on ideas to the Council at its meeting on 3rd December 2014 and
delivered a series of individual pages to the Council meeting on 4th february
2105 for review and comment. Satsuma has been working hard to bring the
website together since the Council meeting. The Council, secretariat, branches
and individual members have been involved in providing content for the website.
The launch of the “new look” Institute is being done in phases. You will have seen
the impact on the front cover of this Journal and I trust that you will wear the
Institute lapel badge provided to each member with this issue, with pride. Our
new banners will be on show on our stand at Counter Terror expo on 21st and
22nd april 2015 and our website will “go live” at the same time. You will all have
the opportunity to see those banners and be briefed on the website at the
Institute’s agM on 23rd april 2015 and Council will be keen to hear your views
at this year’s Conference.
Paul Harris QgM vP Projects
Institute news
Development Office
for Explosives Skills
(DOES) Programme
Manager update
I wish to thank the Iexpe Council, members and
Sector Skills Strategy group (SSSg) employers for
their support in my recent military mobilisation on
Op herrICK, afghanistan – this was greatly
appreciated and thank you all very much. I am now
back in the DOeS PM role and working to the new
objectives in the SSSg work plan.
The Sector Skills Strategy group (SSSg) board
continue to keep the skills agenda momentum going
and I continue to assist the SSSg employers via the
expert Working groups (eWg) to sign-post training
opportunities and collaboration of training. new
targeted objectives have been set for me and I will
look to give an update in the next journal.
I can update members about our Sector Skills
Council – Cogent, who have been commissioned on
behalf of SSSg and funded by MOD to carry out a
‘health check of the explosives sector’, a survey
which would identify if the sector has a skills
issue(s) and provide an on-going metric to look at
skills requirements in future years, based on known
demographics. This will be a three phase project
hopefully starting early 2015.
The Standards Setting Body (SSB) held a meeting
in January 2015 at DeMS regt, Bicester with the
main take-away concerning the change to
government funding and apprenticeships, mainly
this will be more ‘employer focused’ and designed
to meet their needs with any government funding
being directed via employers by matching employer
contributions £2 for every £1 employers contribute
(capped within limits). I have also taken on the
Chairmanship for the explosives Industry Training
network (eITn) working with training providers
within the explosives sector to help promote their
services.
I would like to remind members about the next
Ordnance, Munitions and explosives Symposium at
Cranfield University, Shrivenham – this year’s theme
is ‘Change’ and will be held on 29th to 30th
September and calls for abstracts/papers are being
requested now with a 1st June 2015 closing date,
please see advertisement in Industry news for
information. www.symposiaatshrivenham.com/ome
If any Iexpe member has any questions, please feel
free to contact me for details.
Allan Hinton finstlM MCMI CMIlT aIexpe
DOeS Programme Manager
Email: doespm@iexpe.org or
secretariat@iexpe.org
Mobile: 07866 429559 Tel: 01785 240154
03
 Institute news

Registrar report
Registrations
Professional registration statistics as at:31st January 2015 engineering Council policy on CPD will require the Institute’s
CEng IEng EngTech registrar to sample all CPD records from 2016. as such I will
QUalIfIeD 22 4 3 encourage all members to sign up for MyCareerPath accounts and
In PrOgreSS 5 0 0 to use it in 2015. I strongly recommend that members of Council
lead from the front in this matter by signing up for MyCareerPath if
application forms sent but not yet received back - 43
they have not already done so.
Of the 43 application forms sent out but not returned, 26 were
issued in 2012 and 2013. I have yet to contact all of them MyCareerPath
individually to determine their intentions but I will publish a Thank you to those members of Council who have registered on
collective notice that they will be assessed under edition 3 of UK- MyCareerPath. It should be easier to do so from the new website.
SPeC. They should apply to the registrar and Secretariat for new The mobile device-friendly version of MyCareerPath has been
forms no later than 30th June 2015. released, which enables easy capture of CPD as people are on the
If you or any of your colleagues are interested in professional move. I use this version occasionally and find it very convenient.
registration, call the Secretariat or email registrar@iexpe.org Uptake for mycareerpath remains extremely poor; actual usage as
at 31st January 2015: Only 24 users!  This is free of charge for
Assessor training members of the Institute of all grades and you don’t have to be
See, supported by the engineering Council, runs a “Training Day for enrolled in the professional registration regime.
assessors of Professional review Interviews”, usually at lockheed
Martin, ampthill on an irregular basis. The workshop includes a Last Last Last Last Date
review of engineering Council requirements and delegates are Active Evidence Plan Report Registered
invited to carry out mock interviews of potential Ceng registrants 01/01/0001 05/12/2014 05/12/2014
who have kindly agreed to take part in the exercise. relevant 08/01/2014 30/07/2014 28/07/2014 30/07/2014 11/12/2013
documentation is made available to all those attending. 07/05/2014 07/05/2014
01/01/0001 22/01/2015
Places are strictly limited to 8 delegates, drawn from the See and
01/01/0001 09/07/2014
the half-dozen or so professional affiliate institutions that have a
31/05/2013 09/05/2012
similar partnership to ours. These delegates are generally those
15/03/2013 15/03/2013 15/03/2013 15/03/2013
who can subsequently be expected to assist with PrI interviews for 01/01/0001 13/08/2014
the Society (See) and, where appropriate, be part of a “pool” of 09/05/2012 16/01/2012
interviewers available to other institutions. all delegates must be 09/08/2012 08/06/2012
registered with engineering Council as Ceng or Ieng and See 07/04/2014 07/04/2014
reserves the right to be selective in accepting delegates and 25/04/2013 09/06/2012 25/04/2013 09/03/2012
observers to the workshop in order that there is a good mix of 04/11/2012 04/11/2012
institutions and disciplines. 01/01/0001 30/07/2014
01/05/2013 30/04/2013 30/04/2013
anyone who is interested in becoming an assessor should make
09/03/2012 09/03/2012
contact with the registrar (registrar@iexpe.org).
20/06/2013 06/09/2012
01/01/0001 05/08/2014
Marketing 21/08/2012 21/08/2012
The drive towards professionalisation in the explosives sector of 31/03/2014 19/12/2014 16/08/2012
the MOD continues, particularly in the Defence equipment & 01/01/0001 03/01/2015
Support (De&S) Weapons Operating Centre. I held a briefing and 17/08/2012 17/08/2012 15/08/2012 15/08/2012
series of 1:1s in January. 02/05/2013 22/03/2012
01/01/0001 17/01/2015
I gave a presentation about the Institute and professional
registration to a QinetiQ safety panel in March, which I hope to tie in reD = 2012 activity aMBer = 2013 activity green = 2014 activity
with the work going on to map membership to nOS etc.

There has been no activity on the army’s ammunition Technical
professionalisation project since December.
CPD
The Institute’s policy of requiring professional registrants to
undertake 30 hours CPD per year, and recommendation that all
other members do the same, is included in the revision of Institute
Procedures.
Licensing workshop
I will have attended a workshop run by the engineering Council Qa
office on 18th february 2015 about “guidelines for registration
agreements between Professional affiliates and licensed
members”, looking at current arrangements across all professional
affiliates such as Iexpe and the formal agreements and
relationships with their licensed partners. further details next time.
Ken Cross MBe Ceng MSc BSc(hons) fIexpe

04
 Institute news

EUExcert Report
EUExImp Project
The project is now moving on, although still
in the ‘forming’ stage of a new group/team.
The benefit of having the experienced
project partners is that this phase will be
relatively short as they are in regular
contact with their industry partners outside
the formal meetings of the project as a
whole.
Council members will be aware of the
project partners and I am now in a position
to provide further information about the
various sub-projects, i.e. what each industry
partner intends to do to implement the
nOS:
• Sweden: KCeM aB; SaaB Bofors Test
Centre aB – BTC will use the nOS in a
management role, to identify the skills
of their explosives workers on their hr
system as part of their ISO 17001
compliance management framework.
• UK: PICrITe ltd; event horizon
Pyrotechnics limited – event horizon is
going to redesign their existing Sfx
courses, mapped to the nOS and, at
least at the moment and pending a visit
with the prime customer for Sfx
technicians (BeCTU), develop and
deliver qualifications.
• germany: Dresdner Sprengschuele The UK project partner, PICrITe ltd, visited
gmbh; Orica – Orica has an aspiration SaaB Bofors Test Center aB at the end of
to use the nOS as a benchmark for their January to begin the process of
explosives workers across the global implementing eSa nOS into their existing
company. They are very much at the competence management system as part of
beginning of defining their sub-project their work towards SO 17025 compliance.
so this may change over the next couple This visit included the beginning of role
of months. Profiling all staff with eSa in their jobs and
• Portugal: University of Coimbra; g.J.r. - discussions on linking the nOS to their
Pirotecnia e explosivos, Sa – g.J.r. current hr system, Competera.
intends to implement manufacturing
PICrITe ltd has begun work on the two
qualifications for its staff. Scale and
‘intellectual outputs’ of the project: a Step-
scope have yet to be defined but it is
by-Step guide to implementing the nOS and
looking very positive.
a detailed manual on how to implement the
• estonia: Tallinn University of
nOS, supported by case studies from the
Technology; voglers eesti OÜ – voglers
project.
intends to use UK qualifications, most
likely In explosives safety management, EUExcert UK AGM
to demonstrate their workers’ The agM was held on 22nd January 2015 at
competence to their international DeMS Training regiment, Bicester.
customers.
Ken Cross MBe Ceng MSc BSc(hons) fIexpe
event horizon is in the process of mapping
its existing courses to the nOS and met
with a senior Sfx representative of BeCTU
in february to confirm the industry
requirements. a link into the Iexpe
membership mapping project was
requested.

IExpE AGM and Conference 2015

The venue for this year’s event is norton Park hotel, norton Park,
Sutton Scotney, near Winchester SO21 3nB. The agM and Dinner
will take place on 23rd april 2015 and the Conference on 24th
april 2015 with a proposed outline of timings as follows:
23rd april 2015 – agM: 16:00 – 18:00
23rd april 2015 – Dinner: 19:30 – 23:00 calling: 01962 763 000, quoting “Institute of explosives
24th april 2015 – Conference: 09:30 – 15:45 engineers” as a reference to obtain the associated discount. all
The theme for the 2015 Conference is “Strengthening the attendees should complete the form and email to
relationship between the Institute of explosives engineers and events@iexpe.org, alternatively they can be faxed to 01329 226
Industry Partners”. Should you wish to be considered to present at 155 or sent to Chairman for Iexpe agM and Conference, Shogun
the Conference, please contact Dave Welch or hannah Mellish by house, fielder Drive, fareham, PO14 1Je at the earliest
calling: 01329 226 156 or emailing events@iexpe.org. In the event convenience. The deadline for receiving these booking forms is
we receive too many presenter applications, we will add all those 17th april 2014. admittance to the event relies solely on receipt
not selected for this year to our portfolio of potential presenters and acknowledgment of a completed booking form and associated
for forthcoming conferences. payment (where applicable).

all Iexpe members are entitled to attend the agM and Conference
at no cost, other than travel expense and overnight accommodation.
non-members will find the associated event costs on the agM and
Conference Booking form previously enclosed. as Iexpe have
chosen to stay with the Q hotel chain, competitive rates have been
offered, aligned as far as possible with previous year’s event costs.
accommodation should be booked directly through the hotel by
as always, partners are welcome and are encouraged to attend the
event and their attendance should be detailed on the Booking
form also. further details of attractions and activities available
within the surrounding area of the hotel are available from
www.visitwinchester.co.uk. There are leisure facilities available at
the hotel and all hotel details can be found by visiting:
http://www.qhotels.co.uk/our-locations/norton-park/.

05
 Institute news
Branch report
South (Central and West) Branch
The December branch meeting saw us return to
COTeC (the Cranfield University Ordnance,
Munitions, and explosives Test and evaluation
Centre, at West lavington, Salisbury Plain).
after a long period away from this venue, we
were delighted to see the infrastructure
developments there, and how the site has come
on. There was late night firing of 155mm guns
on Salisbury Plain so our evening was accented
by some impressive sound effects. There were
24 attendees at the meeting, so it was another
good turnout. following the usual brief spell of
admin and parish announcements, we were
given two presentations, both themed around
munitions underwater. The first presentation
was on the topic of “Raising and Examining
Ordnance from Historical Shipwrecks – The
Mary Rose”, by alex hildred, Curator of
Ordnance and human remains at the Mary rose
Trust. alex talked about the ordnance that has
been raised from King henry vIII’s ship the Mary
rose since she was wrecked in 1545 in the
Solent. The Mary rose had 91 guns in a wide
variety of sizes, materials and styles. Some of
the ordnance raised from the wreck had itself
been released from the concrete-like detritus
through the use of small explosive charges, to
free the items of interest so they could be
raised. The novel use of pyrotechnic ‘spears’
was a revelation to the attendees, in addition to
the sheer number of ordnance items found
around the wreck. The second presentation was
titled “A Study of the Risks Posed by Munitions
in Sunken WWII RN Warships”, by Ian MacDonald
Watson, Senior Safety Consultant at System
Design and evaluation limited, who is also the
branch vice chairman. Ian talked us through
some interesting work on the scoring of
different hazards presented by various classes
of ships sunk in World War Two. The 47 most
significant munitions were examined and the
effects of age, wetting and low velocity impact
were assessed. The typical load of weapons for
each class was used to calculate the generic
hazard posed by munitions on each class of
vessel. Thanks go once again to Trevor
lawrence and the team at COTeC for allowing
us to visit the facility and for the staff support
and catering they provided.
Please get in touch through the Institute
Secretariat if you wish to attend any of the
meetings or to be added to the email
distribution list. Our branch meetings occur
quarterly in March, June, September and
December.
Rob Hart Ceng aIeMa MIexpe Chairman
06
The Explosives Industry Forum
This is the first of a series of regular articles that will explain and report the work of the
explosives Industry forum (eIf)
The eIf is a group that seeks to deliver continuous improvement in health and safety
standards and performance to benefit the explosives industry and all of its
stakeholders. It is a partnership between the health and Safety executive (hSe) and
the explosives industry, meets three times per year, and is chaired by hM Chief
Inspector of explosives, Dr richard Daniels.
It delivers the strategy it has developed for improving standards of health and safety in
the explosives industry by:
• ensuring active communication of health and safety objectives and targets;
• monitoring and reporting performance trends;
• providing a forum for hSe to explain and clarify enforcement policies and priorities;
• targeting and prioritising advice and guidance to the explosives sector;
• acting as a stimulus for identifying and meeting the health and safety research
needs of the explosives sector; and
• sharing good practices from across the industry
Its standing non-hSe members come from the Ministry of Defence (MOD); the sector’s
trade organisations and employers’ groups (British fireworks association, British
Pyrotechnists association and Confederation of British Industry – explosives Industry
group) and trades unions as well as Iexpe.
The Institute has been ably represented for several years by Mike freak (Offshore
Branch). following recognition of the Institute’s role as the professional body
representing practitioners from across the sector, the Institute has been asked to
nominate a second, additional member. Currently that role is being fulfilled by Council
member and Institute finance Director, Ian McKay, who has been tasked by our President
to ensure that the eIf’s strategy parallels that of the Institute wherever practicable.
at its last meeting on the 27th January 2015 the eIf discussed a range of issues including:
• the implementation of the explosives regulations 2014 and the development of
the associated suite of guidance; and
• how the sector could best be represented on a working group developing
regulations to implement the recast european directive covering the placing on the
market of civil explosives.
It also received briefings on:
• hSe’s review of the Dangerous Substances in harbour areas regulations 1987;
• the October 2014 meeting of european Market Surveillance authorities for
pyrotechnic articles; and
• the november 2014 meeting of the eU’s explosives Working group.
eIf decided to:
• ask MOD and hSe to liaise with each other over changes in criteria for the storage
of fragmenting munitions to ensure that potential discrepancies between hSe and
MOD licensed sites are minimised or eliminated;
• ask its members to provide views on a proposal relating to separation distances for
the storage of fireworks that have been classified for transport as 1.2g.
One of the roles of the Institute’s representatives on the eIf is to represent the views
of its members and you can raise strategic issues via your Branch Secretary or by
contacting Ian McKay, email: finance.director@iexpe.org.
as well as targeting and prioritising advice and guidance the eIf also monitors the
progress of the working groups that are set up to draft it. If the eIf starts work on a
new piece of guidance and you are interested in becoming a member of the working
group you can volunteer by contacting Ian McKay and providing a brief statement of
your reasons for volunteering and your relevant competencies.
eIf agendas, papers and minutes are available on hSe’s explosives group Web
Community at http://webcommunities.hse.gov.uk/connect.ti/explosives/grouphome
Martyn Sime BSc(hons) PgDip MrSC CChem MIexpe
 feature

