Final Document (5th Yr BSC Thesis)

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERIG AND IT
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

SENIOUR PROJECT ON HIGHWAY
ASKO-WINGATE URBAN ROAD PROJECT

ADVISOR: Mr. FASIKA MEKONEN
PREPARED BY ID
ALEHEGN MULUGETA….…R/0229/00
ZEMEDKUN AYALEW........R/0234/00
BIRUK SHEWABER.………..R/0111/00
BINYAM YONAS……….........R/0254/00
ENDESHAW SHIMELES.....R/0244 /00
BINYAM H/GEBRIEL……...R/0130/00
TAJUDIN ABUBEKER……..R/0123/00
Submitted to: DEPARTMENT
Date: 18/06/2012
ASCO-WINGET URBAN ROAD PROJECT [2012]
TABLE OF CONTENTS
General Introduction…………………………………………..………………..…….……4
CHAPTER ONE
Design Control……………………………………………………………….……..………....5
CHAPTER TWO
Geometric Design…………………………………………………………..……..…………18
CHAPTER THREE
Pavement Design (Flexible Pavement Design)……………………..………...116
CHAPTER FOUR
Design of Drainage Facilities…………………………………………………….…..…137
CHAPTER FIVE
Culvert Design……………………………………….…………………………………..……185
CHAPTER SIX
Retaining wall design………………………………..……………………………..………195
CHAPTER SEVEN
Road Furniture………………………………………………………………………….……..204
CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………………….………..225
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT Page 2

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all we would like to thank our God for helping us all the way. The
second is our Advisor, Engineer Fasiga, for his logical & technical
assistance. The department of Civil Engineering has also helped us in
approving our proposal & allocating helpful advisors. Also special thanks to
Addis Abeba City Roads Authority (AACRA) main office for willfully
providing the necessary data to start the project & Tiruye, office Engineer in
HEC (Highway Engineers & Consultants) office, for her assistance in
providing the traffic count & related data & giving us some information’s
when required.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Highways are vitally important to a country’s economic development. The construction
of a high quality road network directly increases a nation’s economic output by reducing
journey times and costs, making a region more attractive economically. The actual
construction process will have the added effect of stimulating the construction market.
The administration of highway projects differs from one country to another, depending
upon social, political and economic factors. The design, construction and maintenance
of major national primary routes such as motorways or dual carriageways are generally
the responsibility of a designated government department or an agency of it, with
funding, in the main, coming from central government. Those of secondary importance,
feeding into the national routes, together with local roads, tend to be the responsibility of
local authorities. Central government or an agency of it will usually take responsibility for
the development of national standards.
The road project we are going to design is located in Addis Abeba town from asko to
wingate which is one of the intended highway projects of AACRA (Adis Abeba City
Roads Authority). All the necessary raw data collected for this road were brought for our
design with the positive response from the office engineers. This road is 2.42 km & is
almost fair with its vertical & horizontal alignments (faire undulations).
We intensively depend on the AACRA pavement design manual for the design of all
components of the road starting from selection of the road type to the final road utilities
(furniture). We have also roughly referred ERA pavement design manual & other related
scriptures on highway for some data that are vague on AACRA.

CHAPTER ONE
Design control
The choice of design controls and criteria is influenced by the following factors: the
functional classification of the road; the nature of the terrain; the design vehicle; the
traffic volumes expected on the road; the design speed; the density and character of the
adjoining land use; and economic and environmental considerations.
As these factors usually vary along a route of some length, the design does not have to
be constant for the whole length of a road. On the contrary, changes in the design are
usually required in order to obtain proper correlation between the road layout and the
above factors, whilst maintaining construction costs at realistic levels.
1. Functional classification
According to AACRA there are four road classification based on the function they give.
And the categories are
Freeway
Urban arterial
Sub arterial
Collector road
Local streets
The second and third categories got almost the same design criteria except the third
one is with less important compared to the second one. So that within the manual they
are considered as one category and so does we.
After carefully analyzing the land use and travel condition, we categorized our road as
urban arterial & sub arterial road without frontage road.

The reasons for selecting this category for our road are as follows;
Our road section has a primary goal of providing service for traffics which are travelling
from winget high school to asco then to their destination (through traffic service)and
secondly to give service for local property which is found between winget high school
and asco(local traffic and property access). So we can say that the only category that
has the above objectives in orderly manner is urban arterial & sub arterial road.
According to Addis Ababa city master plan, the road category that should be
constructed to this land is Principal Arterial roads. So we will not deviate from the
master plan by selecting urban arterial & sub arterial road category.
2. Design speed
According to the manual there are three ranges of design speed for our category
30-40km/h (for road sections heavily influenced by conflicting traffic movements and
pedestrian)
50-60km/h (for road sections local traffic is separated from through traffic and
intersections are widely spaced)
80km/h (for road section with minimal property access ,local function has been
suppressed and intersections are widely spaced)
For our road section we proposed 70km/h design speed since we got only two access
points which indicate minimal property access and the interchange that are going to be
designed are widely spaced. And other conditions fall between the first and the second
range categories.
3. Level of service (LOS)
Based on Highway Capacity Manual (HCM), AACRA recommends the LOS of urban
arterial & sub arterial road to be “C” during off peak hours. So during the design of our
road we are aiming the mentioned LOS.

