The HK Polytechnic University Load Flow

✬ ✩

1 Load Flow Analysis

• A ‘load flow’ or ‘power flow’ is power system jargon for the steady-state solution
of a power system network subject to certain operational constraints, such as:

– Generation supplies the demand (load) plus losses.

– Bus voltage magnitudes remain close to rated values.
– Generators operate within specified real and reactive power limits.
1
– Transformer tap settings are within limits.
– Transmission lines and transformers are not overloaded.

• Load flow solution gives the nodal voltages and phase angles and hence the
power injection at all buses and power flows though transmission units such as
lines, cables and transformers.

• Load flow calculations are performed for power system planning, operational
planning and in connection with system operation and control.
✫ ✪
✬ ✩
• Load flow studies are performed to investigate the following features of a power
system network:

1. Flow of MW and MVAr in the branches of the network.

2. Busbar (node) voltage.
3. Effect of the following changes on system loading:
(a) Rearranging circuits and incorporating new circuits.
(b) Temporary loss of generation and transmission circuits.
2
(c) Injecting in-phase and quadrature boost voltages.
4. Optimum system running conditions and load distribution.
5. Minimising system losses.
6. Optimum rating and tap-range of transformers.
7. Improvements from change of conductor size and system voltage.

• Studies will normally be performed for various load conditions to ensure the

✫ ✪
power network behaves properly under a wide range of operating conditions.

KWCn v1.31 1
 The HK Polytechnic University Load Flow

✬ ✩

2 Load Flow Problem

• Objectives: to determine the steady state operating conditions of (a) busbar
voltage, (b) generation, (c) branch power flows, and (d) circuit system loss.

• Conventional nodal or loop analysis is not suitable for load flow studies because
loads are normally given in terms of power rather than impedance. Also,
generators are considered as power sources, not voltage or current sources.
3
• Together with the power and voltage constraints, the load flow problem becomes
a nonlinear numerical problem formulated as a set of nonlinear algebraic
equations and the numerical solution must therefore be iterative in nature.

• A load flow solution of the power system requires mainly the following steps:
1. Formulation of the network equations (load flow equations).
2. Suitable mathematical technique for solution of the equations
(Gauss-Seidel, Newton-Raphson, and Fast Decoupled methods).
✫ ✪
✬ ✩

3 Network Model Formulation

• In a power system, each bus is associated with 4 quantities:
1. real and reactive powers, P & Q.
2. bus voltage magnitude and angle, |V | & δ .

Among these 4 quantities , only 2 can be specified and the remaining 2 are
obtained through the load flow solution.
4
• Depending upon which quantities have been specified, the buses are classified
into three categories:

Bus Type Quantities Specified Quantities to be obtained

Load (PQ) bus P, Q |V |, δ

Generator (PV) bus P , |V | Q, δ
Slack (Swing) bus |V |, δ P, Q
✫ ✪

KWCn v1.31 2
 The HK Polytechnic University Load Flow

✬ ✩
3.1 Bus Classification

1. Load or PQ bus: The complex power (P , Q) is specified. It is desired to find out

the voltage magnitude and phase angle through the load flow solution – loads.

2. Generation, PV or voltage control bus: The voltage magnitude and real

power are specified. Often limits to the value of the reactive power are giving as
well. It is required to find out the reactive power generation and the phase angle
5 of the bus voltage – capacitors, synchronous compensators and generators.

3. Slack, swing or reference bus: Bus voltage magnitude and angle are
specified, typically 1.0/0o , whereas its power P , Q are obtained through the
load flow to cover any power loss, which is not known precisely in advance of
the calculation, or mismatch of load and power generation – system frequency
control generators. This bus voltage angle will be taken as the reference. There
shall be only one such bus in a power system, and usually, the one with the
largest generation is assigned as the slack, swing or reference bus.
✫ ✪
✬ ✩

3.2 Nodal Admittance Matrix

Load flow formulation can be established by using either the loop or bus frame of
reference.
loop: V = ZI where Z : impedance matrix V : voltage vector
bus: I =YV Y : admittance matrix I : current vector
6
Generally, bus frame of reference in admittance form is preferred as :

1. data preparation is simple

2. its formation and modification is easy

3. the bus admittance matrix is a sparse matrix (i.e. most of its elements are zero)
– save computer memory and computational effort.

✫ ✪

KWCn v1.31 3
 The HK Polytechnic University Load Flow

✬ ✩

Consider the nodal current at node 1,

I1 = I11 + I12 + I13
= V1 y11 + (V1 − V2 )y12 + (V1 − V3 )y13
= V1 (y11 + y12 + y13 ) − V2 y12 − V3 y13
= V1 Y11 + V2 Y12 + V3 Y13
where y11 is the shunt charging admittance Three-bus system
I1 I2
7 at bus 1 and y12 is the series admittance
1 2
between bus 1 and 2, and I13 I12 y12 = y21 I21 I 23
Y11 = y11 + y12 + y13 I11 I22
Y12 = −y12
Y13 = −y13
I33
Similarly for node 2 and 3, I31 I 32
I2 = V1 Y21 + V2 Y22 + V3 Y23 3
I3 = V1 Y31 + V2 Y32 + V3 Y33 I3

✫ ✪
✬ ✩
Nodal current equations can be written in a matrix form:
     
I1 Y11 Y12 Y13 V1
     
 I2  =  Y21 Y22 Y23  ·  V2  or I =YV
     
I3 Y31 Y32 Y33 V3
or in compact form these equations can be written as:
3
X
8 Ii = Yij Vj for i = 1, 2, 3
j=1
The above nodal current equations can be generalised to an n bus system:
n
X n
X
Ii = Yij Vj for i = 1, 2,. . . , n where Yii = yij
j=1 j=1

Yij = −yij
It can be shown that the nodal admittance matrix is a sparse matrix (only a few
number of elements are non-zero) for an actual power system.