Blasting
and mining
figure 1. loading of ore in an open pit mine.
By Raleke Chinedu Okeke BSc aIexpe

Introduction
Blasting is considered as an integral component by the mining coordination of tasks between the blasting crew and other
industry for the success of their operations. While cognisant of the employees working in the vicinity of the blast site.
inherent dangers, explosives are necessary in breaking rock.
The essential objective of an excavation process is to remove rock Planning for blasts is important because geological conditions and
material either to create an opening or to obtain material for its purposes for the blast vary from mine to mine. The ability to model
intrinsic value. In order to remove part of a rock mass, it is and adjust blast designs based on these factors can give mines a
necessary to induce additional fracturing and fragmentation of the distinct advantage in reacting to changing conditions and then
rock. The fragmentation of rock is fundamental to mining as this is proactively adjusting to them. Blast modelling programmes have
the first preparatory stage in the extraction process. significantly aided engineers in accurately simulating and analysing
different blast designs (figure 2). Be it quarries, open pit or
The technique of rock breakage using explosives involves drilling underground mines, intelligent and proper planning for each blast is
blast holes, loading the borehole with explosives, and then essential to ensure compliance with appropriate regulations.
detonating the explosive in each hole in sequence. for the best
blasting results it is essential that all holes are drilled in accordance everyone involved in blasting must be safe, accurate, and thorough.
with the preset drilling pattern. Blasting by design results from a
large number of factors, all of which need to be brought under
figure 2. Drill
control in order to achieve the right result. These include the choice
hole layout in an
of drill rig and tools, the layout of the holes, the explosive, and the
underground
expertise of the operators.
mine.
Blast fragmentation determines how efficiently muck from surface
excavation or working underground can be removed. fragmentation
is considered the most crucial aspect of production blasting
because of its direct effects on the cost of drilling and blasting of
the rock, and on the economics of loading, hauling and crushing. In
mining, both the ore and the waste have to be moved for processing
or disposal (figure 1).

Planning
Blasting is a complex activity demanding special skills on the part of
the blaster and other group members. It requires a careful

08
 feature
Sound planning is the best insurance against such things as
premature detonation, flyrock, and misfires; any of which can lead
to fatalities, injuries, or property damage [1]. The plan needs to
consider:
• the location of the blast.
• drilling plan depicting intended hole positions, depth, diameter,
direction and inclination.
• drillers log showing geological anomalies such as cavities, joint
planes, clay bands and discontinuities.
• survey showing the diameter, angle of inclination, number,
spacing and extent of sub-grade drilling for each completed
shot-hole.
• profile required to determine the burden around each hole
(figure 3).
• diagrammatic representation of the specific amount and type of
explosives, detonators and stemming in each blast hole.
• system of initiation, also giving full details of delay and timing.
• the danger zone, shotfiring and sentry positions.

figure 3. Profile generated by intersection of a plane and the free surface of
the bench.
Drilling
Drilling the blast holes to the desired depth is the foremost thing
done when blasting. The blaster determines the diameter of the drill
to use. Depending upon the job specifications, the holes are
commonly drilled to a desired depth or subdrilled deeper than the
desired depth. In order to help improve blasting operations, the
driller has to measure and log the conditions of all holes. Measure
While Drilling (MWD) is an optional instrumentation that logs a
number of parameters at requested intervals while drilling, such as
hole depth, penetration rate, damper, feed, percussion and rotation
pressures. This provides input to analysis of the rock properties.

figure 4. Drilling in an open pit mine. 09

 feature
The drilling process is used in quarries, open pit and underground
mines for blasting operations which are conducted to fragment the
rock (figure 4). While the drilling process is similar for both types of
mines, the different operating environments require specialised
techniques to accomplish the same task.
Blast holes have certain unique and important characteristics.
These are: hole diameter, depth, direction, and straightness. The size
of holes is commonly larger in open pit mining, compared to
quarries. Drilling of blast holes in quarries is undertaken in a
predetermined pattern, followed by plugging the drill holes with

for the best overall blasting result, the drill hole needs to follow its
designed path along its entire length. While drilling, deviation should
be avoided as far as possible. geological conditions are a major
cause of in-hole deviation during drilling, however deviation can also
result from faulty setup, hole alignment as well as bad collaring. The
main consequences of hole deviation are: uncontrolled
fragmentation of blasted material; possible misfires due to
intersecting holes firing at undesirable intervals; excessive burden
and spacing between adjacent blast holes, secondary breaking,
leading to higher costs for loading, haulage and crushing; and uneven
bench floors, resulting in higher equipment maintenance costs.
however, using positioning lasers, angle indicators and guide tubes
will aid operators to control and manage deviation.

Drilling operations are sources of respirable dust, which can lead to

high exposure levels for the drill operator, drill helper, and other
personnel in the local vicinity during operation, therefore dust
controls on drills are necessary (figure 5).

vibration is another common problem in drilling, and excessive

vibration can lead to operator fatigue and potential occupational
illnesses. excessive vibration can also prevent an operator
recognising problems with the machine. a lack of drilling accuracy
translates into poor blasting and rock fragmentation, which leads to
poor ‘mine to mill’ performance. This causes lower efficiencies in the
complete process and increases production costs. Modern drill rigs
are equipped with shock mounts to reduce vibration and increase
operator comfort and ergonomically arranged drill controls.

figure 6. Plugged drill

holes to prevent entry of
debris in a quarry.

figure 5. exposure of
helper to dust.
10

wooden or plastic plugs to prevent entry of debris (figure 6). When
the round has been drilled, preparations for blasting will start. The
holes are blown clean with compressed air to remove water and
rock fragments.
Surface mine drilling is accomplished using both rotary and
percussion drilling methods. rotary drilling achieves penetration
through rock by a combination of rotation and high down pressures
on a column of drill pipe with a roller drill bit attached to its end.
Percussion drilling also achieves rock penetration through rotation
and down pressure, but with a pneumatic drill, which contains a
piston which delivers hammer blows to the drill column or the drill
bit, depending upon the location of the drill (top hammer or down-
the-hole hammer), eliminating the need for the high down-pressures
required in rotary drilling. Typical holes can be any size up to 15
inches (381mm) in diameter, with the larger hole diameters
commonly produced using rotary drill bits. By and large, these holes
are oriented vertically, although some operations do use angled
holes in their blast design, and the holes are drilled in a pattern
where they are aligned in rows. Drilling equipment used in surface
mines and quarries are small surface crawler rigs, truck-mounted
drills and large track-mounted drill rigs. Dust control methods for
surface drilling use wet drilling or dry drilling with dust collection
systems [2].
Underground drilling is usually accomplished using percussion
drilling with holes up to 41/2 inches (114mm). Depending upon the
type of underground mining method used, these holes can be
oriented in almost any direction. normally the holes for a blast are
consistently oriented horizontally or vertically and are drilled in a
symmetrical pattern. Underground drilling equipment used to
include jackleg drills, stopers and jumbos which operate two to
three drill booms. recent significant technological advances in
underground drilling include the use of computer-controlled
equipment and remote access. The most common method of dust
control for underground drilling is using wet drilling techniques. This
has a slower penetration rate than dry drilling, but underground
drilling requires water for dust suppression. Wet drilling uses water
to flush the drill cuttings from the hole.
Electronic blasting
Precision blasting has been popularised by the introduction of
electronic detonators, although shock tube blasting systems have
been standard in mining for decades. The benefits of electronic
blasting systems (eBS), includes remote firing and better
programmability to control fragmentation. The ability to fire
remotely and wirelessly is not only safer, but is also ergonomically
advantageous as it eliminates excess wire or shock tube being
rolled to the firing point.
a specially designed blast controller unique to each manufactured
system transmits a selectable digital signal to each wired electronic
detonator. The signal is identified by each electronic detonator and
the detonation firing sequence is accurately assigned. The
manufacturer’s control unit will show any incomplete circuits during
hook-up prior to initiation of the explosive round. The wired round
will not fire until all detonators in the circuit are properly accounted
for according to the blasting plan layout.
The precision of electronic detonators yields more uniform
fragmentation from blasts, and helps in achieving significant
feature
improvement in lump fines ratio and wall stability than delay
systems, thus increasing mill throughput. enhanced production
rates and consequent cost reduction in digging, hauling, crushing, or
moving rock are the major benefits obtained from the efficient
application of explosive energy. There are other benefits from
better fragmentation, such as reduced secondary blasting, reduced
power consumption at the crusher, and less wear and maintenance
on equipment with less down-time. electronic detonators provide
protection against accidents caused by extraneous electricity.
Despite higher unit price, the usage of electronic detonators is
growing.
Principles of rock blasting
following the detonation of an explosive charge in a drill hole, a
chemical reaction occurs that rapidly changes the solid or liquid
explosive material into a hot gas. This reaction starts at the point of
initiation and forms a convex shock wave on its leading edge that
acts on the borehole wall and propagates through the explosives
column. The shock wave cracks and crushes the rock near the
explosive charge. It also creates a massive amount of cracks around
the blast hole.
The conversion acts on the rock in three successive stages
(Compression- reflection- gas Pressure).
Compression: a pressure wave spreads through the rock at a
velocity of about 2,500-6,000 ms-1, depending on the type of
explosives and rock type. This wave creates micro fractures which
enhances rock fracturing.
reflection: subsequently, the pressure wave bounces back from the
free surface, which is usually the bench wall or natural fissures in
the rock. The initial wave is now transformed into tension and shear
waves, hence increasing the fracturing process.
gas Pressure: finally, large volumes of gas are released. The
explosive gas pressurises the borehole and applies a radial
compressive stress, sufficiently large to initiate and propagate
cracks under high pressure. gas penetrates the primary radial
cracks, and natural cracks, and extends them further. Where the
distance between the blast hole and the free face has been
correctly calculated, the rock mass will yield and be thrown forward.
Controlled blasting techniques
at some point in blasting, the rock breakage may not only occur
according to the blasting round design, but there may also be extra
rock damage behind the excavation boundary. In open pit
operations, breakage beyond the pit limit is both costly and unsafe.
Underground, overbreak in the stope results in costly ore dilution.
Controlled blasting techniques are therefore carried out so as to
save cost and also enhance mine safety.
• In a pre-split blast, series of parallel small-diameter boreholes
are drilled first along the plane of the required final excavation
boundary [3]. The holes are lightly loaded with explosive in order
to generate an appropriate borehole pressure and are
detonated prior to the main blast. The resulting fractures forms
a pre-split line that presents a barrier to the fractures and
allows expanding gases from the production blast to vent rather
than penetrate the preserved wall.
In open pit mines and quarries, pre-splitting at an angle less than
vertical contributes to a wall that remains in better condition for
11
 feature
extended periods of time than the one that is pre-split vertically.
however, vertical pre-split may be appropriate where the rock is
particularly competent.
• Cushion blasting is used to slice or trim excess material from a
bench face to leave a smooth clean wall with little back break.
Blast holes are drilled in a line along the planned excavation limit
and are loaded with a reduced charge capable of slashing
material from the wall without damaging the walls behind the
holes. accurate drilling is vital in cushion blasting and charges
are normally decoupled for this purpose. It is imperative that the
holes are fired after the main excavation is removed.
• The smooth-wall blast is used to control overbreak in
underground openings such as drifts or stopes. It follows a
similar process to the pre-split blast, except in the reverse
order. a rough opening is formed initially using a large bulk blast,
and then the smooth-wall blast follows along a series of closely
spaced and lightly charged parallel holes.
In controlled blasting, loading can be accomplished with special
long, slender cartridges made for the purpose, or cartridges of
conventional explosives taped at intervals to detonating cord, or
just detonating cord alone.
Benching
The most common blasting method in open pit mines and quarries is
the bench blast. a major difference between the two is the
geological conditions and the demand characteristics on the blasted
material. Whereas quarries deliver the majority of rock via the
crushing and screening plant in various size fractions, the open pit
mine attempts to deliver the ore as pure as possible via crushers to
the dressing plant.
In bench blasting, parallel holes are blasted in each round in large
numbers. It is expedient to have a proper delay between each row,
and even between individual holes in each row. a proper delay while
reducing rock throw will in turn enhance fragmentation and also
limit ground vibrations. The blast should be planned so that the rock
figure 7. Some parameters in open pit mines and quarries.
12
from the first row of holes has moved a significant amount of the
burden (horizontal distance between the hole and the free face),
(figure 7) when the next row is blasted. The optimum burden
depends upon a number of parameters, such as lithology, required
fragmentation, type of explosives, hole deviation and inclination. The
bottom charge from where the initiation normally starts require
well-packed explosives of higher blasting power than is needed in
the column charge.
Stemming materials are used to top-off the blast holes. The
stemming material act to provide confinement preventing the
explosive gases and energy from venting up through the drill hole,
and instead are contained within the rock mass, thus ensuring that
the energy of the explosives is properly utilized. It will also reduce
and control the flyrock ejected from the blast. The major factors
responsible for flyrock are insufficient burden, improper blast hole
layout and loading, anomaly in the geology and rock structure,
insufficient stemming, and inadequate firing delays.
Blasting underground
Two reasons may be adduced for going underground to excavate:
these are to use the excavated space for storage and transportation,
and to use the excavated material in mining and quarrying operations.
The excavation work for underground mines can be divided into two
broad groupings, which are the development and production. for
most bulk mining methods, the drill rigs will have the same basic
carriage but with a difference in the drill. The rock drills, feeds and
positioning systems are different between development and
production equipment; this is due to the tasks required of the
machine.
In development, drifts, shafts, raises, and cross cuts are made so
that the ore bodies are easily accessible and transportable after
excavation. In underground mines, drifts are used as adits, and for
preparatory work, as well as for internal communication. a
prerequisite in shaft sinking is to provide optimum fragmentation of
the rock so that it can be cleared quickly from the congested shaft-
face area. Blasting operation is carried out against gravity, and the
scatter of the broken rock is confined in the shaft. Water resistant
explosives are normally used in shaft sinking because of the wet
blast holes. Crosscuts could either serve as passage from the shaft
to get to the ore body or a passage driven at right angles to the main
entry to connect it with a parallel entry or air course [4].
The production work can be subdivided into two categories: short-
hole and long-hole blasting.
Short-hole blasting is typically used in breast stoping for ore bodies
that are narrow or tubular such as gold or platinum reefs. The
diameter and length of shot-holes are usually limited to 43mm and
1.2m to 4m respectively. The mining cycle is carried out using
specialised equipment which could either be low-profile (lP) or ultra
low-profile (UlP). The equipment is used to drill and blast, bolt the
face area and then muck out the ore using a lP dozer. Mucking out is
normally done into a so-called strike gully or access strike drive,
which runs at right angles to the lP or UlP mining. The strike gully
has to be developed ahead of the mining [5].
In long-hole blasting, two excavations are required within the ore at
different elevations below surface about 15m – 30m apart. access