4. Design Vehicles
The Design Vehicle is a hypothetical vehicle whose dimensions and operating

characteristics are used to establish certain aspects of road and intersection layout and
geometry. The design vehicle is not necessarily the largest of the vehicles but is
intended to represent an economical level of design catering for at least 85% of vehicles
operating in accordance with the relevant regulations. Larger vehicles will not be
precluded from the road but they will need to encroach on adjacent lanes in some
circumstances.
While this may inconvenience some other road users, the low frequency of the
occurrence of these vehicles makes this acceptable. The design vehicle to be used in
various circumstances is identified as appropriate throughout the text. In some cases -
e.g. intersections, the design is undertaken in accordance with the design vehicle
characteristics but is checked with a larger vehicle to ensure that it will be able to
navigate the intersection. The larger vehicle will be chosen according to the potential for
such vehicles to use the facility and will be at least the next larger vehicle to the design
vehicle.
The following design vehicles are used for most purposes:
Design Car
The design car is used for access into residential driveways (unless access for a larger
vehicle such as a refuse truck is required) and for checking maneuvers on a property
that are dependent on the location of the access. In other cases, a car will be able to
operate with ease on elements designed for the larger vehicles. The design driver’s eye
height is 1.05m.
Design Single-Unit Truck/Bus
This vehicle is often used as the design vehicle for minor road intersections on arterial
roads and for intersections between secondary arterials, particularly in urban areas.
This unit is also used as the design vehicle for works on collector roads. On minor

residential streets, a design service truck may be adequate. The single unit truck /bus
vehicle should be used as the minimum for all intersections involving two or more
arterial roads.
Design Semi-Trailer
The design semi-trailer is the minimum vehicle for the design of intersections between
two arterial roads or an arterial road and a freeway ramp.
They are also the check vehicles for those designs where a single-unit truck or bus has
been the design vehicle.
Higher order check vehicles may be required to check for occasional use of larger
vehicles at intersections. In industrial areas, the check vehicle should be a large low-
loader or prime-mover and long semi-trailer. For oversize vehicle routes, the design
vehicle should be the design low-loader.
For our road section we select 19m Semi-Trailer.
5. Traffic Study (traffic volume determination)
This presents traffic studies carried for detail Engineering Design of MIKILILAND AREA
ROAD PROJECT. Traffic study was required to determine current and future traffic
volume expected to use the project road. It includes the study of the following types of
traffic;
 Normal Traffic: Traffic volume currently using the roads without any
improvements.
 Diverted traffic: Traffic that will be diverted to the project road from adjacent
road network either due to shorter travel time or improved facilities.
 Generated traffic: Traffic that would be generated due to developments brought
about by the improvement of the road.
For the purpose of traffic study, classified traffic count at selected station along the
project major junctions was carried out. These were represented as A, B & C (shown in

the table below). The likely generated traffic volume from developmental activities that
will be carried around the project areas is also determined from expected economic
developments. For our case we assumed a generated traffic of 3%. For determining the
generated traffic the socio‐economic activities, population growth and trends of vehicle
growth in the Addis Ababa has been considered. From traffic count data, normal traffic
in terms of Average Daily Traffic (ADT) was determined. Adding the generated traffic to
the normal traffic, the base year traffic was obtained which latter forecasted for design
period of 20 years in order to get the total traffic volume expected to use the road within
the design period. Axle load measurements should also be carried in order to determine
their damaging effect on the pavement structures. From forecasted total number of
traffic for the design period, in each direction, and axle load measurements, cumulative
equivalent standard axle (ESA) was determined for purpose of pavement design.
For manual traffic count enumerators were trained so that they will be acquainted with
the type of vehicle classes adopted in the counting and proper recording of the counts in
to the prepared formats (according to the information we got). Since the project roads
are two‐way roads, traffic count was made in both directions.
Night Count
Since the day count was made from (6am to 6pm), night count was carried for 2 days in
order to determine the evening traffic volume. Based on the night traffic count, night
factor was calculated from ratio of 24hr count to 12 hr count. The night factor obtained
at the count stations is shown in Table below.
Normal Traffic
Average Daily Traffic volume (ADT) is calculated from average of the seven day counts
made at respective count locations (A, B & C). In order to include the effect of night
traffic volume the night factor was multiplied by Average daily traffic volume (ADT)
obtained from day count. Another factor to be included in the determination of normal
traffic is seasonal variation of traffic based on economic activities. Since there is no
available traffic counts on the project roads, seasonal variation factor of 1 is taken.

The tables in the next pages show the full traffic count data & calculations for AADT in
both directions (left & right).
The positions of the traffic count is shown in the following picture
A count
Asko B count
station
station
C count
Station
Wingate
6. Topography
The geometric design elements of a road depend on the transverse terrain through
which the road passes. And for our road section to know the dominant transverse
terrain type on which the road passes and to know the transverse terrain type at which
each curve passes we did the following analysis
First, we import elevation of the road corridor at some distance from the center line from
both directions, which is to right and left from the eagle point.
Secondly, using the above data’s we calculate the slope of the road corridor at each 20
meter interval
Then finally, we classify the transverse terrain type based the slope we got and using
ERA manual.