✫ ✪

KWCn v1.31 4
 The HK Polytechnic University Load Flow

✬ ✩

Consider the nodal admittance matrix for a 5 bus system.

 
y12 = y21
2
Y11 Y12 0 Y14 Y15 y23 = y32

1 3
 Y Y22 Y23 0 0 

 21
Y = 0
 
Y32 Y33 Y34 0 
  y14 = y41 y34 = y43
 Y41 0 Y43 Y44 Y45 
y15 = y51
Y51 0 0 Y54 Y55 4
9

• For line, cable and tapped transformer: y45 = y54

Yij = Yji = −yij = −yji 5

• Yij and Yij are non-zero only if there is a connection between bus i and j .
• The diagonal element of each node is the sum of admittances connected to it.
• The off-diagonal element is the negated admittance between the nodes.

✫ ✪
✬ ✩

3.3 Network Models

• Power network can be operating under balanced or unbalanced conditions. The

normal procedure for a load flow study is to assume a balanced system and to
use a single-phase representation equivalent to the positive sequence network.

• Shunt Branches – Rectors & Capacitor:

10 Shunt admittances are add to the diagonal elements, Yii , corresponding to the
nodes at which they are connected.

• Lines & Cables:

– Modelled as a π equivalent. i j
y ij
– Contribute to both the diagonal and
y ii y jj
off-diagonal matrix elements
Yii , Yjj , Yij and Yji .

✫ ✪

KWCn v1.31 5
 The HK Polytechnic University Load Flow

✬ ✩

• Tapped Transformers:

i 1:a j Ii Ij
y ay
Ii Ij

Vi aVi Vj ⇒ (a2 - a)y (1 - a)y

11
Ij = y (Vj − aVi )


Ii = −aIj = y a2 Vi − aVj

The equivalent circuit is just like an asymmetric π network.

Ii = ((a2 − a)y + ay)Vi − ayVj = (yii + yij )Vi − yij Vj

Ij = −ayVi + ((1 − a)y + ay)Vj = −yij Vi + (yjj + yij )Vj

✫ ✪
✬ ✩

3.4 Load Flow Equations

Recall the nodal current equations:
n
X
Ii = Yij Vj for i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n
j=1
n
X
= Yii Vi + Yij Vj
12 j=1,j6=i
n
!
1 X
or Vi = Ii − Yij Vj
Yii
j=1,j6=i
n
!
1 Pi − jQi X
= − Yij Vj with Si∗ = Vi∗ Ii = Pi − jQi
Yii Vi∗
j=1,j6=i

The above load flow equations are nonlinear and can be solved by iterative methods
such as the Gauss-Seidel and Newton-Raphson methods.

✫ ✪

KWCn v1.31 6
 The HK Polytechnic University Load Flow

✬ ✩
3.5 Power Calculations
The complex power Si delivered to bus i is:
n
X
Si = Pi + jQi = Vi Ii∗ = Vi Yij∗ Vj∗
j=1

Express Vi , Vj and Yij in polar coordinate (magnitude & angle):

n n
X −jθij −jδj
X
Pi + jQi = |Vi |e jδi
|Yij |e |Vj |e = |Vi | |Vj ||Yij |ej(δi −δj −θij )
13
j=1 j=1

The above complex equation can be expressed in the polar form:

n
X
Pi = |Vi | |Vj ||Yij | cos(δi − δj − θij ) (1)
j=1
n
X
Qi = |Vi | |Vj ||Yij | sin(δi − δj − θij ) (2)
j=1

✫ ✪
where Yij = |Yij |/θij

✬ ✩
• busbar voltage Pi
(calculated)

Vi = |Vi |/δi Vi

• net scheduled real power Bus i Qi

(calculated)
Pi Qi From
Pi(scheduled) = PGi - PLi (scheduled) (scheduled)
other
• net scheduled reactive power PGi QGi PLi QLi buses

Qi(scheduled) = QGi - QLi

Gen Load
where PGi & QGi is generator power
14
PLi & QLi is load power

The power difference between the scheduled value (Pi(scheduled), Qi(scheduled)),

specified by the busbar generation and load, and the calculated value (Pi(calculated),
Qi(calculated)), derived from the best available busbar voltages and angles, is referred
to as the power mismatch (∆Pi, ∆Qi) where

∆Pi = Pi(scheduled) - Pi(calculated)

∆Qi = Qi(scheduled) - Qi(calculated)
✫ ✪

KWCn v1.31 7
 The HK Polytechnic University Load Flow

✬ ✩

4 Gauss-Seidel (GS) Method

• The GS method is an iterative algorithm for solving a set of non-linear algebraic
equations.

• To start with, a solution vector is assumed. One of the equations is then used to
obtain the revised value of a particular variable by substituting in it the present
15
values of the remaining variable. The solution vector is immediately updated in
respect of this variable.

• The process is then repeated for all the variables thereby completing one
iteration. The iterative process is then repeated till the solution vector converges
within prescribed accuracy.

• The convergence is sensitive to the starting values assumed.

✫ ✪
✬ ✩

Eg. Consider the following simple nodal equations:

2V1 − 0.5V2 − 1.5V3 = I1 =1

−0.5V1 + 1.25V2 − 0.75V3 = I2 = −1.5
−1.5V1 − 0.75V 2 + 2.25V 3 = I3

where V3 is 100 and V2 is assumed to be 100 initially. Find V1 and V2 .

