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The accurate prediction of thermal gradients in concrete calls for temperature. The Arrhenius theory for rate processes is the
models that characterize the temperature sensitivity of the hydration of equation of choice for the study of chemical kinetics,5 and is
cementitious materials. The most common method used for this the most commonly used relationship to characterize the
purpose is the Arrhenius equation, which requires the selection of an temperature sensitivity of portland cement. Portland cement,
activation energy Ea to define the temperature sensitivity of the
however, is much more complex than the materials for which
reaction. For cementitious materials, Ea is typically computed using
the Arrhenius equation was originally developed. Several
either isothermal calorimetry or compressive strength data. There is researchers have discussed determination of the rate constants
disagreement in literature as to the proper method to determine Ea. The
for use in the Arrhenius equation.6, 7 Currently, ASTM C 10743
Ea of different cementitious pastes was determined from isothermal uses compressive strength of mortar cubes to determine
calorimeter results using three different computational methods. The the activation energy for strength estimating purposes.
results were used to develop a systematic computational method for
characterizing Ea to account for the effect of temperature on the overall The cumulative heat of hydration at a particular point in
rate of hydration of cementitious materials. This work lays the ground- time relative to the total potential heat of hydration of the
work for more extensive studies to determine the effect of a wide variety system is often used to quantify the degree of hydration.4,8-11
of variables on Ea. Because heat evolution is measured directly with isothermal
calorimetry, this test method would seem to be a better indication
Keywords: calorimeter; hydration; portland cement. of the extent of hydration than compressive strength. There are,
however, discrepancies in the literature on exactly how to
INTRODUCTION calculate Ea from isothermal calorimetry data.
The chemical reactions between cement and water during Arrhenius’ theory does not describe the temperature sensi-
setting and hardening are exothermic, which results in a rise tivity of the hydration of individual chemical reactions,8 but
in the temperature of the hardening concrete. Characterization of it is probably the best tool available to account for the effect
temperature rise is useful for a variety of reasons. The curing of temperature on the combined rate of hydration due to all
temperature of concrete is arguably the one variable that has chemical reactions.9,10,12 Calculations of Ea should be
the most significant effect on the rate of hydration.1 Early robust enough to differentiate between systems with
research by Saul2 on the effects of temperature on concrete different compositions, supplementary cementing materials,
was driven by the desire to predict strength of steam-cured and chemical admixtures. However, they should only be as
concrete, which led to the development of the “maturity” complex as is warranted to accurately estimate the temperature
concept. ASTM C 10743 defines maturity as “the extent of rise in concrete structures. Therefore, a consistent method is
the development of a property of a cementitious material.” needed to calculate Ea from test data.
For mass concrete elements, accurate characterization of the This paper examines three methods of activation energy
progress of hydration is necessary to predict temperature calculation: 1) a single linear approximation method that
gradients, maximum concrete temperature, thermal stresses, calculates the reaction rate based on a first-order differential
and relevant mechanical properties. rate equation; 2) an incremental method based on the same
Accurate prediction of temperature development in mass principles, but with the rate calculated incrementally over
concrete requires knowledge of the adiabatic temperature the time period of interest; and 3) a method based on
rise of a particular concrete mixture. Adiabatic calorimetry is modifications of ASTM C 10743 using isothermal calorimetry
the best test to obtain this information. Unfortunately, adiabatic data instead of strength. Each method was investigated in
calorimeters are not common. Semi-adiabatic calorimeters are detail, and the advantages and disadvantages of each method
much more common, because the test setup is much simpler. are highlighted. Twenty different cementitious mixtures
Therefore, semi-adiabatic calorimeters are more commonly were investigated to determine the best method to calculate
used to characterize the heat evolution of a concrete mixture. the activation energy.
Corrections must be made to semi-adiabatic temperature
measurements to approximate the results obtained from an
RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE
adiabatic system.4 The Arrhenius theory is used to capture
the temperature sensitivity of a particular mixture so that its Large thermal gradients in concrete during curing can
behavior may be modeled under different temperature result in thermal cracking. By accurately predicting thermal
conditions. In this manner, semi-adiabatic calorimetry ACI Materials Journal, V. 104, No. 1, January-February 2007.
data may be used to model what would be experienced MS No. M-2006-105.R1 received March 17, 2006, and reviewed under Institute
publication policies. Copyright © 2007, American Concrete Institute. All rights
under adiabatic conditions. reserved, including the making of copies unless permission is obtained from the
The Arrhenius equation uses the concept of activation copyright proprietors. Pertinent discussion including authors’ closure, if any, will
be published in the November-December 2007 ACI Materials Journal if the discussion is
energy Ea to define the sensitivity of a particular reaction to received by July 1, 2007.
(b)
(c)
(a)
(d) (b)
Fig. 2—Rate of heat evolution for: (a) 41 °F (5 °C); (b) 59 °F Fig. 3—(a) Determination of k using linear fit for 100% Type I
(15 °C); (c) 100 °F (38 °C); and (d) 140 °F (60 °C). cement; and (b) Ea from plot of ln (k) versus 1/T.
where k(T) equals the reaction rate J/s, f(α) equals the function n n n
∑ ∑ ∑
1 1 1
depending on degree of hydration 1/J, α equals the degree of n ------ ⋅ ln ( P ( α, T ) ) – ------ ⋅ --------------------------------
Tn n Tn ln ( P ( α, T n ) )
hydration as in Eq. (3), and dα/dt equals the rate of change 1 1 1 - ⋅ R(10)
E a ( α ) = – ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
of degree of hydration 1/s. n
2 ⎛ n ⎞2
∑ ⎛ ------⎞ – ⎜
∑ ------⎟
1 1
If a mixture has a fixed total amount of heat available for n
⎝T ⎠ ⎜ T n⎟
reaction Hu, then change in α may be related to P(t) by9 Eq. (8). 1
n ⎝ 1 ⎠
dH ( t ) ( t )-
------- = ------ ⋅ ⎛ --------------⎞ = P
dα 1 where Tn equals Isothermal test temperature (different for
--------- (8)
dt H u ⎝ dt ⎠ Hu each test n).
The value Ea was calculated at various α for four of the
mixtures tested during this study. Results are shown in Fig. 4 and
where Hu equals the total heat available for reaction, and Table 2 for these mixtures. Figure 4 shows that Ea strongly
H(t) equals the cumulative heat evolved at time t. depends on α. Several interesting observations may be made
To calculate Ea at any α, incremental reaction rates are when the heat evolution results are compared with the activation
needed at α for all test temperatures T. Reaction rate and energy calculations at various α. For Type I portland cement, Ea
power are essentially one and the same, presuming the rises as high as 55,660 J/mol, (corresponding to the second
calorimeter has been calibrated properly. Reaction rates and major hydration peak, generally due to C3A), and then
power may be related as shown in Eq. (9).9 decreases significantly. Mixtures containing Class C fly ash
t k ( Tc ) τc
---e = f ( T c ) = ---------------
- = -------
- (11)
t k ( T ref ) τ ref
τ ref⎞
ln ⎛ ------- -
⎝ τc ⎠
E a = – -------------------------- ⋅ R (12)
⎛ --------
1
– -----⎞
1
⎝ T ref Tc ⎠