ERA manual terrain classification
Terrain character Slope Terrain type

(%)
Flat or gently rolling country
offers few obstacles 0-5% Flat
unrestricted horizontal and vertical alignment
Rolling, hilly or foothill country
Slopes rise and fall Moderately
occasional steep slopes 5-25% Rolling
some restrictions in alignment
Rugged, hilly and mountainous country and river gorges
definite restrictions of alignment 25-50% Mountainous
long steep grades and limited sight distance
switchback roadway >50% Escarpment
side hill transverse sections where earthwork quantities are

considerable

Asco-Winget urban road topography analysis
Left Right Right Terrain

No Station Left Elev Width Slope (%)
Offset Offset Elev Type
1 -
0+000 25.327 2514.48 22.225 2511.845 47.552 5.5413022 Rolling
-
2
0+020 19.8 2514.815 18.495 2513.125 38.295 4.4131088 Flat
-
3 0+040 18.77 2515.564 21.166 2513.318 39.936 5.6239984 Rolling
-
4 0+060 19.349 2515.147 18.131 2513.726 37.48 3.7913554 Flat
-
5 0+080 19.639 2517.777 30.586 2513.095 50.225 9.3220508 Rolling
-
6 0+100 19.722 2516.752 17.237 2514 36.959 7.4460889 Rolling
-
7 0+120 18.387 2516.429 17.705 2513.871 36.092 7.0874432 Rolling
-
8 0+140 17.247 2515.659 19.479 2512.271 36.726 9.2250722 Rolling
-
9 0+160 22.757 2514.872 16.611 2510.436 39.368 11.268035 Rolling
-
10 0+180 19.329 2512.302 16.987 2508.613 36.316 10.158057 Rolling
-
11 0+200 20.941 2511.752 21.331 2506.305 42.272 12.885598 Rolling
-
12 0+220 21.837 2510.508 18.74 2503.555 40.577 17.135323 Rolling
-
13 0+240 21.426 2507.588 18.807 2501.537 40.233 15.039893 Rolling
-
14 0+260 20.75 2504.346 20.406 2499.035 41.156 12.904558 Rolling

-
15 0+280 20.581 2501.5 22.284 2494.731 42.865 15.791438 Rolling
-
16 0+300 20.767 2498.079 18.49 2491.093 39.257 17.795552 Rolling
17 0+320 18.416 2491.899 18.467 2487.143 36.883 -12.89483 Rolling
-
18 0+340 19.039 2484.779 18.623 2482.858 37.662 5.1006319 Rolling
-
19 0+360 18.53 2491.897 19.873 2481.973 38.403 25.841731 Mountanious
-
20 0+380 18.774 2494.618 19.674 2480.697 38.448 36.207345 Mountanious
-
21 0+400 21.376 2496.793 17.129 2487.186 38.505 24.950006 Rolling
-
22 0+420 19.524 2496.802 19.098 2488.497 38.622 21.503288 Rolling
-
23 0+440 18.852 2493.645 19.431 2491.599 38.283 5.3444087 Rolling
-
24 0+460 20.885 2497.815 17.567 2493.804 38.452 10.431187 Rolling
-
25 0+480 23.937 2499.146 19.842 2495.893 43.779 7.4305032 Rolling
-
26 0+500 21.566 2502.452 21.021 2497.981 42.587 10.498509 Rolling
-
27 0+520 22.245 2504.072 21.714 2501.799 43.959 5.1707273 Rolling
-
28 0+540 20.359 2504.801 19.588 2502.859 39.947 4.8614414 Flat
-
29 0+560 19.869 2505.905 18.733 2504.116 38.602 4.6344749 Flat
-
30 0+580 19.507 2506.116 19.956 2504.946 39.463 2.9648025 Flat
-
31 0+600 20.458 2506.482 22.553 2505.113 43.011 3.1829067 Flat

-
32 0+620 18.123 2506.48 19.392 2505.179 37.515 3.4679462 Flat
-
33 0+640 20.332 2506.134 18.727 2504.982 39.059 2.9493843 Flat
34 0+660 19.346 2505.624 19.454 2505.965 38.8 0.878866 Flat
-
34 0+680 18.439 2506.331 18.046 2505.936 36.485 1.0826367 Flat
-
35 0+700 21.406 2506.748 17.637 2505.272 39.043 3.7804472 Flat
-
36 0+720 23.617 2507.084 29.048 2504.9 52.665 4.1469667 Flat
37 0+740 29.323 2507.325 18.735 2505.695 48.058 -3.391735 Flat
-
38 0+760 28.445 2506.943 22.945 2503.979 51.39 5.7676591 Rolling
-
39 0+780 23.106 2506.769 23.441 2503.178 46.547 7.7147829 Rolling
-
40 0+800 20.438 2505.943 23.276 2502.843 43.714 7.0915496 Rolling
-
41 0+820 20.254 2505.493 22.185 2502.777 42.439 6.3997738 Rolling
-
42 0+840 17.977 2505.068 26.796 2502.428 44.773 5.8964108 Rolling
-
43 0+860 18.321 2505.461 21.664 2502.856 39.985 6.5149431 Rolling
-
44 0+880 22.734 2505.579 21.882 2502.538 44.616 6.8159405 Rolling
-
45 0+900 18.018 2504.974 23.45 2502.939 41.468 4.9073985 Flat
-
46 0+920 19.037 2505.252 20.99 2501.729 40.027 8.8015589 Rolling
-
47 0+940 19.78 2505.255 21.479 2501.776 41.259 8.4320997 Rolling
48 0+980 21.67 2505.135 18.59 2501.226 40.26 -9.709389 Rolling