In the iterations, the newly computed values are immediately used as soon as they are

16 obtained.
1
V1 = (1 + 150 + 50)/2 = 100.5000
1
V2 = (-1.5+75+50.25)/1.25 = 99.0000
2
V1 = (1 + 150 + 49.5)/2 = 100.2500
2
V2 = (-1.5+75+50.125)/1.25 = 98.9000
3 3
V1 = 100.2250 V2 = 98.8900
4 4
V1 = 100.2225 V2 = 98.8890
5 5
V1 = 100.22225 V2 = 98.8889
Hence, I3 = -1.5 × 100.22225 - 0.75 × 98.8889 + 2.25 × 100 = 0.49995

✫ ✪

KWCn v1.31 8
 The HK Polytechnic University Load Flow

✬ ✩
4.1 Load Flow Solution by Gauss-Seidel (GS) Method !
n
1 Pi − jQi X
• Recall the load flow equation: Vi = − Yij Vj (3)
Yii Vi∗
j=1,j6=i

• In GS method, the new calculated voltage Vik+1 immediately replaces Vik and
is used in the solution of the subsequent equations. Hence, eqn
! (3) becomes:
i−1 n
1 Pi − jQi X X
Vik+1 = − Yij Vjk+1 − Yij Vjk (4)
Yii (Vik )∗
17 j=1 j=i+1

• For PV bus, Qi is unknown but can be calculated from power eqn (2).
• For slack bus, its load flow equation is excluded from the GS calculation as both
its voltage magnitude |Vi | and angle δi are specified while the 2 unknown
variables Pi , Qi can be calculated from power eqn (1) and (2), i.e. there are
(n−1) load flow equations in total for a n bus system.

• Initial unknown voltage magnitude |Vi | and angle δi can be set up 1pu and 0o .

✫ ✪
This is referred as the ‘flat start’ condition.

✬ ✩

4.2 Gauss-Seidel Solution Steps

1. Formulate the admittance matrix Y .

2. Separate out the slack, generator and load buses.

3. Assume any unknown bus voltage to, say, 1pu and 0o .

4. Start iteration process with first bus of the system (i=1).

5. Update Qi using equation (2) if i bus is a slack or PV bus.

18
Calculate the new bus voltage, Vi , from the load flow equation (4).

6. Calculate the difference between old and new bus voltages.

∆Vik+1 = Vik+1 − Vik
7. Using this new value of bus voltage in performing calculations for the next bus of
the system, except for the PV buses whose |Vi | should remain constant.

8. Advance for the next bus of the system and repeat steps 5 to 7 until a new set of
values of bus voltages of all buses in the system is obtained – 1 GS iteration.
✫ ✪

KWCn v1.31 9
 The HK Polytechnic University Load Flow

✬ ✩

9. Repeat the iterative process from step 4 to 8 until the difference ∆Vi for all
buses is within a specified limit or tolerance.
|∆Vik+1 | < ǫ
where k is the iteration count and ǫ is the tolerance level.

4.3 Reactive Power Limits

For a generation bus, Qi should be checked for any limit violation.

19
Qimin ≤ Qi ≤ Qimax
Whenever there is a limit violation, Qi will be set to the limit and the bus type will be
switched to load, i.e. PQ, as it is not possible to keep the generator terminal voltage
to the specify voltage (Vsp ) while Qi is being limited.

When bus type switched, the bus voltage is also needed to be corrected to cater for
the Qi being limited. Once, Qi becomes within the limits, the bus type and terminal
voltage can be restored.

✫ ✪
✬ ✩

4.4 Convergence Limits (Tolerance at Solution)

Usually 0.001, 0.0001 or 0.00001 (p.u. volts).

That is all ∆Vik+1 must lie within this tolerance.

4.5 Acceleration Factors

• In practice, it is found that the process of convergence due to Gauss-Seidel
20
method is slow. A large number of iterations is required to obtain an accurate
solution.

• The rate of convergence can be increased by the use of acceleration factors.

Vik+1
acc
= Vik + α(Vik+1 − Vik )
where α is known as acceleration factor and best values for the acceleration
factor α lie in the range of 1.1 to 1.6 with 1.4 is the most common used value
in practice.

✫ ✪

KWCn v1.31 10
 The HK Polytechnic University Load Flow

✬ ✩
5 Newton-Raphson Method (NR)
• The NR is a powerful method widely used for solving nonlinear equations.
• the original nonlinear problem was transformed into a sequence of linear
problems whose solutions approach the solution of the original problem.

• the method can be applied to one equation in one unknown or to a system of

simultaneous equations with as many unknowns as equations.
21
5.1 One-Dimensional Case F(x)

The basic iterative procedure for solving

equation F (x) = 0 is as follows :
p+1 p F (xp ) F0
x =x − ′ p F2
F (x ) F1
where p is the number of iterations and x
x2 x1 x0
F ′ (xp ) is the derivative of F (x) at xp .
X2 X1

✫ ✪
✬ ✩
5.2 N-Dimensional Case
• The single dimensional concept of the NR method can be extended to N
dimensions. All that is needed is an N -dimensional analog to the first
derivations. This is provided by the Jacobian matrix J .

• Each of the N rows of J is composed of the partial derivatives of one of the

equations of the system with respect to each of the N variables.

22 • Thus, the basic NR method extended to a N -dimensional system becomes:

1
xp+1 = xp − p
F (xp ) (3)
J (x )
where x and F are column vectors and J is the Jacobian matrix, of the from :
 
∂F1 ∂F1
∂x1 .. ∂xN
 
J = ∂Fk
 .. ∂xk .. 
 (4)
∂FN ∂FN
..
✫ ✪
∂x1 ∂xN

KWCn v1.31 11
 The HK Polytechnic University Load Flow

✬ ✩

• Instead of computing the inverse of J , eqn (3) can be written as :

−F (xp ) = J (xp )(xp+1 − xp ) (5)

or ∆y p = J (xp )∆xp (6)

where F (x) = F (xp ) + ∆yp = 0 (7)

and xp+1 = xp + ∆xp (8)

23
• There are 4 steps for each iteration :

1. compute ∆y p

2. compute J(xp )