figure 8. Diagram showing vetical (a) and horizontal (b) blast holes in
underground bench blasting.
to the top and bottom of the ore block is established with drifts. a
vertical hole (slot raise) is created within the ore from the top of the
block to the bottom.
There are three systems in long-hole basting: bench blasting,
vertical crater retreat (vCr) and ring blasting. In underground bench
blasting, a development heading is initially excavated at the top
sublevel to provide drilling space; this is because the equipment
being used work in a confined area, moreover versatility and
manoeuvrability are also important. Subsequently, depending on the
thickness of the orebody, either vertical or horizontal blast holes are
drilled to increase the height of the excavation (figure 8).
Crater blasting techniques are often employed for larger
underground ore bodies in hard rock mines stoped with bulk mining
methods. It has been used successfully for drop raises and even for
shaft sinking. vertical or sub vertical blast holes are drilled
downward from the top to the bottom level. Spherical charges
feature
should be placed to obtain the maximum cratering effect. any
blasting is more effective when it takes full advantage of gravity, and
thus enlarges the crater dimensions.
ring drilling and blasting is done from a series of sub level drill drifts
developed in the ore body. The drill pattern is designed to cover off
the extent of the ore in the stope. In order to guide against freezing
of the blast, the ore must be allowed to swell when blasting.
Types of explosives used in mining
Key factors considered when selecting the type of explosives are:
The rock type to be blasted;
environmental conditions at each blast site (water table etc);
Diameters of the blast holes;
Detonation velocity of the explosives;
fragmentation requirements for loading, hauling and crushing;
Supply and storage logistics.
anfO (ammonium nitrate & fuel Oil) is the predominantly used
explosive, in dry conditions due to its availability and economy.
various forms of ng-based high explosives were used before the
introduction of anfO. Since its introduction, anfO has replaced
many grades of dynamites and other high explosives. however its
major drawback is its susceptibility to water, therefore not suitable
for wet blast holes. anfO explosives may also pose an
environmental dilemma resulting from their high nitrate content.
a variety of emulsified and gelled products are specifically designed
for wet blast holes. Ingredients have been developed to improve
density, rheology, sensitivity, water resistance, and detonation
velocity of packaged and bulk products.
Conclusion
It is obvious that the mineral deposit is the principal and
indispensable asset of a mining project, the in-situ deposit must
therefore be loosened so as to extract the valuable mineral.
Optimised drill and blast operations result in good fragmentation
and excellent heave needed for easy digging of muckpiles, loading,
conveying and ore processing operations. efficient drilling
equipment and advanced blasting systems make these possible.
Summing up, getting it right from the onset, in accordance with the
planned drill and blast pattern, saves cost, speeds up production
process and also enhances mine safety records.
Selected References
1. rehak, T. r., Bajpayee, T. S., Mowrey, g. l. , & Ingram, D. K. (2001). flyrock
issues in blasting. In: Proceedings of the 27th annual Conference on
explosives and Blasting Technique, vol I, January 28 - 31, 2001,
Cleveland, Oh: International Society of explosives engineers,
pp.165-175.
2. hustrulid Wa (1999). Blasting principles for open pit mining, vol. 1—
general design concepts. rotterdam, netherlands: a.a. Balkema.
3. hudson, Ja and harrison, JP (1997). engineering rock Mechanics - an
Introduction to the Principles. elsevier Science: Oxford
4. Puhakka,Tulla (1997). Underground Drilling and loading handBook
finland: Tamrock Corporation
5. Moore, P (2008). The lowest profile possible. Mining Magazine, vol
199.no 6 .29p
This paper is a revised edition of a paper submitted to the 2014
Journal Awards Competition.
Further information: ralus2002@yahoo.co.uk
13
 feature

The Blast & Impact research group at the University of

Characterisation Sheffield is currently involved in several projects aimed at

providing a better understanding of the blast pressure acting

of blast loading:
on targets under different threats. These projects fall broadly
under two distinct scenarios: the combined soil-throw/blast
load acting on a vehicle underside resulting from the
detonation of a shallow-buried improvised explosive device;
current research at The and the free-air blast load acting on a structural component
which either wholly or partly forms a non-infinite reflecting

University of Sheffield
surface. The research is largely experimentally based, and is
augmented with numerical analysis. This paper provides a
brief overview of the work conducted to date.

By Dr Samuel E. Rigby Meng PhD and

Dr Samuel D. Clarke Meng PhD

Introduction
Over recent years, the use of explosives for malicious attacks has In order to investigate the role of geotechnical parameters on the
undoubtedly become more common and the potential threat more impulse generated by buried explosives, a bespoke test frame was
varied. There are two principal events of which we must be aware fabricated on behalf of the Defence Science and Technology
and against which we must design our infrastructure to resist; laboratory (Dstl), shown schematically in figure 1. The apparatus,
namely high explosives detonated on or near the ground surface, built to represent a half scale version of STanag threat level 2 [9],
and high explosives buried beneath a soil overburden. comprises a large reaction mass (~1500 kg) supported by a rigid
reaction frame. an interface plate is welded to the bottom of the
These two threats are typically deployed against different targets.
reaction mass to which a thin (12.5 mm) steel target plate or a
Small hand-held explosives, or improvised explosive devices (IeDs),
surrogate vehicle underside can be attached. a soil container is
are used primarily against crowds of people and large vehicle-borne
situated directly beneath the target plate, with a cylindrical
explosives are used primarily against structural elements within
explosive buried in the centre of the soil container to some
high value buildings such as government offices or embassies with
prescribed burial depth. full details of the experimental
the specific intention of causing collapse. Buried explosives are
arrangement are available in Clarke et al. [10].
more commonly deployed against military vehicles such as
armoured personnel carriers. These situations, clearly, present very after detonation, the reacted detonation products and soil particle
different challenges to the engineer. barrage impart an impulse to the target which causes the target
plate and reaction mass to accelerate upwards. The apparatus was
as a first step, in order to protect our infrastructure against such
designed such that the reaction mass was given a free upward flight
events, we first must be able to quantify the output of an explosive
of ~800 mm, with the vertical motion being arrested either by
device to some degree of confidence. This is where the Blast &
gravity (if the initial velocity is less than 4 m/s) or by impact of the
Impact research group at The University of Sheffield has focussed
interface plate with the lower face of the arrestor plate which is
its attention for the past few years. This paper presents an
attached to the underside of the rigid reaction frame. Two target
overview of the experimental work undertaken to date, and is split
into three subsequent sections. The first two sections relate to two figure 1: Schematic of the free-flying mass impulse capture apparatus [10].
distinct projects comprising large bodies of experimental work in
capturing the total impulse and discrete pressure-time loads
applied to rigid targets from buried explosives respectively. The
third section summarises the work done to date on quantifying
free-air blast loads.

Free-flying mass approach

experimental research into quantification of the combined soil-
throw/blast load acting on a vehicle underside resulting from the
detonation of a shallow-buried IeD has largely focussed on
measuring the deformation of thin plates subjected to such events
[1], or the global impulse captured by free-flying plates [2- 4] or
pendulum-type devices [5- 7]. Tight control of the test parameters
remains difficult to achieve, motivating some research groups to
remove the blast engineering aspects altogether and focus only on
the sand-throw [8]. The role of geotechnical parameters on the
impulse generated by buried explosives is not yet fully understood
nor comprehensively characterised.

14

markers are attached to the rig, one fixed to the rigid reaction
frame (‘reference’), the other attached to the rising mass (‘object’).
Both target markers are raised up on masts to ensure they are not
obscured by soil throw during the test. a high-speed video camera
(Dantec Dynamics nanoSense Mk.2, framing at 4000 fps) is used to
film these target markers, and image tracking software is used to
give the displacement-time histories of both markers. Post-test, the
motion of the reference target marker is subtracted from that of
the object target marker to eliminate the effects of shock induced
vibration of the camera. The peak rise can be used to calculate the
initial velocity, which is then multiplied by the mass of the moving
object to give the total impulse imparted to the plate. a secondary
camera was situated within a reinforced concrete bunker and was
positioned to film the breakout of the charge and resulting sand
throw. an example of the footage from the lower camera is shown in
figure 2.
figure 2: frames from high speed video of an indicative test; a) pre firing, b)
initial vertical throw, c) cloud reaches container edge, d) expansion clearing
frame, e) expansion into free air, f) target movement clearly visible from
object target marker.
The work has thus far provided valuable insights into the relevant
geotechnical parameters governing the output from a buried
explosive event. The authors have shown that for a fixed bulk
density, an increase in moisture content leads to an increase in
generated impulse when all other variables are kept constant [11].
This work was extended to study the influence of particle size
distribution [12], where it was shown that non-uniform sand exhibits
greater test-to-test variation. Tight control of the geotechnical
conditions (density errors of ±0.2% and moisture content errors of
±0.1%) has enabled extremely repeatable results to be gathered.
This database has since been used to draw conclusions on the
geotechnical causes for repeatability of buried charge testing [13],
and the variations in total imparted impulse and peak dynamic plate
deformations has allowed the authors to begin to unlock the
mechanisms governing buried explosive loading [10].
Fixed target approach
leading on from the free-flying mass test programme, The
University of Sheffield was commissioned by Dstl to fabricate a
second testing apparatus. for this, a test frame was built of two
steel fibre and bar reinforced concrete frames spaced 1 m apart,
with a 1400 mm diameter, 100 mm thick effectively rigid steel
target plate spanning between the two frames, as in figure 3.
a central 10.5 mm hole was drilled through the thickness of the
feature
target plate with subsequent holes at 25 mm spacing (centre to
centre) parallel and perpendicular to the span of the concrete
beams. 10 mm diameter, 3.25 m long steel hopkinson pressure bars
(hPBs) were inserted through the bar holes and suspended such
that their ends sat flush with the underside of the target. Up to 17
bars can be located within a 100 mm radius circle centred above the
charge location for any test, with the ability to load subsequent bars
at any distance up to 250 mm away from the target centre.
Semiconductor strain gauges were affixed to the perimeter of the
hPBs to record any change in axial strain of the bar with time. This
can then be converted into a pressure-time history acting at the
loaded face of the bar, with the apparatus therefore giving a
temporal description of the pressure acting at discrete points on a
rigid target.
figure 3: Schematic
of the spatial and
temporal pressure
distribution
measurement
apparatus [14].
So far, this work has largely comprised initial studies investigating
explosives engineering issues such as: explosive size; detonator
type and placement; and potential contamination of the results
from the cable umbilical striking the attack face of the target [14,
15]. With the preferential experimental arrangement determined, a
series of commissioning shots were performed with bare Pe4
spherical charges suspended underneath the target face [16, 17].
The results show good agreement with semi-empirical predictions
[18], and indicate that the apparatus can be used as a research tool
for investigating the fundamental mechanisms of explosive loading,
as well as offering valuable data for validation of numerical
modelling approaches.
Free-air blast characterisation
In addition to the two large bodies of experimental work dedicated
to measuring the output from buried explosives, several smaller
experimental programmes have been undertaken in the broad field
of blast load characterisation from free-air explosives, i.e. small
explosive charges detonated on a rigid surface. Whilst predictions
for air blast pressures acting on effectively infinite reflecting
surfaces are prevalent in the literature [18], the process is
complicated when considering targets of finite lateral dimension. In
this situation, diffraction of the blast wave around the target edge
causes a rarefaction relief wave to travel inwards along the loaded
face. This is known as blast wave clearing. The subject is somewhat
addressed in the literature; design guidance recommends
15
 feature
figure 4: Dimensions of the
(a) (b) finite reflecting surface in
mm; a) reflected pressure
measurements, b) plate
deflection trials.

application of either a representative pressure-time history which (a)

acts over the whole target face [19], or a correction factor to the
total impulse imparted to the target [20]. neither methods properly
treat the mechanism of clearing, which has been investigated in the
literature to a certain extent [21, 22] yet not properly resolved.
further research into and quantification of its effect is still limited.
accordingly, clearing has since become a topic of focus for
members of the Blast & Impact research group at The University
of Sheffield.