-
49 1+000 34.921 2505.912 20.225 2500.792 55.146 9.2844449 Rolling
-
50 1+020 20.922 2504.695 26.385 2499.82 47.307 10.305029 Rolling
-
51 1+040 23.392 2504.233 20.04 2500.031 43.432 9.6748941 Rolling
-
52 1+060 23.197 2502.429 20.011 2500.277 43.208 4.9805592 Flat
-
53 1+080 23.263 2498.859 19.942 2497.639 43.205 2.8237473 Flat
-
54 1+100 18.482 2500.181 17.417 2496.83 35.899 9.3345219 Rolling
-
55 1+120 20.402 2499.048 18.59 2496.414 38.992 6.7552318 Rolling
-
56 1+140 28.075 2499.713 18.795 2495.382 46.87 9.2404523 Rolling
-
57 1+160 20.201 2498.65 32.693 2494.206 52.894 8.4017091 Rolling
-
58 1+180 25.29 2499.04 22.599 2491.63 47.889 15.473282 Rolling
59 1+200 25.483 2498.964 24.671 2485.245 50.154 -27.35375 Mountanious
60 1+220 20.125 2500.496 26.694 2485.521 46.819 31.984878 Mountanious
61 1+240 18.488 2503.262 18.329 2487.575 36.817 42.608034 Mountanious
62 1+260 22.771 2504.507 21.667 2485.895 44.438 41.883073 Mountanious
63 1+280 19.834 2502.932 24.773 2483.266 44.607 44.087251 Mountanious
64 1+300 22.405 2500.038 23.137 2484.395 45.542 34.348513 Mountanious
65 1+320 20.241 2499.35 26.759 2485.427 47 29.623404 Mountanious
66 1+340 19.559 2496.743 19.691 2488.063 39.25 22.11465 Rolling
67 1+360 19.281 2495.749 19.15 2492.267 38.431 9.060394 Rolling
68 1+380 19.005 2494.877 13.096 2491.509 32.101 10.491885 Rolling
69 1+400 20.769 2494.568 8.082 2491.227 28.851 11.580188 Rolling
70 1+420 19.913 2494.538 8.003 2490.498 27.916 14.471987 Rolling
71 1+440 19.738 2494.613 9.394 2490.213 29.132 15.103666 Rolling

72 1+460 20.689 2494.486 23.398 2489.762 44.087 10.715177 Rolling

73 1+480 19.727 2494.813 38.415 2489.374 58.142 9.3546834 Rolling
74 1+500 18.331 2494.263 14.678 2490.981 33.009 9.9427429 Rolling
75 1+520 28.455 2495.022 12.278 2491.314 40.733 9.1031842 Rolling
76 1+540 19.797 2494.052 23.539 2491.421 43.336 6.0711649 Rolling
77 1+560 21.532 2493.539 19.261 2491.503 40.793 4.9910524 Flat
78 1+580 21.544 2494.177 20.732 2490.058 42.276 9.7431167 Rolling
79 1+600 20.833 2493.685 21.815 2489.489 42.648 9.8386794 Rolling
80 1+620 21.357 2492.49 18.886 2488.647 40.243 9.5494869 Rolling
81 1+640 23.332 2492.098 22.245 2488.57 45.577 7.7407464 Rolling
82 1+660 19.736 2490.882 20.748 2487.497 40.484 8.3613279 Rolling
83 1+680 19.185 2490.875 28.234 2486.223 47.419 9.8104135 Rolling
84 1+700 18.827 2490.743 22.376 2486.814 41.203 9.5357134 Rolling
85 1+720 18.421 2489.393 22.234 2486.378 40.655 7.416062 Rolling
86 1+740 22.505 2489.011 20.143 2487.29 42.648 4.0353592 Flat
87 1+760 18.42 2486.829 21.127 2484.084 39.547 6.941108 Rolling
88 1+780 21.63 2486.66 22.082 2482.367 43.712 9.8211018 Rolling
-
89 1+800 19.046 2484.547 19.911 2485.552 38.957 2.5797674 Flat
-
90 1+820 18.165 2486.826 18.966 2487.497 37.131 1.8071153 Flat
91 1+840 19.09 2490.081 19.098 2489.734 38.188 0.9086624 Flat
92 1+860 18.559 2493.475 19.568 2493.215 38.127 0.6819314 Flat
93 1+880 11.664 2495.82 19.012 2495.43 30.676 1.2713522 Flat
94 1+900 18.721 2498.849 19.629 2496.863 38.35 5.178618 Rolling
95 1+920 24.072 2501.504 19.728 2498.479 43.8 6.9063927 Rolling
96 1+940 20.699 2499.938 18.365 2499.726 39.064 0.5426992 Flat
97 1+960 23.199 2500.683 21.05 2499.738 44.249 2.1356415 Flat
-
98 1+980 24.374 2499.689 19.841 2499.918 44.215 0.5179238 Flat
-
99 2+000 24.91 2499.949 21.362 2500.289 46.272 0.7347856 Flat