3. solve for ∆xp by Gauss elimination and back substitution

4. compute xp+1

✫ ✪
✬ ✩
5.3 Load Flow Solution by Newton-Raphson (NR) Method
First, rewrite the power flow equations (1) and (2) into an alternate form:
n
2
X
Pi = Gii |Vi | + |Vi ||Vj ||Yij | cos(δi − δj − θij ) (9)
j=1,j6=i
n
2
X
Qi = −Bii |Vi | + |Vi ||Vj ||Yij | sin(δi − δj − θij ) (10)
j=1,j6=i
24
where Gii = |Yii | cos(θii )
Bii = |Yii | sin(θii )

Then, apply the Newton-Raphson method to form the following mismatch equation:
" # " #" #
∂Pi ∂Pi
∆Pi ∂δi ∂|Vi |
∆δi
= (11)
∂Qi ∂Qi
∆Qi ∂δi ∂|Vi |
∆|Vi |

✫
where ∆Pi and ∆Qi are the power mismatch at bus i and
✪

KWCn v1.31 12
 The HK Polytechnic University Load Flow

✬ ✩

∆Pi = Pi,scheduled − Pi,calculated (12)

∆Qi = Qi,scheduled − Qi,calculated (13)

• Pi,calculated and Qi,calculated :
obtained from the power flow eqn (1) and (2).
• Pi,scheduled :
(a) Slack bus:Pi,scheduled = Pi,calculated and ∆Pi = 0
25
(b) Otherwise (PV & PQ buses): Pi,scheduled = PGi − PLi .
• Qi,scheduled :
(a) Slack & PV bus:Qi,scheduled = Qi,calculated and ∆Qi = 0
(b) Otherwise (PQ bus): Qi,scheduled = QGi − QLi .
• To further improve the convergence, the mismatch equation can be rewritten as:
" # " #" # " #" #
∂Pi ∂Pi
∆Pi ∂δi
|Vi | ∂|Vi|
∆δi H N ∆δi
= ∆|Vi |
= ∆|Vi |
∂Qi ∂Qi
∆Qi ∂δi
|Vi | ∂|Vi| |Vi |
J L |Vi |

✫ ✪
✬ ✩
• For a n bus system with m PQ buses, the mismatch equation becomes :
    
∆P1 H1,1 .. H1,n−1 N1,1 .. N1,m ∆δ1
    
 ..   .. Hi,i .. .. Ni,i ..   .. 
    
 ∆Pn−1   Hn−1,1 .. Hn−1,n−1 Nn−1,1 .. Nn−1,m   ∆δn−1 
 ∆Q  =  J (14)
    
∆|V1 | 
 1,1 .. J1,n−1 L1,1 .. L1,m   |V1 | 
 
 1 
    
 ..   .. Ji,i .. .. Li,i ..   .. 
∆|Vm |
∆Qm Jm,1 .. Jm,n−1 Lm,1 .. Lm,m |Vm |
26
∂Pi
For i = j, Hii = ∂δi = −Qi − Bii |Vi |2
∂P
Nii = |Vi | ∂|Vi | = Pi + Gii |Vi |2
i
∂Qi
Jii = ∂δi = Pi − Gii |Vi |2
∂Q
Lii = |Vi | ∂|V i| = Qi − Bii |Vi |2
i
∂Pi
For i 6= j, Hij = ∂δj = |Vi ||Vj ||Yij | sin(δi − δj − θij )
∂P
Nij = |Vj | ∂|V i | = |Vi ||Vj ||Yij | cos(δi − δj − θij )
j
∂Qi
Jij = ∂δj = −Nij
∂Q
Lij = |Vj | ∂|V i| = Hij

✫ ✪
j

KWCn v1.31 13
 The HK Polytechnic University Load Flow

✬ ✩

5.4 Steps in Newton-Raphson solution

1. Formulate the nodal admittance matrix Y .

2. Assume an initial set of bus voltages and set bus n as the reference bus.

3. Obtain the power injections Pi and Qi for all i = 1, ...(n − 1)

4. Obtain the power mismatches ∆Pi and ∆Qi for all i = 1, ...(n − 1)
27 5. Stop the iteration if all ∆Pi and ∆Qi are within tolerance.

6. Obtain the Jacobian matrix elements using the best available voltage values.

7. Substitute the values obtained from steps (4) & (6) in equation (14). Solve this
∆|V |
linear simultaneous equation by a suitable method for vectors [∆δ] and [ |V |i ].
i

8. Update δi and |Vi | for all i, i.e. δik+1 = δik + ∆δi

Vik+1 = Vik (1 + ∆|V i|
|Vi | )
9. Goto step (3).

✫ ✪
✬ ✩
5.5 Decoupled Load Flow (DFL)
An important characteristic of any practical electrical power transmission system
operating in steady state is strong interdependence between real powers and bus
voltage angles and reactive powers and voltage magnitudes.
If the P -δ and Q-V couplings are recognised to be much stronger than the P -V
and Q-δ couplings the sub-matrices N and J can be ignored. Then separate
equations: [∆P ] = [H] [∆δ] (15)
28  
∆|V |
[∆Q] = [L] (16)
|V |
can be obtained and solved separately to give an approximate solution of |V | and δ .
Instead of the previous 2(n − 1) × 2(n − 1) matrix problem, there are two
(n − 1) × (n − 1) matrices to solve — save memory and easier to solve but take
more number of iterations to converge because of the approximation.

Techniques such as these are often used in on-line (very fast) load flow solutions

✫ ✪
and in the starting (initial stage) of conventional full length load flows.