In 2011, Tyas et al. [23, 24] conducted a series of experiments to

measure the cleared blast pressure acting at points on a finite
reflecting surface. In this study, a reinforced concrete block was
clad with 20 mm thick steel plate and had two pressure gauges
mounted on the front face (labelled g1 and g2), as shown in figure
4(a). 250 g hemispherical Pe4 charges were located 4, 6, 8 and 10m figure 5: a) experimental validation of cleared blast pressure predictions
from the target face and pressure was recorded at the two gauges [23, 24], b) experimental validation of plate displacements under cleared
for each test. The main purpose of this test series was to validate blast load [26].
clearing predictions proposed by hudson in 1955 [25].
(b)
The study was extended by rigby et al. in 2013 [26] to study plate
deflections to cleared blast loads. The previous test apparatus was
modified by attaching an additional steel frame (clad in 15 mm thick
steel plate) to the front of the reinforced concrete block. a 305 mm
wide, 320 mm high porthole was cut into the front of the steel
frame with the bottom of the porthole 305 mm above ground level.
a laser displacement gauge was housed within the steel frame and
was aimed at the centre of the rear face of the target, giving the
displacement-time history at the point of largest displacement. Ten
tests were conducted in total, with hemispherical Pe4 charges
ranging from 50-175 g, located 6 m from the front face of the
target. The charge mass/stand-off combinations were chosen to
ensure that the plates would remain elastic and the influence of
clearing could be more readily observed. The arrangement is shown
in figure 4(b).
lagrangian shell elements. here, the load was applied using a
figure 5(a) shows the pressure-time histories recorded at g1 for modification of the hudson clearing predictions as discrete load
the two tests at 4 m stand-off, alongside the hudson predictions curves [27]. These well-controlled experimental trials have allowed
[25]. figure 5(b) shows the displacement-time history for the two the authors to demonstrate the accuracy and validity of the
tests using 75 g Pe4, alongside results from a finite element model selected numerical approaches. from this, the authors have been
with the plate modelled as a linear elastic steel plate using able to investigate the mechanism of clearing for smaller targets
16

using arbitrary-lagrangian-eulerian numerical analyses [28], and
quantify the influence of clearing on the dynamic displacement of
targets subjected to blast loads using the Single-Degree-of-
freedom method [29, 30]. These studies have provided useful
insights into the physics of blast-target interaction, and developed a
wealth of information that can be used by practising engineers to
more efficiently and safely design infrastructure to resist against
blast loads.
Other similar research from the Blast & Impact research group has
used experimental work with high explosives to demonstrate: the
importance of negative phase pressures following the positive
loading duration of a blast event [31]; the ability of blast
experiments to produce reliable, repeatable results [32]; and the
influence of angle of incidence on blast parameters such as peak
pressure, impulse, and duration of positive pressures acting on the
target [33].
Summary
This article has presented an overview of current work being
undertaken by the Blast & Impact research group at The University
of Sheffield on the subject of characterisation of blast loading. To
date, a large body of experimental trials have been performed using
high explosives, and their influence on the loading imparted to a
target has been well characterised. areas of study include the global
impulse and discrete pressure-time loads imparted to targets
resulting from the detonation of shallow-buried explosives, as well
as several smaller bodies of work in quantifying the free-air blast
load acting on non-infinite sized targets. The experimental work has
demonstrated strong repeatability and very good agreement with
performed numerical analyses, enabling the authors to investigate
the underlying physics present. Work is still ongoing on these topics.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to express their gratitude to technical staff
at Blastech ltd. for their assistance in conducting the experimental
work reported herein, and to Dstl for funding much of the work
reported. The authors would also like to thank Dr andy Tyas and Dr
James Warren for their input in the aforementioned research
projects.
References
[1] Pickering eg, Chung Kim Yuen S, nurick gn, haw P. The response of quadrangular
plates to buried charges. International Journal of Impact engineering, 49:103–114,
2012.
[2] fourney Wl, leiste U, Bonenberger r, goodings DJ. Mechanism of loading on plates
due to explosive detonation. fragblast: The International Journal for Blasting and
fragmentation, 9(4):205–217, 2005.
[3] anderson Ce, Behner T, Weiss Ce. Mine blast loading experiments. International
Journal of Impact engineering, 38(8-9):697–706, 2011.
[4] fox DM, huang x, Jung D, fourney Wl, leiste U, lee JS. The response of small scale
rigid targets to shallow buried explosive detonations. International Journal of
Impact engineering, 38(11):882–891, 2011.
[5] ehrgott JQ, rhett rg, akers Sa, rickman DD. Design and fabrication of an impulse
measurement device to quantify the blast environment from a near-surface
detonation in soil. experimental Techniques, 35(3):51–62, 2011.
[6] Bergeron DM, Trembley Je. Canadian research to characterize mine blast output. In:
16th International Symposium on the Military aspects of Blast and Shock
(MaBS16), Oxford, UK, 2000.
[7] hlady Sl. effect of soil parameters on landmine blast. In: 18th International
Symposium on the Military aspects of Blast and Shock (MaBS18), Bad reichenhall,
germany, 2004.
[8] McShane gJ, Deshpande vS, fleck na. a laboratory-scale buried charge simulator.
International Journal of Impact engineering, 62:210–218, 2013.
[9] naTO. Procedures for evaluating the protection level of logistic and light armoured
vehicles. allied engineering Publication (aeP) 55, vol.2 (for Mine Threat), 2006.
[10] Clarke SD, fay SD Warren Ja, Tyas a, rigby Se, reay JJ, livesey r, and elgy I.
geotechnical causes for variations in output measured from shallow buried
charges. Submitted for possible publication in International Journal of Impact
engineering, 2015.
feature
[11] Clarke SD, Warren Ja, and Tyas a. The influence of soil density and moisture
content on the impulse from shallow buried explosive charges. In: 14th
International Symposium on the Interaction of the effects of Munitions with
Structures (ISIeMS14), Seattle, USa, 2011.
[12] Clarke SD, Warren Ja, fay SD, rigby Se, and Tyas a. The role of geotechnical
parameters on the impulse generated by buried charges. In: 22nd International
Symposium on the Military aspects of Blast and Shock (MaBS22), Bourges,
france, 2012.
[13] Clarke SD, fay SD, Tyas a, Warren J, rigby S, elgy I, and livesey r. repeatability of
buried charge testing. In: 23rd International Symposium on the Military aspects of
Blast and Shock (MaBS23), Oxford, UK, 2014.
[14] Clarke SD, fay SD, Warren Ja, Tyas a, rigby Se, and elgy I. a large scale
experimental approach to the measurement of spatially and temporally localised
loading from the detonation of shallow-buried explosives. Measurement Science
and Technology, 26:015001, 2015.
[15] fay SD, Clarke SD, Tyas a, Warren J, rigby S, Bennett T, elgy I, and gant M.
Measuring the spatial and temporal pressure variation from buried charges. In:
23rd International Symposium on the Military aspects of Blast and Shock
(MaBS23), Oxford, UK, 2014.
[16] rigby Se, Tyas a, fay SD, Clarke SD, Warren Ja, elgy I, and gant M. Testing
apparatus for the spatial and temporal pressure measurements from near-field
free air explosions. In: 6th International Conference on Protection of Structures
against hazards (PSh14), Tianjin, China, 2014.
[17] rigby Se, Tyas a, Clarke SD, fay SD, reay JJ, Warren Ja, elgy I, and gant M.
Observations from preliminary experiments on spatial and temporal pressure
measurements from near-field free air explosions. Submitted for possible
publication in International Journal of Protective Structures, 2015.
[18] Kingery Cn and Bulmash B. airblast parameters from TnT spherical air burst and
hemispherical surface burst. Technical report arBrl-Tr-02555, U.S army Brl,
aberdeen Proving ground, MD, USa, 1984.
[19] US Department of Defence. Structures to resist the effects of accidental
explosions. US DoD, Washington DC, USa, UfC-3-340-02, 2008.
[20] rose Ta and Smith PD. an approach to the problem of blast wave clearing on finite
structures using empirical procedures based on numerical calculations. In: 16th
International Symposium on the Military aspects of Blast and Shock (MaBS16),
Oxford, UK, 2000.
[21] rose Ta. an approach to the evaluation of blast loads on finite and semi-infinite
structures. PhD thesis, Cranfield University, UK, 2001.
[22] rickman DD and Murrell DW. Development of an improved methodology for
predicting airblast pressure relief on a directly loaded wall. Journal of Pressure
vessel Technology, 129(1):195–204, 2007.
[23] Tyas a, Warren Ja, Bennett T, and fay S. Prediction of clearing effects in far-field
blast loading of finite targets. Shock Waves, 21(2):111–119, 2011.
[24] Tyas a, Bennett T, Warren Ja, fay S, and rigby Se. Clearing of blast waves on finite-
sized targets – an overlooked approach. applied Mechanics and Materials,
82:669–674, 2011.
[25] hudson CC. Sound pulse approximations to blast loading (with comments on
transient drag). Technical report SC-TM-191-55-51, Sandia Corporation, MD,
USa, 1955.
[26] rigby Se, Tyas a, Bennett T, Warren Ja, and fay S. Clearing effects on plates
subjected to blast loads. engineering and Computational Mechanics,
166(eM3):140–148, 2013.
[27] S. e. rigby. Blast wave clearing effects on finite-sized targets subjected to
explosive loads. PhD thesis, University of Sheffield, UK, 2014.
[28] rigby Se, Tyas a, Bennett T, fay SD, Clarke SD, and Warren Ja. a numerical
investigation of blast loading and clearing on small targets. International Journal of
Protective Structures, 5(3):253–274, 2014.
[29] rigby Se, Tyas a, and Bennett T. Single-degree-of-freedom response of finite
targets subjected to blast loading – the influence of clearing. engineering
Structures, 45:396–404, 2012.
[30] rigby Se, Tyas a, and Bennett T. elastic-plastic response of plates subjected to
cleared blast loads. International Journal of Impact engineering, 66:37–47, 2014.
[31] rigby Se, Tyas a, Bennett T, Clarke SD, and fay SD. The negative phase of the blast
load. International Journal of Protective Structures, 5(1):1–20, 2014.
[32] rigby Se, Tyas a, fay SD, Clarke SD, and Warren Ja. validation of semi-empirical
blast pressure predictions for far field explosions - is there inherent variability in
blast wave parameters? In: 6th International Conference on Protection of
Structures against hazards (PSh14), Tianjin, China, 2014.
[33] rigby Se, fay SD, Tyas a, Warren Ja, and Clarke SD. angle of incidence effects on
far-field positive and negative phase blast parameters. International Journal of
Protective Structures 6 (1), p.23-42, 2015.
Samuel Rigby and Samuel Clarke are at the Department of Civil
and Structural Engineering, The University of Sheffield.
Further information: sam.rigby@sheffield.ac.uk,
sam.clarke@sheffield.ac.uk
17
 feature

Due to the low efficiency problem of cut blasting in rock

Experimental driving, a new type of jet cutter was developed on the
basis of the “first cutting then slotting” idea. The main

study on novel
structure of the radial jet cutter is a circular tube, and
there are several shaped rings designed on it, which not
only can reduce the charge quantity but also raise the

cut blasting
utilization ratio of the explosive energy. In the process of
detonation, radial shaped charge jets are formed along
the axial line of the jet cutter in sequence and then
penetrate the surrounding rock medium, and these

technology with cracked rocks will be thrown out by delaying the blasting
technology. Experimental results show that the
utilization ratio of the blasting hole nearly approaches
98% with this cutter, and the blasting efficiency and the
a radial jet cutter length of cyclical footage can be improved effectively,
and the cost of drifting can also be reduced.

By Wei Chen PhD student, Associate Professor Honghao Ma PhD, Professor Zhaowu Shen MSc and Debao Wang MSc student

Introduction
Drilling and blasting continues to be an important method of rock addition, for the sake of eliminating the clamping effect of rocks at
excavation and rock breaking [1-2]. The term “rock fragmentation” is the bottom of the blasting hole and reducing the resistance of the
an index that is used to estimate the effect of cut blasting in the bottom burden, the traditional method is to increase the depth of
mining industry [3]. The drill and blast technique has a disadvantage the blasting hole (subdrilling) to lower the center position of the
that sometimes it produces cracks in an uncontrolled manner and charge [1].

also produces micro cracks in the block as well as in the remaining
In order to solve the problems that traditional cut blasting
rock, if not carefully carried out. Therefore, attempts have been
encounters in utilization, we designed a new type of jet cutter (see
made to develop a controlled growth of the crack in the desired
figure 1). This type of jet cutter makes the best use of its cartridge
direction [4-5]. fourney [6] used a blasting method which utilizes a
case with a shaped charge structure; the cartridge case is a circular
ligamented split-tube charge holder in smooth blasting, through
shell tube with several paralleled v-groove rings outside, and the
controlling the crack propagation direction of the rocks, the forming
distances between each v-groove ring are equal. The v-groove ring
quality of perimeter holes are improved and their maintenance
serves as a shaped cover to accumulate energy, so it was called
costs are also reduced. Bjarnholt et al. [7] put forward linear shaped
“shaped ring”; the shape of the vertical-section is wedge or
charges used in contour blasting, achieving the aim of directional
semicircular.
controlled blasting. In rock blasting, cut blasting is a major process
to determine the blasting footage. It is generally understood that
cut blasting has only one free face, and this is the reason why the figure 1. Structure diagram of the radial jet cutter.
clamping action of the rock has increased significantly with the
increase of mining depth. The rock mass does not have sufficient 1. top cover
space for volume expansion in the crushing process. Most of the 2. detonating cord
explosive energy consumption is in the smash area. Unspecified 3. shell
fractures were produced under the action of the stress wave from 4. shaped ring
the explosion, which resulted in uneven rock fragmentation [8-9]. 5. shaped charge jet
6. main charge
In order to solve the uneven rock fragmentation problem and
7. bottom cover
subdrilling phenomenon in cut blasting, and to improve the speed of
8. charge divider
rock drivage, a new type of jet cutter was invented. During the
device
detonation process, radial shaped charge jets [10-11] are formed
along the axial line of the jet cutter in sequence and then penetrate
the surrounding rock medium, and these cracked rocks will be
thrown out by delayed blasting technology.

In this study, the efficiency of cut blasting, the utilization ratio of

the blasting hole and the length of cyclical footage are studied. The
mechanism of the radial jet cutter with the shell structure during
the cut blasting is also discussed.

Design of the radial jet cutter

In traditional cut blasting, most of the explosive energy is consumed
in the smash area, which results in uneven rock fragmentation. In
18

as figure 1 shows the v-groove rings of the shell tube inside are full
of explosives, while the rest of the shell tube is filled with a charge
divider device The charge divider device is made of nylon rod with a
hole in the centre to pass through the detonating cord, and
explosives of each part can be detonated as a whole by a detonator.
This will form several parallel radial jets along the axial direction of
the shell tube during the detonation process. By this method
explosives are saved and detonation energy can be reasonably
distributed, meanwhile the blasting effect is improved and the cost
of blasting is reduced.
feature
Experimental results and discussion
To observe the penetration effect inside the steel tube, the tube
was split into two parts. figure 3 clearly shows that there are two
penetration traces inside the steel tube, which were created by the
radial shaped charge effect of two v-groove rings of the radial jet
cutter.
On the basis of the experimental results, we can conclude that the
penetration ability of the radial jet cutter is good.


Penetration experiment of a steel tube

In order to verify the penetration ability of the radial jet cutter, we
designed a steel tube penetration experiment.

Materials and design

In this experiment, cylindrical copper pipe is used as a cartridge
case, the length and external diameter of the copper pipes are
100mm and ϕ22mm, and the thickness of the shell is 1mm.
Outside the shell, there are two v-groove rings of 3.5mm depth and
60 cone angle, as shown in figure 2(a).The formula of the explosives
used in the experiments is rDx, emulsion explosives and glass
microsphere with a mass ratio of 20:76:4, the annulus explosives
are connected by a detonating cord and initiated by a detonator, and
figure 2(b)
figure 3. Profile of steel tube after penetrated by the radial jet cutter.
figure 2.
(a) experimental
materials
Borehole blasting experiment
(b) experimental
Materials and design
device.
To confirm the blasting effect of the radial jet cutter, a borehole
blasting experiment of concrete is implemented. The radial jet
cutter is the same as that used above except its length and external
diameter are 350mm and ϕ16mm, and the number of v-groove
rings outside is 13, as shown in figure 4 (a).