100 2+020 30.255 2499.905 21.973 2499.781 52.228 0.2374205 Flat

101 2+040 19.068 2499.798 20.042 2499.268 39.11 1.3551521 Flat
102 2+060 20.119 2499.129 20.142 2498.989 40.261 0.3477311 Flat
103 2+080 23.122 2499.468 19.913 2498.584 43.035 2.054142 Flat
104 2+100 20.298 2499.397 21.169 2498.54 41.467 2.0667036 Flat
105 2+120 26.568 2498.926 19.207 2498.77 45.775 0.3407974 Flat
-
106 2+140 21.893 2498.182 24.144 2498.505 46.037 0.7016096 Flat
107 2+160 19.104 2497.473 20.459 2496.966 39.563 1.2815004 Flat
108 2+180 19.348 2497.027 19.031 2496.27 38.379 1.9724328 Flat
109 2+200 27.477 2497.7 21.725 2495.698 49.202 4.0689403 Flat
-
110 2+220 19.509 2495.625 18.867 2495.891 38.376 0.6931415 Flat
111 2+240 22.615 2495.305 18.875 2494.168 41.49 2.7404194 Flat
112 2+260 19.938 2494.531 19.162 2492.47 39.1 5.2710997 Rolling
113 2+280 21.198 2494.582 23.812 2491.167 45.01 7.5872028 Rolling
114 2+300 19.378 2493.9 24.501 2490.168 43.879 8.5052075 Rolling
115 2+320 19.603 2493.5 19.201 2490.735 38.804 7.1255541 Rolling
116 2+340 20.739 2493.03 19.716 2490.506 40.455 6.239031 Rolling
117 2+360 18.963 2493.758 26.35 2490.267 45.313 7.7041909 Rolling
118 2+380 19.417 2493.663 19.547 2490.733 38.964 7.5197618 Rolling
119 2+400 10.832 2491.271 22.221 2490.705 33.053 1.7124013 Flat
120 2+420 9.947 2490.128 17.838 2489.802 27.785 1.1732949 Flat
-
121 2+440 9.089 2488.988 6.991 2489.151 16.08 1.0136816 Flat

CHAPTER TWO
GEOMETRIC DESIGN
2.1 Number of lane determination
Introduction
We used highway capacity manual (HCM) as reference to determine the number of

lanes demanded to accommodate traffic on our road network. The procedures used in
HCM are used to analyze the capacity, level of service (LOS), lane requirements, and
impacts of traffic and design features of urban areas. The methodology followed by
HCM is to define the base conditions in urban multi lane highways, to identify the factors
which affect base condition and the extent of their effect.
A set of base conditions for developing flow relationships and adjustments to speed are
3.6 m minimum lane widths, 3.6 m minimum total lateral clearance in the direction of
travel, this total represents the lateral clearances from the edge of the traveled lanes to
obstructions along the edge of the road and in the median. Lateral clearances greater
than 1.8 m are considered in computations to be equal to 1.8 m. the other base
conditions are only passenger cars in the traffic stream, no direct access points along
the roadway, a divided highway, and free-flow speed higher than 100 km/h.
Application of the methodology
The methodology of may be used to analyze the capacity and level of service of
multilane highways. To apply the methodology, we must address two fundamental
questions. First, the primary output that is being solved for must be identified. Primary
outputs that typically are solved for in a variety of applications include level of service
(LOS), number of lanes required (N), and flow rate achievable (Vp). Performance
measures related to density (D) and speed (S) are also achievable as outputs and are
considered as secondary outputs.

Second items which must be identified are the default values or estimated values which
will be used in the analysis. Basically, we have three sources which provide input data.
Default values found in this manual, estimates and/or\ locally derived default values
developed by the user, and values derived from field measurements and observation
are the three categories of inputs. For each of the input variables, a value must be
supplied if the outputs, both primary and secondary, are to be calculated.
A commonly used application for the method is to compute the LOS of an existing
facility or of a changed facility in the near term or distant future. This type of application
is often termed operational and its primary output is LOS, with secondary outputs for
density and speed. Another application type is when we wish to check the adequacy or
to recommend the required number of lanes for the multilane highway given the volume
or flow rate and level-of-service goal. This application type has been termed design
since it has as its primary output the number of lanes required to serve the assumed
conditions. Other outputs from this type of application include speed and density.
Finally, the achievable flow rate, Vp, can be solved for as the primary output. This
analysis requires that a level-of-service goal and number of lanes for the multilane
highway be stated as inputs. This analysis is typically used to establish an estimate of
when a flow rate will be exceeded, causing the highway to operate at an unacceptable
level of service.
Another general type of analysis can be defined by the term planning. These analyses
imply the use of estimates, HCM default values, and/or local default values on the input
side of the calculation. As outputs, LOS, number of lanes, or flow rate can be
determined along with the secondary outputs of density and speed. The difference
between this type of analysis and those identified as operational or design is simply that
most or all of the input values come from estimates or default values, while the
operational and design analyses tend to utilize field measured values or use known
values for most or all of the input variables. Note that for each of the analyses
described, free flow speed, either measured or estimated, is required on the input side
of the computation.

Limitation of the methodology
The methodology has its own limitations and they are; transitory blockages caused by
construction, accidents, or railroad crossings, interference caused by parking on the
shoulders (such as in the vicinity of a country store, flea market, or tourist attraction),
three-lane cross-sections, effect of lane drops and additions at beginning or end of
segments. Possible queuing delays when traffic transitions from a multilane segment to
a two-lane segment are neglected, differences between median barriers and two-way
left-turn lanes, and free-flow speeds below 70 km/h.
Procedure for determining number of lane
The procedures which are used during the determination of number of lane for our road
network will be discussed along with their concept.
Determination of free-flow speed
Free-flow speed is measured using the mean speed of passenger cars operating in low
to moderate flow conditions (up to 1,400 pc/h/ln). Mean speed is virtually constant
across this range of flow rates. Two general methods can be used to determine the
free-flow speed for the highway: field measurement, and estimation with guidelines
The free-flow speed of a highway can be determined directly from a speed study
conducted in the field. If field-measured data are used, no subsequent adjustments are
made to free-flow speed. The speed study should be conducted at a representative
location within the highway segment being evaluated; for example, an upgrade should
not be selected within a site that is generally level.
The speed study should measure the speeds of all passenger cars or a systematic
sample of passenger cars (e.g., every 10th passenger car). The speed study should not
only measure speeds for unimpeded vehicles but should also include representative
numbers of impeded vehicles. A sample of at least 100 passenger-car speeds should
be obtained.