KWCn v1.31 14
 The HK Polytechnic University Load Flow

✬ ✩
5.6 Fast Decoupled Load Flow (FDLF)
Recall the equations for the Jacobian elements :
For i = j, Hii = −Qi − Bii |Vi |2
Lii = Qi − Bii |Vi |2
For i 6= j, Hij = Lij = |Vi ||Vj ||Yij | sin(δi − δj − θij )
= |Vi ||Vj | [Gij sin(δi − δj ) − Bij cos(δi − δj )]
29 where Yij = Gij + jBij .
In addition to the DLF approximations, the following approximations can be make to
further speed-up the solution time and improve the convergence.
1. cos(δi − δj ) ≈ 1 3. Qi ≪ Bii |Vi |2
2. Gij sin(δi − δj ) ≪ Bij
The previous results can be rewritten as follows:
= j, Hii = Lii ≈ −Bii |Vi |2
For i
For i 6= j, Hij = Lij ≈ −|Vi ||Vj |Bij
✫ ✪
✬ ✩

With the above approximations and taking |Vj | ≈ 1, the mismatch equations (15)
and (16) becomes:
 
∆Pi ′

≈ |Vj | [−Bij ] [∆δj ] ≈ Bij [∆δj ] (17)
|Vi |
     
∆Qi ∆|Vj |  ′′  ∆|Vj |
≈ |Vj | [−Bij ] ≈ Bij (18)
|Vi | |Vj | |Vj |
30
where [B ′ ] and [B ′′ ] are made up of elements of [−B] matrix and are constant
and need to be inverted or decomposed once only. Usually in building up [B ′ ],
shunt reactors and off-nominal tap transformers are ignored while in building up
[B ′′ ], angle shifts of phase shift transformers are ignored.
The FDLF is extremely fast. The final result is exact since the iteration will only stop
when P and Q come within the specified tolerance of Pscheduled and Qscheduled .

✫ ✪

KWCn v1.31 15
 The HK Polytechnic University Load Flow

✬ ✩
5.7 Example for Newton Raphson and Fast Decoupled LF

V1 = 1.05/0o zser = 0.1 + j0.2 V2 /δ

✲
B1 B2
ysh = j0.15 ysh = j0.15 ❄
PL , QL
0.1 + j0.2

31 Find V2 by NR method with B1 as the slack bus and initial estimate for V2 = 1/0o .

Power flow at B2: P2 = |V2 |2 G22 + |V1 ||V2 ||Y12 | cos(δ2 − θ12 )
Q2 = −|V2 |2 B22 + |V1 ||V2 ||Y12 | sin(δ2 − θ12 )

Since B1 is the slack bus, only B2 mismatches are calculated.

" # " #" # " #" #
∂P2 ∂P2
∆P2 H N ∆δ2 ∂δ2
|V2 | ∂|V2|
∆δ2
= ∆|V2 |
= ∆|V2 |
∂Q2 ∂Q2
∆Q2 J L |V2 | ∂δ2
|V2 | ∂|V2 | |V2 |

✫ ✪
✬ ✩

Admittance matrix:
   
yser + ysh −yser 2 − j3.85 −2 + j4
A= = 
−yser yser + ysh −2 + j4 2 − j3.85
1
where yser = 0.1+j0.2 = 2 − j4 and ysh = j0.15

i.e. Y12 = −2 + j4 = 4.472/116.56o

32
Y22 = 2 − j3.85 = G22 + jB22 ⇒ G22 = 2 and B22 = −3.85

∂P2
H= = −|V1 ||V2 ||Y12 | sin(δ2 − θ12 )
∂δ2
= −(1.05)(1.0)(4.472) sin(−116.56o ) = 4.2
∂Q2
J= = |V1 ||V2 ||Y12 | cos(δ2 − θ12 )
∂δ2
= (1.05)(1.0)(4.472) cos(−116.56o ) = −2.1

✫ ✪

KWCn v1.31 16
 The HK Polytechnic University Load Flow

✬ ✩
∂P2
N = |V2 | = 2|V2 |2 G22 + |V1 ||V2 ||Y12 | cos(δ2 − θ12 )
∂|V2 |
∂Q2
= 2|V2 |2 G22 + = 2(2) − 2.1 = 1.9
∂δ2
∂Q2
L = |V2 | = −2|V2 |2 B22 + |V1 ||V2 ||Y12 | sin(δ2 − θ12 )
∂|V2 |
∂P2
= −2|V2 |2 B22 − = −2(−3.85) − 4.2 = 3.5
∂δ2
33 " #
 1
 4.2 1.9
J =
−2.1 3.5
∂Q2
P21 = |V2 |2 G22 + = 2 − 2.1 = −0.1
∂δ2
∂P2
Q12 = −|V2 |2 B22 − = 3.85 − 4.2 = −0.35
∂δ2
∆P21 = PG − PL − P2 = −0.1 + 0.1 = 0
∆Q12 = QG − QL − Q2 = −0.2 + 0.35 = 0.15
✫ ✪
✬ ✩
" # " #" #
0 4.2 1.9 ∆δ21
= ∆|V21 |
0.15 −2.1 3.5 |V21 |
" # " #" # " #
∆δ21 1 3.5 −1.9 0 −0.01525
∆|V21 | = =
18.69 2.1 4.2 0.15 0.0337
|V21 |

δ21 = −0.01525 rad

34 |V21 | = 1.0337 p.u.

Similarly for the second iteration: " #

4.3080 2.0375
J2
 
=
−2.2367 3.9199
∆P22 = −0.00037
∆Q22 = −0.00596
δ2 = δ22 = −0.01475 rad
|V22 | = 1.03243 p.u.
✫ ✪
|V2 | =

KWCn v1.31 17
 The HK Polytechnic University Load Flow

✬ ✩
Now find V2 again by FD method instead of the NR method.