The concrete in the experiment was constrained by a seamless steel

tube, which not only can keep high strength in the concrete sample,
but also reduce the edge effect of the concrete sample under
laboratory conditions [12], see figure 4 (b). The length and outer
diameter of the seamless steel tube was 500mm and ϕ310mm,
and the wall thickness of the seamless steel tube was 5mm. The
formula of the concrete was a mixture of ordinary silicate cement,
sand and water with mass ratio of 1:2:0.4 and the density of the
concrete was 2.13g/cm3. In the centre and peripheral of the
concrete, precast holes were made by PvC tube of ϕ25mm
diameter and 500mm length.

figure 4. (a) radial jet cutter; (b) experimental device

19
 feature
Experimental method
The purpose of cut blasting is to form a cavity in the excavation
face, which can increase the free face for the blasting of the
following perimeter holes. In this experiment, the perimeter holes
were designed as free face for the central borehole, which can
provide free space for the borehole blasting, and the cut blasting of
rocks can be simulated by this experiment.
The method was to put the radial jet cutter into the central borehole
of concrete, and plug the central borehole with soil, the stemming
length upper and lower was 75mm, as shown in figure 4 (b), while
the perimeter holes stay the same without any further treatment.
This was followed by detonating the radial jet cutter with a
detonator.
Results and discussion
as shown in figure 5 (a), after detonating the radial jet cutter, the
borehole was dilated and the concrete on the borehole wall was
extruded into the perimeter holes. figure 5b clearly shows the
penetration traces of the shaped charge jet along the axial
distribution caused by the radial jet cutter, which was similar to the
results of steel tube penetration experiment (see figure 3).

figure 6 shows the penetration process of the borehole caused by

the radial jet cutter, during the explosion, the concrete of the
borehole wall was penetrated by the radial shaped charge jet along
the axial direction, and initial cracks were formed; then cracks were
further propagated due to the effect of subsequent explosive
gases, and the cracks network was created.

Compared with the traditional cut blasting method, the radial jet
cutter can make the best use of the explosive power on the cracks
propagation, reduce the crushing zone of blasting, and the cracks
network improves the crushing efficiency of rocks.

Cut blasting experiment
The experimental results above show that the cut blasting effect of
the borehole caused by the radial jet cutter is good, but the
concrete of the borehole wall was only extruded into the perimeter
holes while not thrown out of the cutting hole. To simulate the whole
process of cut blasting, we conducted the experiment as following.

as shown in figure 7 (a), the borehole was filled with the radial jet
cutter which was the same as that used above, and the perimeter
holes were charged with detonating cords made by the PeTn; the
perimeter holes were delayed detonated after the central borehole
for 50ms. The central borehole and perimeter holes were plugged
with soil, the stemming length upper and lower was 75mm.

When the radial jet cutter exploded in the central borehole, the free
space was provided by perimeter holes and the central borehole
was dilated. Conversely, the central dilated borehole would provide
figure 5. experimental
results of borehole blasting
experiment.

figure 6. Penetration
process of borehole caused
by radial jet cutter
20
 feature
Acknowledgement:
This work was supported by the national fund of nature Science of
China. (grant nos. 51374189 and 51174183)

References
[1] lopez JC, lopez Je. Drilling and Blasting of rocks. rotterdam: Balkema;
1995.
[2] U. langefors and B. Kihlström: The modern technique of rock blasting,
(Jone Wiley & Sons, Inc., Stockholm, 1963).
[3] S.h. Cho, K. Kaneko. rock fragmentation Control in Blasting. Materials
Transactions, 2004, 45(5): 1722-1730.
[4] fourney Wl. Mechanisms of rock fragmentation in by blasting.
Compressive rock engineering, principles, practice and projects.
Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1993.
[5] P.K. Singh, M.P. roy, ranjit et al. Controlled blasting for long term
stability of pit-walls. International Journal of rock Mechanics & Mining
Sciences, 2014, 70: 388-399.
[6] W.l. fourney, J.W. Dally and D.C. holloway. Controlled blasting with
ligamented charge holders. Journal of rock Mechanics & Mining
Sciences, 1978, 15(3): 121-129.
[7] g. Bjarnholt, r. holmberg, f. Ouchterlong. a linear shaped charge
system for contour blasting. Proceeding of 9th conference on
explosives and blasting technique, Dallas, 1983: 350-358.
[8] n.v. Melnikov, l.n. Marchenko, I.f. Zharikov, et al. Blasting methods to
improve rock fragmentation, acta astronautica, 1978, 5: 1113-1127
[9] S. Strelec, M. gazdek, J. Mesec. Blasting Design for Obtaining Desired
fragmentation, 2011, 18(1): 79-86.
[10] harrold D. O. apparatus for cutting pipe and method pertaining thereto.
4724105: 1988.
[11] Yang W. B., William T. B. radial- linear shaped charge pipe cutter.
8302534 B2: 2012.
[12] Y. luo, Z.W. Shen, x.r. Cui. application Study on Blasting with linear
Cumulative Cutting Charge in rock, Chinese Journal of energetic
Materials 2006, 14(3): 236-240.

The authors work in the Department of Modern Mechanics,

University of Science and Technology of China, Hefeis 230026,
China

figure 7. Further information:

(a) experimental device; Wei Chen - chwei@mail.ustc.edu.cn,
(b) experimental results of simulating cut blasting. Honghao Ma - hhma@ustc.edu.cn

a free surface for the detonating cords which exploded in the

perimeter holes 50ms later. The radial jet cutter dilated the
borehole and created a crack network in the rocks, and the
detonating cords threw out the mashed rocks with the help of delay
blasting technology.

figure 7 (b) was the result of a cut blasting simulation experiment,

which showed that the cut blasting effect can be improved
considerably by this technology. The utilization ratio of the blasting
hole was achieved at 98%.

Conclusions
In this study, a new type of radial jet cutter was designed.
experimental results show that the penetration effect of the radial
jet cutter is very good, and with the help of detonating cords and
delay blasting technology, the blasting efficiency and cyclical
footage can be improved effectively. The radial jet cutter has been
initially used in mining excavation, and its cut blasting effect proves
to be better than the traditional technology. The structure of the
radial jet cutter is simple and easy to be manufactured, what is
more, the blasting vibration is decreased and explosives are saved
by using the radial jet cutter in cut blasting engineering; this type of
radial jet cutter has a promising application prospect in blasting
engineering.
21
 feature

Optimising
burden at
Cornish china
clay operations
By Joseph Coxson Beng (undergraduate) and
Benjamin Keverne Meng aCSM
Imerys satellite map.

This article provides an overview of an ongoing project in St
Austell, Cornwall, for a Camborne School of Mines final year
engineering dissertation, working with the blasting team at
IMERYS Minerals Ltd. The aim is to investigate the effects of
increasing and decreasing blast burden over one long bench of
kaolinised St Austell Granite. The effect on rock fragmentation is
of specific interest, but also the resulting muck pile profile and
resultant blast back wall condition.
By blasting one continuous bench, with three variations of burden
along its length, the benefits and drawbacks of each option can be
compared directly to one another. The direct visual comparison,
along with use of fragmentation software, should provide a simple
but effective indicator of the ideal burden distance in the
geotechnical conditions of the blast site.
4.7 and 7.2m. Whilst IMerYS standard burdens are lower than the
calculated figures, these values have been developed and proven
over many years of operation within the deposit.
The reason for the difference in burden across the Cornish
operations is due to the change in mining style. In Western area
blasted material is transported to the modern processing plant,
where smaller particle sizes are beneficial to limit the use of the
pecker on the primary feed grid (which results in operational delay)
and reduced wear and tear on the plant. In Central area, good clay
liberation can be achieved with hydraulic mining at a higher burden,
and the resulting washed muck pile is either transported to tip or
processed for secondary aggregates. Therefore larger
fragmentation is not an issue as long as the material can be
efficiently loaded and transported by mobile plant fleets.

An ideal blast
Background as previously mentioned, fragmentation is an essential quality of a
IMerYS employs two techniques for the extraction of kaolin (china
good blast, but along with this there are other features that need to
clay) from their numerous operational pits in ‘Clay Country’. Wet or
be optimised. One primary example is the blast throw. Most blast
hydraulic mining, consists of blasting a bench, then spraying the
holes are inclined at 10° from vertical, providing the material with a
muck pile with a high pressure water monitor. The water jet
horizontal component to spread it out, and clear it from the back
produced is capable of penetrating into the muck pile. liberated
wall of the blast, forming a trough, whilst also improving
kaolin is held in suspension and flows under gravity into a ‘sink’,
geotechnical stability of the resulting back wall. By reducing the
where it is subsequently pumped into the processing circuit. In dry
burden of a blast, the amount of material each hole has to move is
mining, the blasted material is moved using mobile plant fleets to a
obviously reduced, and the resultant throw is increased. If it is
centralised processing plant which efficiently liberates the kaolin
reduced too much, the chances of flyrock will also increase, as the
from four size segregated waste streams.
material that is being moved has enough energy to reach a higher
Due to the geological nature of the reserve, hydraulic mining is used velocity, and therefore travel faster and further.
in IMerYS’ Central area, whereas dry mining is employed in
another important feature is ‘back break’ or ‘over break’ – how much
Western area. Central area contains the largest Cornish open pit,
effect or damage the blast has inflicted on the back wall. naturally, a
littlejohns, at 262 hectares. Melbur Pit in Western area is the
largest dry mining pit, at 146 hectares.
Blast design.
Due to the often wet environment, truck pumped bulk emulsion is
the standard explosive used in china clay mining. In line with the UK
Quarry regulations 1999 individual hole decks are charged with
two nOnel downhole detonators, both connected into a booster
(primer), and a variable weight of the bulk emulsion is pumped in the
hole. an aggregate stemming is added to the top of the hole to a
depth at least equal to the holes burden.

Predominantly 6 inch diameter blast holes are used across all

IMerYS operations, with a standard burden of 4.3m in Central area
and 4.0m in Western area. Standard industry practice in
determining a surface blast burden is to calculate between thirty to
forty-five times the hole diameter; in this example lying between
22

blast opens existing rock mass cracks or discontinuities as explosive
gas attempts to escape, damaging the back wall. limiting this
damage is beneficial for reducing the need for scaling of the face
post blast, and maintaining the long-term use of the bench.
for IMerYS’ purposes, an ideal blast would be the one with the best
fragmentation and a muck pile which is easy to load without
compromising the strength of the back wall, or increasing the risk of
flyrock. There is a cost increase in reducing burden, as more drilling
and explosives have to be used over the same area. There will reach
a point where the increased cost of blasting is not made up by the
cost savings in processing.
The blast
The blast site will be selected from a suitable production blast in the
next month, and adapted for the purposes of the project. The bench
will be divided into three, with equal horizontally spaced holes
matching the test burden, altered in intervals of 0.3m - burdens of
4.3m, 4.0m and 3.7m. The hole depth will depend on the bench
height, but will be between 10-15m, and the hole inclination will be
the standard 10° from vertical. Prior to conducting the blast a
suitable site will be selected following a site specific risk assessment.
To indicate how well the blast has performed, the primary, and
probably most effective, analysis will be the visual impression of the
changes along its length. This will give a good indication of the
fragmentation, and the effect on throw and back break. further to
the on-site observations, the blast will be videoed for visual analysis,
and photographs of the muck pile will be inputted into particle size
analysis software (Split-Desktop), to provide quantitative data on
the fragmentation.
Pre-blast overview
Before the blast, the site will be surveyed for geological discontinuities,
cavities, weaknesses, and veins etc. – anything that could
influence/limit the effectiveness of the experiment or have an
impact on the blast generally.
a laser scanner will be used to survey the face, to provide a general
topographical representation for the blast design software. any
areas of specific interest on the face such as cavities or loose joint
sets can be targeted for more sensitive scanning, to allow the
software to more accurately determine the most effective blast
pattern.
feature
features that could cause issues for the effectiveness of the
experiment can also be spotted pre-blast, for example geological
discontinuities. a blast will fracture along the line of least
resistance, so despite changing the burden, in some locations, the
resultant fracturing and back break may be more dependent on a
discontinuity direction. hopefully this can be predicted pre-blast,
but the low persistence of some features may make them
unidentifiable.
veins also present a line of weakness in the rock mass, often
causing obvious iron staining on the face formed during late stage
kaolinisation. a ‘Schmidt hammer’ will be used on the rock mass to
get a rebound value which can ultimately be converted into UCS of
the granite in the three sections of the blast. This can be used to
give an alteration grade, the degree to which the granite has
decomposed, which will affect rock fragmentation and kaolin yield.
Anticipated results
Providing the site is reasonably uniform and homogenous along its
length, some simple hypotheses can be suggested. holes with less
burden would be expected to fragment to a smaller and more
consistent size, due to the blasts energy working on a smaller
volume of rock. for the same reason, throw will increase, with more
energy to spread out the debris.
The back-break is more difficult to predict, as with less burden, the
explosives will have to put less work in pushing against the back
wall, but more overall explosive energy and vibration may be
inflicted from the closer blast holes. Significant discontinuities are
also most likely to have the greatest effect on the line of breakage
on the back-wall.
In conclusion, the blast itself will very much depend on the individual
site conditions, but the experiment should provide a simple
indication of the most suitable burden in similar conditions.
Acknowledgments
This project would not be possible without the help and technical
knowledge of Benjamin Keverne, and the blasting team at IMERYS
Cornwall. Thanks also to the lecturers of Camborne School of
Mines.
Further information: joecoxson@gmail.com
Blast drawing.
23
 feature
The Improvised
threat
By Sally Sterling
The Improvised Explosive Device (IED) is used by insurgents,
terrorists and criminals around the world, due to its ease of
manufacture, relatively low cost and potentially devastating effect
on people and property.
The previous article, by the UK Ministry of Defence (UK MOD) Joint
Improvised Explosive Device Analysis Centre (JIEDAC), published in
SAFEX Newsletter No. 49, and in Explosives Engineering,
December 2014, assessed the history, evolution and associated
technologies of the IED threat, which have led to the IED becoming
a significant weapon of choice for terrorists, criminal organisations
and individuals worldwide over the past century.
This article will describe the typical construction of an IED noting in
particular the use of Commercial Grade Explosives (CGE), to inform
readers of their use in order to prevent further catastrophic events.
Construction of an IED
as stated in the previous article an IeD is “a device placed or
fabricated in an improvised manner incorporating destructive,
lethal, noxious, pyrotechnic or incendiary chemicals and designed to
destroy, incapacitate, harass or distract [1].”
figure 1- a typical IeD construction.
24
This is the second of four articles from
JIEDAC which detail:
i)the evolving threat from IEDs
ii) how an IED is made
iii) how we have tried to fight this threat
and
iv) how industry can help in this fight.
See iii) and iv) in future issues of
Explosives Engineering.
IeDs are a global threat; where victims include not just security
forces but civilian men, women and children. In the 12 months prior
to July 2014, more than 27,000 IeD incidents were recorded across
the world, resulting in over of 56,000 casualties either killed or
injured [2].
IeDs by their nature have constantly adapted and evolved
dependant on availability of resources, and action by global
Counter-IeD (CIeD) measures. a primary example of this is the main
charge explosive which can consist of a wide mixture of explosives
from Military grade explosives (Mge) to home Made explosives
(hMe), created using agricultural fertilisers, to Cge procured
through various means.
The development and proliferation of IeDs has been aided through
the use of the internet. It has allowed individuals to share
knowledge and plan terrorist acts. This has led to a rise in the
capabilities of home grown terrorists, such as the Boston Marathon
bombings of april 2013, when two pressure cooker IeDs detonated
within seconds of each other near the finishing line. The bombing
was carried out by two individuals aged only 26 and 19 who were
able to construct the IeDs and the hMe content from al-Qaeda
manuals proliferated via the internet. They used household and

figure 2 - The manipulator arm of a remote controlled Wheelbarrow robotic device cautiously reaches for an improvised explosive device that has been placed
under a vehicle during a training exercise [4].. © Crown copyright 2014 Imagery.
commercially available products to create the IeDs, including a
mixture of ball bearings, nails and additional shrapnel for maximum
destructive power. The result from their bombing left three people
dead, including an 8 year old boy and 264 people injured, including
several who had limbs amputated [3].