For our case we estimated free-flow speed indirectly using formula and procedures
which will be discussed as follows;
FFS = BFFS - fLW - fLC - fM – fA
Where;
BFFS = base free-flow speed, km/h,
free-flow speed on multilane highways under base conditions is approximately 11 km/h

higher than the speed limit for 65 and 70 km/h speed limits and 8 km/h higher for 80 and
90 km/h speed limits. The design speed of our multilane urban arterial road is 70km/h,
therefore;
BFFS = 70km/h + 11km/h

= 81km/h
fLW = adjustment for lane width, km/h,
Base conditions for multilane highways are based on 3.6 m lane widths. And there is an
adjustment to modify the estimated free-flow speed to account for narrower lanes. i.e.
3.0 m, 3.3 m and 3.5m lanes reduce free-flow speeds by 10.6 km/h, 3.1 km/h and 1
km/h respectively. Since the lane width on our road network is 3.5 m adjustment for lane
width will be
fLW =1km/h
fLC = adjustment for lateral clearance, km/h,
Fixed obstructions whose lateral clearance effects should be considered include light
standards, signs, trees, abutments, bridge rails, traffic barriers, and retaining walls.
Standard raised curbs are not considered as obstructions.
The Adjustment for Lateral Clearance, to consider reduction of free flow speed,
depends on lateral clearance from the right edge of the travel lanes to roadside
obstructions (if greater than 1.8 m, 1.8 m will be adopted) and lateral clearance from the

left edge of the travel lanes to obstructions in the roadway median (if the lateral
clearance is greater than 1.8 m, 1.8 m will be adopted). The lateral clearance we got on
our road network is from the right edge of the travel lanes to roadside obstructions i.e.
1.8m. and the adjustment factor for 1.8m lateral clearance is 2.1km/h.
fLC =2.1km/h
fM = adjustment for median type,
the average free-flow speed should be decreased by 2.6 km/h for undivided highways,
to account for the friction caused by opposing traffic in an adjacent lane, and 0km/h for
divided highways. Since our road network is the divided one, adjustment for median
type will be zero
fLW =0km/h
fA = adjustment for access points
adjustment to free-flow speed for various levels of access-point density is different. and
that is, every access point per kilometer decreases the estimated free-flow speed by
approximately 0.4 km/h, regardless of the type of median. The access-point density on
a divided roadway is found by dividing the total number of access points (intersections
and driveways) on the right side of the roadway in the direction of travel being studied.
An intersection or driveway should only be included if it is considered to have an
influence on traffic flow. Access points that are unnoticed by the driver or those with little
activity should not be included in the determination of access-point density.
On our road network there are only two intersections in 2.46km so there is no effect on
the reduction of free flow speed.
fA=0km/h
FFS = estimated free-flow speed, km/h, FFS = BFFS - fLW - fLC - fM – fA
FFS = 81km/h-1km/h-2.1km/h-0km/h-0km/h
= 77.9km/h

Determination of flow rate
Two adjustments must be made to hourly volume counts or estimates to arrive at the
equivalent passenger-car flow rate used in LOS analyses. These adjustments are the
peak-hour factor and the heavy vehicle adjustment factor. The number of lanes is also
used so that the flow rate can be expressed on a per-lane basis. These adjustments are
applied following the equation below
=
ℎ
Where;
N= number of lane;
PHF = peak-hour factor,
Peak-hour factor (PHF) represents the temporal variation in traffic flow within an hour.
Observations of traffic flow consistently indicate that the flow rates found in the peak 15-
minute period within an hour are not sustained throughout the entire hour. Application of
PHF in the above equation accounts for this phenomenon. For our road network peak-
hour factor is
PHF=0.9
V = hourly volume, vehicle/hr,
Is calculated using AADT and to convert AADT to DDHV we used the following formula.
DDHV=AADT*K*D
Where;
K=peak hour volume,
Since the Peak hour volume is 10% of the daily K is taken as 0.1
D=directional factor

From the traffic survey flow of traffic in both direction is equal 50/50, so D is taken as
0.5.
Our AADT value from traffic survey and analysis is 27,800 vehicle/hr
DDHV=design daily hourly volume
=AADT*K*D
=27,800*0.1*0.5
= 1390 veh/h
fHV = heavy vehicle adjustment factor,
The presence of heavy vehicles in the traffic stream decreases the free-flow speed
Heavy-vehicle factor (fHV) because under base conditions the traffic stream is
composed only of passenger cars. Therefore, traffic volumes must be adjusted to reflect
an equivalent flow rate expressed in passenger cars per hour per lane. This is
accomplished through application of the factor fHV. And heavy vehicle adjustment factor
is calculated using the following formula
fHV =
( ) ( )
Where
ET, ER = passenger-car equivalents for trucks and buses and for RVs, respectively,
Passenger-car equivalents can be selected for two conditions: extended general

highway segments and specific grades.
A long multilane highway segment may be classified as an extended general highway

segment if no grade exceeding 3 percent is longer than 0.8 km, and grades of 3 percent
or less do not exceed 1.6 km. and as isolated specific grade if grade of 3 percent or less
that is longer than 1.6 km or any grade greater than 3percent that is longer than 0.8 km.
based on this criteria we select our passenger-car equivalent for extended general
highway segment.