Recall: Y12 = 4.472/116.56o G22 = 2 B22 = −3.85

P21 = −0.1 ∆P21 = 0
Q12 = −0.35 ∆Q12 = 0.15
[B ′ ] = [−B22 ] = [3.85] [B ′′ ] = [−B22 ] = [3.85]
∆P2
35 From (17): ∆δ2 = = 0 rad
−B22 |V2 |
⇒ δ21 = δ2 + ∆δ2 = 0 rad
∆Q2
From (18): ∆|V2 | = = 0.03896 p.u.
−B22
⇒ |V21 | = |V2 | + ∆|V2 | = 1.03896 p.u.
Update the calculated power injection (P2 , Q2 ) and mismatch (∆P2 , ∆Q2 ) with

✫ ✪
the latest bus voltage.

✬ ✩
Repeat the above procedures, as shown below, until the solution converage or the
power mismatches are below the tolerance.

Iter P2 Q2 ∆P2 ∆Q2 ∆|V2 | ∆δ2 |V2 | δ2

1 -0.1 -0.35 0 0.15 0.0390 0 1.0390 0

2 -0.0229 -0.2078 -0.0771 0.0078 0.0020 -0.0193 1.0410 -0.0193

3 -0.1025 -0.1572 -0.0026 -0.0428 -0.0111 0.0006 1.0299 -0.0186

36
4 -0.1216 -0.2010 -0.0216 0.0010 0.0003 -0.0055 1.0301 -0.0132

5 -0.0977 -0.2122 -0.0023 0.0122 0.0032 -0.0006 1.0333 -0.0137

6 -0.0940 -0.1989 -0.0060 -0.0011 -0.0003 -0.0015 1.0330 -0.0153

7 -0.1010 -0.1966 0.0010 -0.0034 -0.0009 0.0003 1.0321 -0.0150

8 -0.1017 -0.2005 0.0017 0.0005 0.0001 0.0004 1.0323 -0.0146

9 -0.0996 -0.2009 -0.0004 -0.0002 0.0002 -0.0001 1.0325 -0.0147

10 -0.0996 -0.1998 0.0001 -0.0003 -0.0001 0.0000 1.0324 -0.0148

✫ ✪

KWCn v1.31 18
 The HK Polytechnic University Load Flow

✬ ✩
6 Comparison of Load Flow Methods
• GS method works well when programmed using rectangular coordinates,
whereas NR requires more memory when rectangular coordinates are used.

• Though GS method requires the fewest number of arithmetic operations to

complete an iteration, its convergence rate is the slowest (linear convergence
characteristic).
37 • NR method has quadratic convergence characteristic and is the best among all
methods from the standpoint of convergence. Typically, only 3 to 5 iterations are
needed to reach an acceptable solution for a large system. It also has the
lowest sensitivity to the choice of slack bus.

• For FDLF, the convergence is geometric and it is more reliable than the formal
NR method due to the fact that the elements of [B ′ ] and [B ′′ ] are fixed
∆Q
approximation to the tangents of the defining functions, ∆P
|V | and |V | , and are

✫ ✪
not sensitive to any ‘humps’ in the defining functions.

✬ ✩

Time units Time units

4 40
Newton-Raphson
Gauss-Seidel

2 20
38
Gauss-Seidel
Newton-Raphson
0 0
0 40 80 120 0 40 80 120
Number of buses Number of buses

(a) Time per iteration (b) Total iteration solution time

✫ ✪

KWCn v1.31 19
 T HE H ONG KONG
P OLYTECHNIC U NIVERSITY FAX : (852) 2330 1544
Department of Electrical Engineering Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong

EE4031 Power Systems

Tutorial on Power System Load Flow

1. Fig 1 shows a 4-bus system where all the transmission line series impedances are given
to a common base of 100 MVA while the shunt admittances of the lines are neglected.
Specifications at busbars are given in Table 1 and flat start conditions are assumed.

1 S 12 S 21 2
S 14 S 23
j0.2
S 24
j0.5
j0.33 j0.1

j0.25

4 3
Load Load
Fig 1

Real Reactive Real Voltage Voltage

Bus Demand Demand Generation Magnitude Angle
(MW) (MVAr) (MW) (pu) (deg)
1 – – – 1.04 0
2 – – 100 1.02 –
3 80 60 – – –
4 90 50 – – –

Table 1

(a) Classify the type of each busbar.

(b) Determine the bus admittance matrix.
(c) Determine the initial power flows S12 , S14 , S21 , S23 and S24 .
(d) Determine the initial power generations and mismatches at the bus 1 and 2.
(e) With justification, what should be the real power generation at bus 1 ?
(f) Recommend a solution method, with justifications, which is suitable for solving
this power flow problem.

EE4031, KWCn, 8 Sept 2010 1

 2. Fig 2 shows a single-line diagram of a 2-bus power system with parameters detailed in
Table 2. The series impedance of the line is given in per-unit on a common base of 100
MVA with shunt admittance neglected.

S G1 o
V1 = 1.02 0 V2

1 Z = j0.5 2

SL1 = 30 + j10 SL2 = 50

Fig 2

Real Reactive Real Voltage Voltage

Bus Demand Demand Generation Magnitude Angle
(MW) (MVAr) (MW) (pu) (deg)
1 30 10 – 1.02 0
2 50 0 – – –

Table 2

(a) Name the slack bus and write down the bus admittance matrix Y .
(b) Based on the load flow equation given below :-
 
n
1  Pi − jQi X
Vi = − Yij Vj 
Yii Vi∗ j=1,j6=i

Use Gauss-Seidel with flat start conditions to solve the load bus voltage V2 .
(c) With justification, what should be the reactive power generation at bus 1 ?

EE4031, KWCn, 8 Sept 2010 2

 3. Fig 3 shows a single-line diagram of a three-bus power system. All the transmission line
series impedances are given in per unit to a common base of 100 MVA while the shunt
admittances are neglected. Specifications at busbars are given in Table 3.