The typical construction of an IeD, as illustrated in figure 1, is
composed of a trigger mechanism (switch), an explosive main
charge, an initiator, a power source and detonating cord which is not
featured but commonly used. Typically, the variations for each
component part are:
Switch – The trigger mechanism will act as a switch in order to close
the circuit within the IeD and begin the explosive chain. The switch
will normally be chosen depending on the target that the user
wishes to attack and the amount of control they want to have over
the device. This may include having an arming switch before a firing
switch. There are many types of trigger mechanisms, these include:
• Command wire – Command wire devices will enable the
perpetrator to initiate the device by manually closing the circuit
of an IeD and start the detonation train. The IeD will be
emplaced with a long length of wire from the initiator to the
firing point; this can be up to a few thousand metres. The
command wire will often be camouflaged or buried in order to
avoid detection.
• Victim operated – victim operated devices are the most
indiscriminate. The device will be activated by an individual
whether or not they are the intended target. This type of device
allows the emplacer to maintain an unlimited distance between
themselves and the IeD, but it removes precision. victim
operated devices are most commonly pressure plates
(sometimes created from saw blades or other conductive
material suspended between a wooden set up, which when
compressed closes the electrical circuit and starts the
detonation chain). Improvised trip wire devices have been used
along with other more complex systems.
feature
• Suicide bomber – Suicide bombers maintain the principle of
direct control over the detonator. They will look to disguise the
device on their person or in a vehicle, intending to take their own
life as part of the attack. Through maintaining such close
proximity to the device, the bomber minimises the opportunities
for any countermeasures intended to stop the device detonating
and taking lives.
• Radio controlled – radio controlled IeDs tend to be the most
sophisticated type of initiation. They cover a spectrum from
simple radio circuits to cell phones that require a certain input
from the bomber to arm and detonate the device at a time of
their choosing. radio controlled devices allow the bomber to
maintain distance from the IeD to avoid being identified, yet
enables them to be more precise in their attack.
• Time lapse – Time lapse IeDs are emplaced with a timing device
that will initiate a detonation after a set period of time. The
timing devices most often seen are electrical or mechanical in
nature; however chemical delays have occasionally been seen.
Time lapse devices allow the bomber to be at some distance from
the device before it detonates, minimising their chances of being
caught. figure 2 shows a training device that imitates a time
lapse under-vehicle devices, which are magnetically attached to
the vehicle and were used extensively in northern Ireland.
• Combined devices - Combined devices may have a combination
of trigger mechanisms to aid their ability to kill their intended
target. for example a radio controlled device may be used to
initiate a victim operated device.
Main charge explosives – Main charge explosives vary according to
the availability of explosive material, the target and the financial
restrictions on acquisition of materials. The main charge will often
be disguised within innocuous objects, such as pressure cookers,
palm oil canisters or propane gas canisters, that might add to the
destructive effect by providing fragmentation. Main charges can be
constructed from military grade explosives, commercial grade
explosives, or home made explosives.
25
 feature
figure 3 The grand hotel in Brighton a few hours after the PIra bomb attack on October 12 1984 [7].
• Military explosives (MGE) within areas of conflict may be
relatively accessible through theft from explosives stores, as
explosives remnants of war, or illegal arms deals. Often groups
may lack the expertise or equipment to use the munitions in
their intended manner and, as such, will use them in IeDs.
• Commercial grade explosives (CGE) are often acquired by
groups illicitly through theft, illegitimate front companies or
illegal trading. examples of Cge procurement by terrorist
groups include:
The Madrid bombings of March 2004
four packed commuter trains were rocked by 10 IeD
explosions. The devices were initiated by cell phones,
injuring over 1800 people and killing 191. The main charge
was reported to be Cge, manufactured for use in mining. It
transpired that the explosives had been obtained from a
retired miner who still had access to blasting equipment [5].
The bombing of the grand hotel in Brighton (see figure 3)
In October 1984. The Provisional Irish republican army
(PIra), a northern Irish terrorist group, attempted to
assassinate the UK Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher at the
political party conference, through the use of an IeD. The
IeD main charge was frangex, a commercial gelignite
designed for mining, which was procured illicitly in spite of
security service efforts. The device was placed behind a
bath panel with a long delay trigger, set to detonate three
and a half weeks after emplacement. This allowed the
26
bomber, Patrick Magee, to escape and avoid detection.
When the device detonated, the midsection of the hotel
crashed into the basement. The Prime Minister was outside
the blast radius and was uninjured, however five individuals
were killed and 34 injured; some seriously [6].
• Home made explosives (HME) are often used where Cge and
Mge are unavailable, however they may also be chosen to avoid
law enforcement detection methods. The content of hMe
varies, as with other components of IeDs, according to the
availability of materials and the associated cost. In order to
produce hMe, chemicals that have legitimate commercial uses
are combined and processed in order to create an explosive
capable of detonating. Within afghanistan, the predominant
main charge has changed over the past few years due to action
by security forces, government and industry. ammonium nitrate
(an) fertilisers were predominantly used, however this changed
when the government banned an fertilisers and the insurgency
moved to potassium chlorate, which equally has legitimate uses
within the textiles and match making industry [8]. a good
example of hMe use outside of a conflict zone is the 1995
bombing of a federal building in the US City of Oklahoma where
two individuals built a vehicle borne IeD, using ammonium
nitrate fertiliser, nitromethane and illicitly acquired Cge. The
IeD, hidden inside a rental truck, was detonated outside the
building, killing 168 people including 19 children and injuring
over 800 [9].

Initiator – Initiators are a critical part of an explosive device as
without the initiator the device is unable to detonate. Commercial &
military electric blasting caps are most commonly seen in IeD
construction, however non-electric blasting caps and improvised
blasting caps have been used. Commercial blasting caps have been
procured through mining activities whether it is through theft or
illegal sales.
Detonating cord – detonating cord is a key element recovered in
IeDs worldwide. Detonating cord is typically used for linking main
charges, however it has also been used within IeDs as a booster to
detonate blasting agents such as ammonium nitrate fuel oil (anfO)
mixtures. although improvised detonating cord has been seen in
IeDs, it is a very difficult item to produce so bombers will tend to
use commercial detonating cord which is very often seen in IeDs
globally.
Power Source – Most IeDs use an electric initiation system and so
require a power source to initiate the detonator. This will normally
be in the form of a commercially available battery. The resistance
within the circuit will dictate the size of the battery, in the case of
command wire IeDs, it is the length of wire that will dictate the
resistance and thus tend to require a larger battery in order to
deliver the amperage required to overcome the resistance. Batteries
will range from the type used in portable electronic devices, to
groups of vehicle batteries.
The future of IEDs
IeDs will remain a threat in the future, adapting and evolving to
exploit new technologies that challenge and defeat
countermeasures. The primary evolution will be switches, exploiting
new and more complex methods, aided by the proliferation of
knowledge online and an increasingly technological society. It is
likely that the bomber will continue to utilise commercially available
products in IeDs such as cell phones and remote control devices.
Whilst developments are expected in switches and methods of
employment it is not anticipated that explosive material used within
IeDs will change without action. Bombers will continue to use Cge,
Mge and hMe where available. however, if action is taken by
industry and governments to reduce access to material it will be
more difficult for bombers to make IeDs. This combined with
greater control of precursor elements will lead to a greater chance
of bombers being caught and stopped before they are able to strike.
Conclusion
IeDs provide a threat world wide; often aided by online proliferation
of knowledge and technology. The key elements for Counter IeD
forces are switches, initiators, the detonating cord and the main
charge, which may include elements of Cge. Commercial explosive
products are made with the intention of legitimate use, whether for
demolition, mining or construction purposes. however, as some of
the examples have illustrated, they have been diverted for illicit
uses. Through combined efforts by governments and industry
working in partnership, it is hoped that improved control over these
elements can eliminate or diminish the access to those who intend
to cause harm and kill through the use of IeDs. The next article will
look at what has been done by global Counter-IeD forces to date to
combat the threat presented by IeDs.
feature
1 allIeD JOInT DOCTrIne fOr COUnTerIng – IMPrOvISeD
exPlOSIve DevICeS, aJP-3.15 (a), ,2013, naTO, [OnlIne] available at
< http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/doctrine/other/aap6.pdf>, [ accessed on
28 august 2014]
2 Small, D, 2014 JIeDDO Director addresses explosives symposium,
U.S.army[ on-line], available at
<http://www.army.mil/article/130950/JIeDDO_director_addresses_expl
osives_symposium/?from=rSS>, [accessed on 28 august 2014].
3 Case 1:13-cr-10200-gaO Document 58 filed 06/27/13, 2013, US
Department of Justice [on-line], available at
<http://www.justice.gov/usao/ma/news/2013/June/Indictment1.pdf-
233k-2013-06-27->, [accessed on 01 September 2014.]
4 2004, Ministry of Defence, Defence imagery, [Online] available at
<http://www.defenceimagery.mod.uk/fotoweb/grid.fwx?archiveId=504
2&search=45148213.jpg>, [accessed: 28 august 2014], usage details
available at : <Contains public sector information licensed under the
Open government licence v2.0.>
5 Madrid bombers get long sentences, 2007, BBC news [on-line],
available at < http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/7070827.stm
>, [accessed 28 august 2014]
6 roe, n, 2000, What happened after the bomb? , Telegraph Online,
[Online] available at <http://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/
europe/uk/southern england/722593/What-happened-after-the-
bomb.html – 28/04/2014>, [accessed 28 august 2014]
7 D4444n, 2007, Wikimedia, [online] available at <http://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/file:grand-hotel-following-Bomb-attack-1984-10-12.jpg>
[accessed on 28 august 2014] , Usage details: <http://commons.
wikimedia.org/wiki/Commons:gnU_free_ Documentation_license_1.2>
8 vanden Brook, T, 2013, afghan bomb makers shifting to new explosives
for IeDs, USa Today, [Online] available at <
http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2013/06/25/ammonium-
nitrate-potassium-chlorate-ieds-afghanistan/2442191/> [accessed 28
august 2014]
9 US federal bureau of Investigations, [online] available at
<http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/history/famous-cases/oklahoma-city-
bombing -07/05/2014> [accessed on 28 august 2014]
This article contains public sector information licensed under the
Open Government Licence v.2.0. Readers are encouraged to use
and re-use the information that is available under this licence freely
and flexibly, with only a few conditions (see
http://www.nationalarchives. gov.uk/doc/open-government-
licence/version/2/). Use of copyright and database right material
expressly made available under this licence (the ‘Information’)
indicates your acceptance of the terms and conditions on the
website. The Licensor grants you a worldwide, royalty-free,
perpetual non-exclusive licence to use the information subject to
the conditions on the website. This licence does not affect your
freedom under fair dealing or fair use or any other copyright or
database right exceptions and limitations.
Further information: JIEDAC@iexpe.org
27
 feature
AWE leading the way
in high-speed imaging techniques
By Paul Sagoo
AWE plays a crucial role in national defence
by providing and maintaining warheads for
Trident, the UK’s nuclear deterrent. AWE
has been at the forefront of the UK nuclear
deterrence programme for more than 60
years and delivers innovative solutions to
national nuclear security issues.
from its beginning in the early 1950s, aWe
has been a leader in producing high-speed
imaging techniques. high-speed imaging is
vital to understanding the performance,
reliability and characteristics of a nuclear
warhead and this became increasingly
important following the UK’s ratification of
the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty in april
1998, which meant that data could no
longer be collected from nuclear tests.
AWE developed its own
ultra-high speed cameras....
To capture the early stages of a nuclear
burst, aWe developed its own ultra-high
speed cameras and helped in the
development of high-speed cameras with a
number of manufacturers. right up to the
early 21st century, 16mm-film cameras
were used – filming experiments at speeds
of 10,000 frames per second – mainly at
the purpose-built range located at
foulness.
Today, aWe’s scientists, engineers,
metallurgists and hydrodynamicists,
collaborate with other specialists in the
area such as the Institute of Shock Physics
(ISP) at Imperial College london, and rely
on high-speed imaging to enhance our
understanding of the Trident warhead.
Imperial College is one of five Strategic
alliances that aWe has with UK
universities.
28
Tube 1.
A variety of high-speed cameras are in use
at remote locations...where conventional
explosives trials are conducted.
expanding cylinder experiments, for
example, allow investigations into dynamic Tube 2.
failure and damage mechanisms at the high
strain rates that can occur within different
sheet metals, such as stainless steel.
experiments are conducted on the large
bore gas-gun at the ISP, in which a gas is
used to launch projectiles at velocities in
excess of 1 km/s. high-speed imaging gives
us the capability to record the temporal
history of fracture activation in these
experiments, the results of which support Tube 3.
our ability to predict the behaviour of
fragmenting systems.
a variety of high-speed cameras are in use
at remote locations across the UK where
conventional explosive trials are conducted.
With cameras operating at speeds of up to
1 million frames per second, the demand to
effectively light such events is also crucial
for obtaining useful images.
Tube 4.
With the continuing improvements in digital
technology, high-speed imaging techniques
are increasingly being used in other areas
such as Tv and cinema, in particular in
sports broadcasting – examples of which
are formula One, horseracing and the
Olympics. The small team employed at aWe
are true experts in all high-speed imaging
techniques. The company has a dedicated
in-house capability to support the UK Tube 5.
deterrence programme, underpinned by
world-leading science, engineering and
technology.
Paul Sagoo is in the Corporate
Communications team at AWE,
Aldermaston
Further information: enquires@awe.co.uk
www.awe.co.uk Tube 6.
example of expanding cylindrical
experiment at the ISP at 310,000 per second.
 advertorial

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29
 Sidney alford Column

The views expressed are those of the author:

Our columnist Sidney Alford MSc PhD ponders the qualities of plastic explosives...

having, as usual, been caught making my way through heathrow
airport carrying items which were undeniably contaminated with
traces of several tools of our trade, I was shortly afterwards greeted
by a small posse of variously armed policemen and women and two
dogs1. about half the policemen, certainly the police ladies and, I
believe, one of the dogs recognised me and one policeman asked if I
had enjoyed my birthday, which I had celebrated only the day before.
records had obviously been checked on the way from their office
and the kind comment was made that it was a jolly good thing that I
continued/was still able to work2.
In occasional depressing moments, usually precipitated by matters
related to pseudo safety legislation, I briefly contemplate changes in
career path and consider Tony Blair who, turning a deaf ear to cries
of "Crusader" and "war criminal", got on his bike and beetled over to
the vatican where the then Pope Benedict xvI gave him a twenty
minute ticking off for sins past and an invitation to continue his
career as a roman Catholic thenceforth. he had, after all, done very
well as the vicar of St albans3 and, in the event, relaunched himself
as his country's Middle east Peace envoy4 and, in countries which
could afford him, Winer, Diner and Speaker, thus earning free meals,
first class travel and much needed personal protection as well as
such delights as Wendy, a charming Chinese lady, who reported him
as having "such a good body" including "really, really good legs [and]
butt" as well as very good clothes. neither was his largesse limited
to young ladies as the presentation by Save the Children’s new York
branch of their “global legacy award” demonstrated.
Were it only so for plastic explosives. at some late stage of
selection the opinion of a soldier or former soldier will probably be
sought. he has probably used quite a lot of the stuff in his time,
having, for example, piled unopened boxes of plastic explosive from
floor to ceiling of a Taliban “cave” in afghanistan, pressed the button
and changed the shape of a hillside. The careful study of the
candidate explosive’s mechanical properties in cold weather, its
stickiness in hot weather, and how deeply the corresponding
detonator needs to be embedded to obtain a consistent high
detonation velocity even in thin layers is evidently not always
required as that would take more than an afternoon. Cost seems to
be the determining factor in most countries and a knowing
handshake in others. Some, such as the USa, continue to use an
ancient formulation and believe their own propaganda on matters
related thereunto.
The requirement - usually ignored - to use rubber gloves because of
the alleged toxicity of the taggent introduced by the well meaning
Montreal Convention of 1991 is the equivalent of giving a surgeon
thick leather gloves lest he cut himself with his dangerously sharp
scalpel.

now I have never admitted this before, but I have always thought
that a red silk skull cap would rather suit me and equip me elegantly
for old age and a degree of respect. Then, two days before my
birthday, what did I learn but the sad fact that, not only is silk
frowned on in favour of tumbler dry-able nylon by the enlightened
new Pope, but that the retirement age for cardinals has now been set
at eighty. another of life's boats that I have missed.