According to highway capacity manual passenger-car equivalents on extended general

highway segments for rolling terrain is given as
ET (trucks and buses) = 2.5

ER (RVs) = 2
PT, PR = proportion of trucks and buses, and RVs, respectively, in the traffic stream
(expressed as a decimal fraction),
From traffic survey the vehicles composition is 10% truck and 0% RVs
PT=0.1
PR=0
Adjustment for the presence of heavy vehicles in the traffic stream applies for three
types of vehicles: trucks, recreational vehicles (RV's), and buses. There is no evidence
to indicate any distinct differences in performance characteristics between the truck and
bus population on multilane highways, and thus buses are considered as trucks in this
method.
fp = driver population factor
The adjustment factor fp reflects the effect (weekend recreational, perhaps even
midday) drivers have on the facility. The values for fp range from 0.85-1.00. When
greater accuracy is needed, comparative field studies of weekday and weekend traffic
flow and speeds are recommended. Typically, we select 1.00, which reflects weekday
commuter traffic (i.e., users familiar with the highway), since there is no sufficient
evidence that a lesser value, reflecting more recreational or weekend traffic
characteristics, should be applied.
The level of service (LOS) of our road network is c and from the above calculation we
have free-flow speed of 77.9km/n and which is approximated to 80km/h for design
purpose.

Using the above two data’s we can read flow rate from the following table
Free-Flow Level of service (LOS)

Speed Criteria
A B C D E
100 km/h Max density (pc/km/ln) 7 11 16 22 25
Average speed (km/h) 100.0 100.0 98.4 91.5 88.0
Max v/c 0.33 0.50 0.72 0.94 1.00
Max service flow rate (pc/h/ln) 700 1100 1575 2015 2200
90km/h Max density (pc/km/ln) 7 11 16 22 26
Max v/c 0.31 0.47 0.68 0.89 1.00
Max v/c 0.30 0.44 0.64 0.85 1.00
Max v/c 0.28 0.41 0.59 0.81 1.00
For a given LOS (c) and free-flow speed (80km/h); Flow rate, Vp is 880 up to 1280.
Then we fixed the maximum flow rate which is 1280
Then we used the following formula to determine number of lane (in one direction)
=
ℎ
Since every unknown is already determined before, we can substitute them in to

the formula

1390
=
0.9 ∗ 0.87 ∗ 1280 ∗ 1
= 1.38 2
( )= ∗ 2 = 2 ∗ 2 = 4( )
2.2 Cross section design
Introduction
The prime determinants of cross-section design are the function that the road is
intended to Serve, the nature and volume of traffic to be accommodated and the speed
of the traffic.
Road function refers to a spectrum of needs ranging from accessibility to mobility.

Furthermore, a road can be classified on a variety of different bases. A common feature
of these considerations is that they largely concern addressing the needs of the
occupants of a moving vehicle. These needs may find expression in a desire for ready
access to or from a property adjacent to the road, freedom to manoeuvre in a terminal
or intersection area or for high-speed long distance travel. High-speed traffic requires
more space than relatively slow moving traffic. Space takes the form of wider lanes,
wider shoulders and (possibly) the inclusion of a median in the cross-section. All these
needs have to be met in terms of overall objectives of safety, economy, convenience
and minimum side effects.
In urban areas, road functions also have to include considerations of living space.
People enjoy casual encounters, meeting people on neutral territory, as it were, without
the obligation of having to act as host or hostess in the home. The sidewalk café, the
flea market and window-shopping all have to be accommodated within the road reserve.
All of these activities impact on the cross-section, which has to be designed accordingly.
Traffic does not exclusively comprise motorized vehicles. In developing areas, it may be
necessary to make provision for animal-drawn vehicles and, in this context, developing

areas are not necessarily exclusively rural. The volume of motorized vehicles will have
an impact on the design of the cross-section with regard to the number of lanes that
have to be provided. High volumes of moving vehicles will generate a need for special
lanes such as for turning, passing, climbing or parking.
In urban areas, the presence of large numbers of pedestrians will require adequate
provision to be made in terms of sidewalk widths. Pedestrians are also to be found on
rural roads. On rural roads, speeds are high so that crashes involving pedestrians are
inevitably fatal. It is thus sensible to make at least modest provision for pedestrians on
rural roads, even though their numbers may be low.
Cyclists can often be accommodated on the normal travelled lanes but, when the
number of cyclists increases, it may be necessary to widen these lanes or, as a further
development, to provide cycle paths adjacent to or, for preference, removed from the
travelled lanes.
Although the horizontal and vertical alignments are disaggregated in the sense that they
are a combination of tangents and curves, the cross section is heavily disaggregated,
comprising a multitude of individual elements. Design is thus concerned primarily with
the selection of elements that have to be incorporated within the cross-section, followed
by sizing of these individual elements.
Safety of cross section
Safety is a primary consideration in the design of the cross-section. The safety of the
road user refers to all those within the road reserve, whether in vehicles or not. Wide
lanes supposedly promote the safety of the occupants of vehicles although current
evidence suggests that there is an upper limit beyond which safety is reduced by further
increases in lane width. The reverse side of the coin is that wide lanes have a negative
impact on the safety of pedestrians attempting to cross the road or street. In devising
safe cross-sections, it is therefore necessary to consider the needs of the entire
population of road users and not just those in vehicles.