1 j0.1 2

200 MW
50 MVAr

j0.1 j0.1

Fig 3

Real Reactive Real Reactive Voltage Voltage

Bus Demand Demand Generation Generation Magnitude Angle
PL (MW) QL (MVAr) PG (MW) QG (MVAr) V (pu) δ (deg)
1 0 0 – – 1.01 0
2 200 50 0 0 – –
3 0 0 100 – 1.02 –
Table 3

(a) Classify each bus type and determine which of the variables V , δ, P and Q should
be treated as unknown.

(b) Write down the real power generation at bus 1 by inspecting the data.

(c) Write down the Jacobian matrix in terms of partial derivatives.

(d) Determine the bus admittance matrix.

(e) Given the power flow equations at bus i as follows

n
|Vi |2 Gii +
X
Pi = |Vi ||Vj ||Yij | cos(δi − δj − θij )
j=1,j6=i
n
Qi = −|Vi |2 Bii +
X
|Vi ||Vj ||Yij | sin(δi − δj − θij )
j=1,j6=i

Derive the general equations for the diagonal coefficients of the Jacobian matrix
and hence find the diagonal coefficients of the Jacobian matrix for the first iter-
ation when the polar form of the Newton Raphson method is used with flat start
conditions.

EE4031, KWCn, 8 Sept 2010 3

 4. A single-line diagram of a three-bus power system is shown in Fig 4.

1 j0.4 2

200 MW
50 MVAr

j0.2 j0.1

Fig 4

All the transmission line series impedances are given in per unit to a common base of
100 MVA while the shunt admittances are neglected. Specifications at busbars are given
in Table 4.

Real Reactive Real Reactive Voltage Voltage

Bus Demand Demand Generation Generation Magnitude Angle
PL (MW) QL (MVAr) PG (MW) QG (MVAr) V (pu) δ (deg)
1 0 0 – – 1.05 0
2 200 50 0 0 – –
3 0 0 100 – 1.02 –
Table 4

(a) Classify each bus type and determine which of the variables V , δ, P and Q should
be treated as unknown.
(b) Write down the bus admittance matrix [Y ].
(c) Using the Fast Decouple Load Flow (FDLF) convention :-
∆P
 
= B ′ [∆δ]
 
|V |
∆Q  ′′  ∆|V |
   
= B
|V | |V |

write down the matrices [B ′ ] and [B ′′ ].

(d) Given the power flow equations at bus i as follows
n
2
X
Pi = |Vi | Gii + |Vi ||Vj ||Yij | cos(δi − δj − θij )
j=1,j6=i
n
Qi = −|Vi |2 Bii +
X
|Vi ||Vj ||Yij | sin(δi − δj − θij )
j=1,j6=i

carry out the first load flow iteration using the FDLF method.

EE4031, KWCn, 8 Sept 2010 4

 5. Fig 5 shows a single-line diagram of 3-bus system with parameters detailed in Table 5.
The series impedance of each transmission line is given in per-unit on a common base of
100 MVA with shunt admittance neglected.

1 j0.4 2
80 MW
-30 MVAr

100 MW j0.4 j0.4 100 MW

-80 MVAr

3
100 MW
60 MVAr

Fig 5

Load Demand Specified Power Specified Voltage

Bus MW MVAr MW MVAr pu degree
1 100 0 – – 1.0 0
2 100 -80 80 -30 – –
3 100 60 0 0 – –

Table 5

(a) Name the slack bus and write down the bus admittance matrix Y .
(b) Based on the load flow equation given below :-
 
n
1  Pi − jQi X
Vi = − Yij Vj 
Yii Vi∗ j=1,j6=i

Perform one iteration of the load flow using the Gauss-Seidel method with flat start
conditions to calculate the appropriated voltages at bus 2 and 3.
(c) What should be the real power generation at bus 1 ?

EE4031, KWCn, 8 Sept 2010 5

 EE4031 Power Systems
Tutorial Solution on Power System Load Flow

1. a) Bus Type
1 Slack
2 Generator
3 Load
4 Load

⎡ − j8.03 j5 0 j 3.03 ⎤
⎢ j5 − j17 j10 j 2 ⎥⎥
b) Y =⎢
⎢ 0 j10 − j14 j4 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ j 3.03 j2 j 4 − j 9.03⎦

c) S12 = V1[Yser12 (V1* − V2* )]

= 1.04[ j 5(1.04 − 1.02)]
= j 0.104 pu = j10.4 MVAr
S14 = j 0.126 pu = j12.6 MVAr
S 21 = − j 0.102 pu
S 23 = j 0.204 pu
S 24 = j 0.0408 pu

d) S1 = S12 + S14 = j 23 MVAr

S 2 = S 21 + S23 + S24 = j14.28 MVAr
Bus 1 – Slack Æ mismatch = 0 MW
Bus 2 – PV bus Æ P mismatch = Pg2 – Pl2 – Re(S2) = 100 MW
Q mismatch = 0 MW

e) No transmission loss Æ Pg1 = 80 + 90 – 100 = 70 MW

f) GS: simple, low memory usage, easy to implement

NR: faster, better convergence, more reliable
FD: even faster & more reliable

2. a) slack bus : BUS1

⎡− j 2 j2 ⎤
Y =⎢ ⎥
⎣ j 2 − j 2⎦

k 1 ⎡ S2
*
⎤
b) V 2 = ⎢ k −1* − Y 21V 1⎥ , S = − S L 2 = −0.5 , Y = − j2 , Y = j2
Y 22 ⎣⎢V 2 ⎦⎥
2 22 21

EE4031, KWCn, 8 Oct 2012 1

 k Re(V2k ) Im(V2k ) | V2k | V2k
0 1.000000 0.000000 1.000000 0.0000
1 1.020000 -0.250000 1.050190 -13.7716
2 0.963331 -0.231209 0.990689 -13.4963
3 0.961106 -0.245381 0.991936 -14.3223
4 0.957653 -0.244199 0.988298 -14.3054
5 0.957496 -0.245117 0.988373 -14.3592
6 0.957271 -0.245039 0.988136 -14.3581
7 0.957260 -0.245099 0.988140 -14.3616