So I abandoned such fantasies, got on my aeroplane, and nipped over

to a place where something needed blowing up rather urgently.
Most of my foreign travel is for the purpose of demonstration to the
military and the police of user-filled explosive charges for a variety
of applications. Since the carrying of explosives on aeroplanes is
frowned on, I carry only the plastic and metal components of my
gadgetry and depend upon my hosts to provide the plastic explosive
needed. Though an atheist at heart, I arrive at my destination with
metaphorically crossed fingers which remain thus until I have had the
opportunity to handle and fire whatever plastic explosive is
The author, in a foreign country which had better be
presented for my use; and what a remarkable range of textures and
nameless, and in which blue does not mean inert, attempts to
explosive properties I encounter. I have had bad experiences. roll the explosive into small balls.
I cannot believe, for example, that a new sniper rifle would be
introduced into military service until the consistency of its
mechanical tolerances and materials had been carefully examined as
well as such aspects as portability, ruggedness and adaptability to 1 american readers may recognise that we english, not wishing to vaunt our
knowledge of latin, still call canines “dogs”: the creatures know when we are
the user’s body dimensions. When these parameters have been talking about them anyway.
accepted, surely at least one or two good marksmen, who would 2 “The days of our years are threescore years and ten; and if by reason of strength
preferably have had practical sniping experience, would be provided they be fourscore years, yet is their strength labour and sorrow: for it is soon cut
off, and we fly away.” PSalM xC
with appropriate ammunition of known high quality and their 3 for readers who do not subscribe to Private eye, a little delving into its archives
comments on the rifle’s performance properly considered before the may be required.
rifle is purchased for service use. 4   from the french envoyer (to send), of course, but I have never found anyone else
who admitted sending him so I suppose it was god in a cynical mood.

30

The Bennett file
Our columnist John
Bennett questions the
filming technique for
the London New Year’s
Eve display
In summer last year, the Senior Coroner for West Somerset called a
meeting in Taunton to discuss ways to avoid a reoccurrence of the
tragic road crash on the M5 which occurred soon after a firework
display had taken place at Taunton rugby Club. representatives of
the firework industry and the highways agency were among those
attending. It will be recalled that, despite media talk at the time, the
inquest into the incident discovered that the firework display was
not responsible for the multiple crash.
The Coroner issued notes before the meeting proposing legislation
requiring firework displays to be licensed and for the permitted
distance to roads to be increased from the present fifty feet.
Coroners’ recommendations must be carefully considered despite
their being ‘only’ recommendations.
We surely do not need to repeat the problems that would be
encountered if firework displays were licensed (or, indeed,
distances to highways increased). Both would limit the ability of
numerous groups, like scouts, churches, schools to undertake their
own displays – and oblige them to employ companies to fire them.
The cost would be prohibitive for small under-financed groups,
would reduce their ability to raise funds or donate to local charities
and increase paperwork to the extent that most would just not
bother. Would this matter? Well, we, of course, would say yes – but
others might not. They perhaps might need reminding of the good
such events do but also that the result would be the pushing
underground of what is at the moment a well (and highly)-regulated
activity.
But, anyway, the inquest found that the cause of the crash was fog –
and not fireworks!
following the consideration of pricing of fireworks in my last
column, John Woodhead – a director of Standard fireworks during
their British manufacturing days – phoned me to discuss the issue
of codes instead of prices on fireworks. he told me that it was very
difficult to provide a price on the label when it was impossible to
know when the firework was to be sold. Contrary to popular belief,
fireworks rarely deteriorate and could well be sold the year after
manufacture when inflation had pushed up the prices of raw
materials and labour.
for the first time this year, the new Year’s eve display in london
was not free. The practice – to reduce numbers and help security
and organisation of the event - is by no means unique and may be
taken up by others. On private land, the practice is acceptable, and
standard – in public places there may still be good reason for it (as
The Bennett file
london new Year's eve fireworks. ©Titanium fireworks.
perhaps in this instance) and closure of public areas like parks and
even roads to stage events is not unheard of. The main problem
seems to have been that touts were asking large sums for tickets
that had a face value of £10. Some were reported to have changed
hands at £600. for those who could not afford even the £10 and
there cannot have been many that fell into that category, the
alternative of watching the television broadcast of the event was
suggested by the authorities.
Certainly broadcasting of firework displays has improved greatly
from the days when filming was used as an excuse for cameramen
to exercise their ‘skills’ and it is good that there is now an identified
programme so that those unable to stay up can record it. One
remembers the use of starburst filters to produce stars when the
display provided a proliferation of these anyway and this practice
seems to have been largely abandoned. But was it necessary to
show so much of the audience? The background? Big Ben? The
presenters? and to close in on small areas of the display?
I do believe that the fireworks were poorly filmed. Why does the
camera team not present a panoramic view of the fireworks and
keep the cameras still so that the display is seen as the audience
sees it – perhaps changing the view only when the highlight of the
display – Big Ben or the Wheel for instance – are a feature? and – a
continued gripe – where is the credit to the firework company
undertaking the display? It is, after all, the most important element.
finally, a few words on firework records. Should records be
attempted irrespective of the quality of the resulting display? One
remembers the fat Man shells that achieved records in america but
which provided no pyrotechnic enjoyment – only a hole in the ground
and shattered windows. In Dubai last year, 479,651 shells were
fired in a display generally regarded as one of the most impressive
ever fired. The guinness ratified record has since been broken by a
company in norway. 540,382 shells were fired in a successful
attempt to beat Dubai but it was significant that the producer of
this display praised the efforts in Dubai: ‘It was the most beautiful
display I have ever seen,’ he said. and that surely is the point?
John Bennett is editor of Fireworks, a magazine for enthusiasts
and the trade. It is obtainable, by credit card on the website
www.fireworks-mag.org or, by post, from Fireworks, PO Box 40,
Bexhill TN40 1GX (tel: 01424 733050;
email: editor@fireworks-mag.org).
£10 annual subscription payable to Fireworks Magazine.
Fireworks is also available electronically (See website).
31
 Tech Spec
Tech Spec
Bruce Cochrane MPhil MIexpe
Irish Republican
bombings
before 1969
Introduction
I am sure that most of us are familiar with
‘The Troubles’ in northern Ireland from
1969 onwards.1 These events impacted on
not only the communities they affected and
the security forces, but also the security
and explosives industries throughout the
UK and, indeed, the world.
It is perhaps less well known that the
bombings did not start in 1969. Irish
republicans have been carrying out IeD
attacks in Ireland and england since 1867.
That summer, following an abortive uprising
in Ireland, the Irish republican Brotherhood
(IrB) carried out a series of sabotage
attacks against railway facilities, gasworks
and other infrastructure in england. One of
their number, richard Burke, was arrested
in november 1867 and held in Clerkenwell
Jail. In December, members of the IrB
attempted to release him by placing a
barrel of gunpowder against the walls and
firing it. In the ensuing explosion 12 people
were killed and 120 injured. The
‘Clerkenwell Outrage’ was the first Irish
republican bomb explosion in england, but
it was, at that stage, an isolated incident.2
The Dynamite War 1881 - 1894
The first sustained campaign began in
1881 when Irish republicans began a
bombing campaign in england and Ireland
to highlight their claim for Irish
Independence. This lasted until 1894 and
became known as the Dynamite War. The
targets were mainly symbolic targets and
casualties were few.3
Often, unexploded ‘Infernal machines’ were
dealt with by the first police officers on the
32
Majendie caricature published
in vanity fair 1892.
scene, who had no training in any form of
eOD. In one case in 1885, PC William Cole
carried a bomb from Westminster hall
which exploded and badly injured him. he
was awarded the albert Medal in gold for
his bravery.4 The organisation formally
responsible for dealing with these early
IeDs was her Majesty’s Inspector of
explosives (hM Ie), based at Woolwich
arsenal. These few men were mainly ex
artillery or Ordnance officers who had been
trained in explosives technology at the
royal Military academy at Woolwich.5
for many years the Chief Inspector of
explosives was lt Col Sir vivian Dering
Majendie.6 In 1894 he travelled to Paris to
see how the french dealt with the large
number of attacks they had been subjected
to. On his return, Majendie recommended
that a pit be dug on Duck Island in St James’
Park. any ‘infernal machine’ discovered in
london was to be transported there, where
it could be safely dismantled from behind
armour plate by means of hydraulic presses,
pull lines and extending metal arms.7
The Irish War of Independence
1919 - 1921
The Ira used IeDs during the Irish war of
Independence but little is known about
them. It appears that they were deployed
tactically, i.e. against the Security forces,
rather than targeting the population and
economy as the Provisional Ira were to do
in the post 1969 ‘troubles’. ernie O’ Malley
was an Ira commander and he wrote of
blasting police stations with gelignite and
making improvised grenades with the same
substance in 1920.8 Command Wire IeDs
(CWIeD), described at the time as ‘land
mines’, were also used. In June 1921, two
boy soldiers of the hampshire regiment’s
band were killed when such a mine
exploded underneath them.9 O’ Malley
described these mines:
a landmine was a tin or metal container
of explosive buried in the roadway and
covered over; hidden wires led from it
to an operator who sat on a slope. he
had an electric battery. When a lorry or
armoured car passed a mark which he
had selected in line with the mine he
pressed the switch.10
This is as good and concise a description of
the construction and use of a CWIeD as in
any current military pamphlet. O’ Malley
also mentioned that improvised grenades,
mortars and explosives for landmines were
manufactured in ‘munitions factories’ in
limerick.11 I have found no mention of who
dealt with unexploded Ira IeDs, although
they were encountered, as evidenced by
this comment in a contemporary news
report:
‘a large unexploded bomb was picked up in
Merrion Square yesterday. revolvers,
ammunition, gunpowder and eighty eight
sticks of gelignite were captured in a
combined military and police raid on a rebel
ammunition store at Templemore today.’’12
The only record of an ‘eOD’ death I have
been able to find is somewhat ironic.
During a large ambush on 19 March 1921
at Crossbarry, Co Cork, a sergeant who had
deserted from the royal engineers and
joined the Ira was killed by troops while he
attempted to check his own mine that had
failed to function.13
The S Plan 1939 - 40
after the partition of Ireland, the Ira
remained an illegal organisation on both
sides of the border.14 led by Sean russell,
the Ira carried out a bombing campaign in
england in 1939-40, known as the S-Plan.
Typical symbolic and economic targets
were attacked and, despite the Ira’s claim
that they wished to avoid casualties,
several fatalities occurred. In the worst

incident, on 25 august 1939, five people
were killed when an IeD concealed in a
bicycle exploded on Broadgate, Coventry.15
These devices would have been familiar to
the fenians of the 1880s, and to PIra in the
1970s, mainly consisting of gelignite main
charges initiated using a modified alarm
clock.16 Several unexploded devices were
encountered and, as before, often the first
untrained police officer on the scene dealt
with them. Detective Inspector robert
fabian, later famous as ‘fabian of the Yard’,
was awarded the King’s Police Medal (KPM)
for dismantling one such device in Piccadilly
after another had already exploded. PC
ernest hayward also received the KPM for
dismantling a device in Tottenham Court
road.17
The Border Campaign 1956 - 62
Beginning in December 1956, Operation
harvest was the Ira’s code name for their
campaign against British targets along the
border between the republic of Ireland and
northern Ireland. Time and CWIeDs were
used against royal Ulster Constabulary
(rUC) stations, customs posts, army
barracks and, occasionally, rUC or army
patrols. Six rUC officers and 11 Ira men
were killed during the campaign. Of the Ira
men, five were killed by their own devices
exploding prematurely – four of them in one
incident at edentubber in the republic of
Ireland in november 1957.18 The raOC had
responsibility for dealing with any
unexploded devices, but often police officers
dismantled devices. Whether police or raOC,
the most common method of rendering
devices safe was hand entry and manual
dismantling.19
The campaign proved inconclusive and slowly
petered out. On 26 february 1962 the Ira
leadership ordered its full time active service
volunteers to ‘withdraw and dump their
arms’.20
Ira39-40 time bombs.
The approaching ‘Troubles’
after a few quiet years, events in Ireland
began to foreshadow things to come. In
1966 IeDs were discovered in a West
Belfast school21 and the Ira
commemorated the 50th anniversary of the
easter 1916 rebellion by destroying
nelson’s Column in Dublin with explosives.22
In March and april 1969, the Ulster
volunteer force (Uvf) caused a series of
explosions across northern Ireland,
targeting water pipelines and electricity
sub stations. The attacks were intended to
appear to be the work of the Ira and
contributed to the fall of Terrence O’ neill,
northern Ireland’s Prime Minister.23 In
October 1969, a Uvf member, Thomas
McDowell, died from injuries he received
while placing a bomb at an electricity sub-
station in Co Donegal in the republic of
Ireland.24
violence continued sporadically throughout
1968 and flared into sustained rioting in
1969. The army deployed onto the streets
in august 196925 and the republican IeD
also made its re-appearance. Most were
small, crude devices at this stage but they
certainly had the capacity to kill, damage
property and cause disruption. however,
PIra were to develop quickly and I will
cover this in a future article.
1 I haven’t included an end date as this is still
subject to debate – 1994, 1996, 1998,
2007 and ongoing are all options.
2 Mcgladdery g. The Provisional Ira in
england, Irish academic Press, 2006 pp 14–
18.
3 Coogan T P. The Ira, harper Collins, london,
2000, pp 15-16, and Carr M, The Infernal
Machine – a history of Terrorism, new Press,
new York, 2007, pp 55-57. The whole affair
is described in detail in Short KrM. The
Dynamite War: Irish-american Bombers in
victorian Britain, gill and Macmillan, Dublin.
1979. a list of all fenian bomb attacks for
the period is given in appendix 4 of Ward,
Jennifer (1993). Origins and development of
Tech Spec
forensic medicine and forensic science in
england, 1823-1946. PhD thesis, The Open
University, quoting from the hM Inspector of
explosives annual reports 1881 – 1894.
4 http://www.historybytheyard.co.uk/gallantry
_list_Pre1918.htm accessed 03 aug 2011.
5 Ward, Jennifer (1993). Origins and
development of forensic medicine and
forensic science in england, 1823-1946.
PhD thesis, The Open University. Ch 8
.6 The new York Times wrote in his obituary on
25 april 1898: ‘Sir vivian Dering Majendie
CB, her Majesty’s Chief Inspector of
explosives since 1871 is Dead. – Col Sir
vivian Dering Majendie, who was born in
1826, was educated at leamington College
and entered the royal artillery in 1854. he
served in the Crimea and the Indian Mutiny.
from 1861 to 1871 he was Captain
Instructor and assistant Superintendent at
the royal laboratory at Woolwich. Since
that time he had served as Chief Inspector of
explosives. among his publications are “Up
among the Pandies”, “ammunition” and
“Official guide Book to the explosives act”.’
7 exPlOSIveS: Construction of buildings for
examination and detonation of bombs on
Duck Island, St. James' Park. hO
45/9741/a55680. This is also discussed in
hogben a. Designed to Kill- Bomb Disposal
from World War One to the falklands, Patrick
Stevens 1987 pp 216-217, quoting from
the same source.
8 O’ Malley e. On another Man’s Wound,
robert rinehart Publishers, Colorado 1999,
p 126 & pp164-167.
9 Kee r. Ourselves alone, Penguin, london,
1972, p 131. Kee’s source is The Irish Times,
1 July 1921.
10 O’ Malley e. Op Cit, p 218.11 Ibid, p 377.
12 new York Times, Dec 19 1920.
13 http://homepage.eircom.net/~corkcounty/
Timeline/Crossbarry.htm accessed 15 Oct
2011.
14 for a detailed account of these events see
Kee. Op Cit and hopkinson M. green against
green - The Irish Civil War, gill and
MacMillen, Dublin, 1988.
15 Coogan T P. Op Cit, Ch 5.
16 Types Of Bombs Used in The 1939 Ira
activities, Scotland Yard 1939,
Metropolitan Police Counter Terrorist
Command explosives Officers Technical
library, london. Copy also held in the
author’s personal collection.
17 http://www.london-
gazette.co.uk/issues/34765/pages/19 and
http://www.historybytheyard.co.uk/gallantry
_list_1939-1945.htm
18 Coogan. Op Cit, Ch 14.
19 ryder C. a Special Kind Of Courage: 321
eOD Squadron – Battling The Bombers,
Methuen Publishing. Pp 17-23.
20 flynn B. Soldiers of folly - The Ira Border
Campaign 1956-1962, The Collins Press,
Cork, 2009 pp 195-205.
Technical queries
if you have a technical query you should
email your request to technical@iexpe.org
or call the Secretariat, on 01785 240154.
Queries can be posted on the iexpe
linkedin page.
33
 Industry news

Industry news Experse is new name for

Blast technology conference at Siegen, Germany
The 37th Conference on Blast Technology was held at Siegen,
germany on 10th and 11th april, with 300 experts from germany
and several european countries dealing with drill and blast
technology; properties, tests and application as well as the current
situation relating to explosives and detonators; developments in
pyrotechnics; and regulations and legislation concerning production,
use, storage and transportation of explosives and pyrotechnics.
further information: www.sprengverband.de
Malcolm Ingry lectures on behalf of the
British Tunnelling Society
as well as appearing as guest lecturer at the Institute of Civil
engineers in Westminister, Malcolm Ingry, fellow and Past
President of The Institute of explosives engineers, lectures for
the civil and tunnelling industry. In particular he is invited each
year to The Safety lectures on behalf of the British Tunnelling
Society, as a representative of the Iexpe, and as a leading
authority in the use of explosives in tunnelling and all types of
blasting in coal and miscellaneous mines.
leading explosives emulsifier
supplier
Mining explosives giant aeCI has renamed its emulsifier
subsidiary as experse, adopting the name of its key product
range. headquartered in Johannesburg, South africa with offices
in europe, South america, australia and China, experse was
previously known as lake International Technologies. as well as
polymeric emulsifiers for mining explosives, the innovative
company also manufactures coating agents for fertilisers and
chemicals used in industrial processes.
The company is known for innovative solutions for the emulsion
explosives industry, and places great emphasis on its customised
approach and patented emulsifier technologies. experse’s
unique technology allows customers to use waste oil in their
emulsion explosives, cutting costs and logistics demands; it has
also developed super concentrated, thickening and ultra-low
temperature products to solve specific explosives problems
around the world.
Further information: Duncan.Andrews@experse.com

The Safety Course brings specialist tunnel engineers together

from all over the world to bring themselves up to date with all
aspects of new developments in this specialist field. Malcolm, as
well known figure in all commercial disciplines and the film
industry is Course Director of the Intermediate explosives
Course held at least once a year on behalf of the Iexpe. This year
it will be held on the weekend on 25th, 26th and 27th april at
event horizon premises in Somerset.

Malcolm and Charles adcock invite you to apply for this course
by contacting the Secretariat at the Institute. This will allow
participants to apply for either associate or full Membership
depending on qualifications and practical experience. all
lecturers are members of the Institute and leading authorities in
their field.
Malcolm Ingry lectures at the Institute of Civil engineers on current
blasting underground tunnelling construction.

34

Letter to the editor
Memo from SAFEX International to
the President and the IExpE
From Boet Coetzee, Secretary
General, 31st December 2014
Dear John
This is my last communication to you as I
prepare to hand over to Piet halliday today.
It comes with that tinge of sadness one
feels when you have to say goodbye to
people who are close to you. It has been
our privilege to serve Safex for almost 10
years and during that time we have
developed a special bond with you. The one
thing that stands out for us is the support
and encouragement we have received from
the Safex community. Without it our task
would undoubtedly have been more
difficult and less rewarding. Therefore, all
that remains is for Bets and I to say a
humble thank you for what your
association with Safex has meant to us
personally. We know you will continue to
demonstrate your commitment to Safex
and what it stands for by supporting Piet in
the same way.
allow us to wish you and yours a very
healthy, safe and successful 2015 as well
as everything of the best for the future.
god bless you
Boet Coetzee, Secretary general,
Safex International
Industry news
ISSEE IS MOVING!
as from Tuesday 7th april 2015 ISSee will be relocating to more spacious and
comfortable surroundings.
ISSee will be moving from Chilmark in Wiltshire to enstone in Oxfordshire. Our new
location offers us the expansive training, conference and office facilities we need
and, for the first time, allows us to provide integrated accommodation for our
students.
ISSee will be based at the Centre for homeland Security, Talbot hall, which sits
within the 440 acre estate of heythrop Park which is only 6 miles from Chipping
norton and a 20 minute drive from Junction 11 of the M40.
ISSee’s CeO gordon Storey comments:
“Since we opened for business 15 years ago, we have increased the range of services
we provide; now we need more space and improved facilities to serve our customers
better. The previous location was becoming too small and could not facilitate the
expansion and new technologies we have planned for the coming years.”
Paul russell, resort Director at heythrop Park resorts adds:
“We are very pleased to be working with ISSee and I believe the exacting quality and
standards they set are a perfect match for a venue such as heythrop Park. I
personally look forward to a long relationship and the exciting new opportunities this
brings.”
If you have any questions about the new location or our services, please contact us
and we’ll be happy to help. We look forward to seeing you at Talbot hall.
Our new contact details will be:
ISSee ltd Centre for homeland Security, Talbot hall, heythrop Park, enstone
Oxfordshire Ox7 5Ue United Kingdom.
Our email addresses won’t change.
The generic email will remain
admin@issee.co.uk
Further details will be posted at www.ISSEE.CO.UK
35
 Conference/exhibition Diary
Conferences/Exhibition Diary
COUNTER TERROR EXPO
Olympia, London, 21st to 22nd April 2015
International security for an evolving world. The event for those in the
public and private sectors tasked with sourcing and delivering
protection against terrorist threats.
Further information: www.counterterrorexpo.com
THE INSTITUTE OF EXPLOSIVES ENGINEERS
Norton Park Hotel, Sutton Scotney, Winchester, England,
23rd and 24th April 2015
The theme is "Strengthening the relationship between The Institute of
explosives engineers and industry partners". agM, annual Dinner and
Conference.
Further information: events@iexpe.org, www.iexpe.org
EFEE 8TH WORLD CONFERENCE ON EXPLOSIVES AND BLASTING
Lyon Convention Centre, Lyon, France, 26th to 28th April 2015
The programme covers blasting experience and projects, blast design
and management, health and safety, environment, shot hole
development, technology and eU Directives.
Further information: www.efee2015.com
IMEMTS INSENSITIVE MUNITIONS & ENERGETIC MATERIALS
TECHNOLOGY SYMPOSIUM
Sheraton Roma Hotel and Conference Centre, Rome, Italy,
18th to 21st May 2015
Further information: www.imemts2015.com
BODY SEARCH 2015
Heathrow, London, 10th to 11th June 2015
a two day conference examining the ways in which individuals might
infiltrate prohibited items into security restricted areas – on or in their
bodies – and which technologies and protocols can be deployed to
counter the threat.
Further information: www.avsec.com
CRITICAL INFRASTRUCTURE PROTECTION AND RESILIENCE, ASIA
Bangkok, Thailand, 24th and 25th June, 2015
Securing critical infrastructure across aSean including critical
information and infrastructure protection.
Further information: www.cip-asia.com
EARLY CAREERS SYMPOSIUM
Chipping Norton, Oxfordshire, 7th and 8th July 2015.
Topics will include: UK defence capability; communication and personal
effectiveness; technical presentations; emerging technologies;
protection, detection and analysis.
Further information: earlycareerssymposium@gmail.com
FRAGBLAST 11. 11TH INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON ROCK
FRAGMENTATION BY BLASTING
Sheraton on the Park Hotel, Sydney, Australia, 24th to 26th August, 2015
Further information: www.ausimm.com.au
ORDNANCE MUNITIONS & EXPLOSIVES SYMPOSIUM
Defence Academy of the United Kingdom, Shrivenham,
29th to 30th September 2015
held on behalf of the Sector Skills Strategy group (SSSg) of the
explosives industry and Cranfield Defence & Security
Further information: symposiaatshrivenham.com
36
In a Flash
Alan Combe MIExpE
(the longest serving member of
the IExpE, membership no. 003)
Your age:
a young 79 years.
Occupation: Sadly retired from the world of explosives.
Current position: home maintenance engineer.
Responsibilities in job/work activities:
Chauffer, gardener, shopper. Maintenance engineer to home
and garden.
Why are you involved in IExpE?
I like to keep up to date with the wonderful world of
explosives engineering.
What are the benefits for you of the IExpE?
I found that being a member was a god-send whilst I was
working overseas. It opened doors and made it easier to
obtain licenses and my blasting procedures were readily
accepted.
What alternative career might you have followed?
after giving this some thought I have decided that my job has
provided me with several careers. 1. a demolition expert
(northern explosives ltd). 2. a specialist in rock excavation
and blasting on roads civil and engineering projects.
(Precision Blasting). 3. a train driver under ground during a
strike by Sri lankan workers. (Balfour Beatty International
ltd). 4.Marine captain of a company dive boat on the Indian
Ocean. This was in Tanzania building a cement factory. (Ballast
needam Int).
Who do you most admire on the current world stage and
why?
Bill gates, founder of Microsoft. he brought the computer to
the masses. he gives millions to various charities.
Who would you most like to meet from any century and why?
george Stephenson. Born within five miles of our house in
newcastle upon Tyne. I often cycle along the old waggon way
and have a coffee in the cottage where he was born which is
now a museum. george Stephenson was known as the father
of railways. The railways fuelled the industrial revolution and
in my opinion put the great into great Britain.
What are your favourite activities/hobbies?
Walking, swimming, theatre visiting, occasional cycle trips,
What is your ideal holiday?
Warm sunshine, white sands, a clear blue sea and a beach bar
selling cold beer.
What is your favourite type of food?
a good Indian curry.

Emails are as follows:-
President@iexpe.org
Director@iexpe.org
Secretariat@iexpe.org
Membership@iexpe.org
A JOHNSTONE
Tel: 01461 500 567
Email:
- John Wolstenholme johnstone3611@btinternet.com
Rock Drilling and
- alan Morley Blasting Contractor
Quarries, Opencast Mines,
- vicki hall Controlled Blasting, Presplitting,
Civil Engineering Projects
- andy Pettitt

editor@iexpe.org - Diane hall

vp.operations@iexpe.org - Dave Welch

R J Blasting
(Scotland) Ltd
vp.projects@iexpe.org - Paul harris Tel 01290 552121
finance.director@iexpe.org - Ian McKay Fax 01290 552930
E-mail:enquiries@rjblasting.co.uk
registrar@iexpe.org - Ken Cross Drilling and Blasting for

Site.ed@iexpe.org - Web - Dan Perkins

Quarrying, Open Cast and To advertise your
Civil Engineering projects
company's products
and services in the
Journal please
Rock Fall Co. Ltd contact Gordon Hunt
IExpE – Editorial Programme Tel 01563 851302
Fax 01563 851063 Telephone: +44
2015 E-mail:info@rock-fall.com
Drilling and Blasting Contractor
(0)1726 832594
Email:
June eOD clearance specialising in executing harbour
design@gordon-
and channel deepening,
Case Study from UK on a WWII bomb hunt.co.uk
foreshore trenching and
September Mapping methods for mine detection marine drilling and blasting
The use of rPvs in eOD works throughout the world

December fireworks and special effects

Demolition

IExpE Merchandise

All items are available

to buy with the new
Institute logo
polo shirt £18.99 porcelain mug £6.99
micro fleece Jacket £27.75 ceramic mug £5.25 IExpE Journal calls for papers
Fleece Jacket £25.65 Themo Sports mug £12.50
Soft Shell Jacket £38.49 coaster £2.99 deadline for June 2015 issue is april 30th 2015.
coaster set (x 4) £5.25 1500 - 3000 word articles and papers will be considered
prices quoted are excluding postage. for publication and should be accompanied by digital
illustrations eg. photographs, drawings and tables.
Orders can be placed with Emille
E mail the Editor: editor@iexpe.org
via email at craftycraftsales@gmail.com
or on 07973 618827