Solution with accuracy of 2 decimal points (4 iterations) will be adequate.

c) 10 MVAr

3. a) Bus Type Known Unknown

1 Slack V, δ P, Q
2 Load P, Q V, δ
3 Generator P, V Q, δ

b) No transmission loss Æ Pg1 = 200 – 100 = 100 MW

⎡ ∂P2 ∂P2 ∂P2 ⎤

⎢ V2 ⎥
⎢ ∂δ 2 ∂δ 3 ∂ V2 ⎥
⎢ ∂P ∂P3 ∂P3 ⎥
c) ⎢ 3 V2 ⎥
⎢ ∂δ 2 ∂δ 3 ∂ V2 ⎥
⎢ ∂Q ∂Q2 ∂Q2 ⎥
⎢ 2 V2 ⎥
⎢⎣ ∂δ 2 ∂δ 3 ∂ V2 ⎥⎦

⎡ − j 20 j10 j10 ⎤
d) ⎢ j10 − j 20 j10 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ j10 j10 − j 20 ⎥⎦

∂P2
e) = (1.01)(10) sin 90° + (1.02)(10) sin 90° = 20.3
∂δ 2

∂P3
= (1.02)(1.01)(10) sin 90° + (1.02)(1)(10) sin 90° = 20.502
∂δ 3

∂Q2
V2 = −20.3 − 2(1) 2 (−20) = 19.7
∂ V2

EE4031, KWCn, 15 Mar 2011 2

4. a) Bus Type
1 Slack
2 PQ
3 PV

⎡ − j 7.5 j 2.5 j5 ⎤
b) [Y ] = ⎢ j 2.5 − j12.5 j10 ⎥⎥ = [G + jB ]
⎢
⎢⎣ j 5 j10 − j15⎥⎦
c)
⎡ ΔP2 ⎤
⎢ V ⎥ ⎡−B − B23 ⎤ ⎡ Δδ 2 ⎤ ⎡ ΔQ2 ⎤ ⎡ Δ V2 ⎤
⎢ 2 ⎥ = ⎢ 22 = ⎢ ⎥ = [ − B 22] = ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ΔP3 ⎥ ⎣ − B32 − B33 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ Δδ 3 ⎥⎦ ⎣ V2 ⎦ ⎣ V2 ⎦
⎢V ⎥
⎣ 3 ⎦

⎡12.5 −10 ⎤
⎡⎣ B ' ⎤⎦ = ⎢ ⎥ [ B "] = [12.5]
⎣ −10 15 ⎦

d) Flat start conditions Æ all angles are zero

i.e. no angle difference Æ P2 = 0, P3 = 0
−200
ΔP2 = P2schedule − P2 = − 0 = −2 pu
100
100
ΔP3 = P3schedule − P2 = − 0 = 1 pu
100
⎡ −2 ⎤
⎢ 1.0 ⎥ ⎡12.5 −10 ⎤ ⎡ Δδ 2 ⎤
⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢ 1 ⎥ ⎣ −10 15 ⎦ ⎣ Δδ 3 ⎦
⎢⎣1.02 ⎥⎦

⎡ Δδ ⎤ 1 ⎡15 10 ⎤ ⎡ −2 ⎤ ⎡ −0.2308⎤ ⎡δ ⎤ ⎡ −0.2308⎤

⇒ ⎢ 2⎥ = ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥ ⇒ ⎢ 2⎥ = ⎢ ⎥ rad
⎣ Δδ 3 ⎦ 87.5 ⎣10 12.5⎦ ⎣0.98⎦ ⎣ −0.0886 ⎦ ⎣δ 3 ⎦ ⎣ −0.0886 ⎦

2
Q2 = − V2 B22 + V2 V1 Y21 sin(δ 2 − δ1 − θ 21 ) + V2 V3 Y23 sin(δ 2 − δ 3 − θ 23 )
⎛ π⎞ ⎛ π⎞
= 12.5 + (1.0)(1.05)(2.5) sin ⎜ −0.2308 − ⎟ + (1.0 )(1.02 )(10 ) sin ⎜ −0.1422 − ⎟
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
= − 0.152 pu
−50
⇒ ΔQ2 = − (−0.152) = −0.348 pu
100

⎡ ΔQ2 ⎤ ⎡ ΔV ⎤ 0.348
⎢ ⎥ = [12.5] ⎢ ⎥ ⇒ ΔV2 = − = −0.028 pu
⎣ V2 ⎦ ⎣ V2 ⎦ 12.5
i.e. V2 = 1 + ΔV2 = 0.972 pu

EE4031, KWCn, 15 Mar 2011 3

5. a) Slack bus - Bus 1
⎡ − j5 j 2.5 j 2.5⎤
Z L = j 0.4, YL = − j 2.5, Y = ⎢ j 2.5 − j5 j 2.5⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ j 2.5 j 2.5 − j5 ⎥⎦

b) Flat start: V10 = 1∠0°, V20 = V30 = 1∠0°

S2 = −1 + j 0.8 + 0.8 − j 0.3 = −0.2 + j 0.5 pu

S3 = −1 − j 0.6 pu

1 ⎡ −0.2 − j 0.5 ⎤ 0.2 + j5.5

V21 = ⎢ − j 2.5 − j 2.5⎥ = = 1.1 − j 0.04 = 1.1∠ − 2.08° pu
− j5 ⎣ 1 ⎦ j5

1 ⎡ −1 + j 0.6 ⎤ 1 + j 4.4
V31 = ⎢ − j 2.5 − j 2.5⎥ = = −0.88 − j 0.2 = 0.9∠ − 12.8° pu
− j5 ⎣ 1 ⎦ j5

c) 100 + 100 + 100 - 80 = 220 MW

EE4031, KWCn, 15 Mar 2011 4