In urban areas, it is necessary to make provision for boarding and alighting public
transport passengers, disabled persons and other non-vehicular users of the facility in
addition to accommodating pedestrians and cyclists. In these areas, design speed
usually plays a lesser role in the design of the cross-section.
Cross section elements
In the following section we will discuss the cross section elements incorporated in our
road section, the service they provide in the road network and consideration which are
made during their design will be discussed.
1. Median
Arterial and sub-arterial roads should desirably have a median to provide a refuge for
pedestrians crossing the road, to provide space for left turn lanes, and to provide space
for landscape planting. The presence of a median also provides the opportunity to
locate streetlights and other road furniture such as direction and regulatory signs in the
centre of the road. The median may also be a suitable location for new or future
underground trunk services.
If an existing road is being upgraded and the road reserve is constrained, then
consideration may need to be given to a cross section without a median. However, if a
median can be included by reducing the width of other cross sectional elements such as
traffic lanes and footpaths, this may be preferable. The use of a variable median width
should be considered where the road reserve is narrow and it is not feasible to widen it
in some areas.
We considered the following points during the design of this cross section element.
Since the master plan of Addis Ababa doesn’t recommend light rail in our road section,
there is no need to design wider median and we design our median in such a way that it
get wider near interchanges

2. Border
The border includes a footpath and space for services, landscape planting, and
roadside furniture including signs, street lights and bus stop shelters and seats, and
indented bus bays and possibly indented parking bays.
On our road section the terms boarder and footpath are different only at two stations
where there is bus seat, in which the term boarder will be applicable rather than
footpath and we locate our foot path away from kerbside placement of wheeled bins for
collection of household garbage and recycling waste and opening car doors when cars
are parked at the kerb
3. Parking (Bus bay)
On street parking on arterial roads may be provided by an indented parking lane or

parking may be allowed (outside peak periods) in the nearside lane. Parallel parking
only is to be provided on arterial and sub-arterial roads, as the use of angle parking
interrupts traffic flow and causes accidents. Parking in the centre of the road should not
be allowed.
Our parking facilitates normal traffic to have access to the adjacent property and
simultaneously facilitate Bus Stop. Our parking (bus bay) is located on the frontage road
except on the road section where there is no frontage road.
4. Carriageway
Each carriageway will provide two, three or four through lanes depending on design
flows. At intersections, additional lanes for left turns and right turns are usually
necessary. The nearside lane may be widened to facilitate use by laden animals and/or
bicycles.
All arterial and sub-arterial roads with frontage access and footpaths should have
barrier kerbs on the nearside and semi-mountable kerbs on the offside. Limited access
arterial roads should have semi-mountable kerbs on both sides of the carriageway
provided the footpath, if any, is located outside the clear zone.

5. Outer separator
This is the portion of road reserve that separates a through carriageway from a frontage
road or
Collector-distributor road. It also provides walking or standing space for pedestrians and
to accommodate road side plant.
6. Clear zone
Vehicles run off the road; hence shoulder, verge and batter design must make provision
for a clear zone comprising a reasonably flat, well compacted and unobstructed which
will allow an errant vehicle to traverse this area, sustaining minimum damage to itself
and occupants.
Urban arterial roads have specific problems created by utility poles. However, efforts
should still be made to ensure that the appropriate speed related clear zone is provided,
especially on new construction. On arterial roads and local streets, footpaths will
provide part of the clear zone, provided utility poles, sign supports and heavy structures
are kept to the rear of the footway, or made frangible, and all planting within the clear
zone consists of frangible species i.e. with a trunk diameter not exceeding 100mm.
Hazards are not permitted in the clear zone unless protected by a barrier system. If
feasible, it is preferable to eliminate the hazard rather than provide a barrier, as a crash
into a barrier can be a severe impact.
Where the clear zone includes a traversable embankment batter, the section of the
clear zone on the batter will be less effective in providing for opportunities for vehicle
control to be regained. Conversely, if the road is in a cutting, a traversable cut batter will
be more effective than level ground. For this reason, the effective width of the batter in
contributing to the clear zone is adjusted depending on the embankment or cut slope
According to AACRA manual, the clear zone that is applicable for our road section is 4m
and on our design we have clear zone of 4.3m which is beyond the requirement and

since we don’t design verge and batter on our road section there will be no need of
adjusting our clear zone width.
7. Frontage Road
Frontage roads may be used next to freeways and arterial roads to provide property
access and to link severed roads so that a road network is re-established following new
road construction in an already developed area. Frontage roads may also be part of a
comprehensive development of a new area.
Continuous frontage roads should have a cross section similar to one carriageway of a
sub-arterial road with provision for kerb side parking. The number of lanes would be a
function of expected traffic volumes and demand for on-street parking. These roads
would normally be one way operation.
Discontinuous frontage roads should have a cross section similar to the type of road
that the frontage road connects with. For example, if the frontage road connects pairs of
truncated residential streets, the frontage road would adopt the same cross section as
the connected streets. If the frontage road is configured so that it operates as a collector
road, then a collector road cross section would be adopted. These roads would normally
be two way operations.

We designed our frontage road as discontinuous (only on some part of the road
section), which means no through traffic is intended to use the frontage road we locate
our frontage road on both side of our road section
We designed our frontage road as discontinuous (only on some part of the road
section), which means no through traffic is intended to use the frontage road and we
locate our frontage road on both side of our road section. as it is clearly stated on
AACRA geometric manual, discontinuous frontage roads would adopt the cross section
of the roads that are connected with the frontage road, so our frontage road cross
section was fixed based on the average cross section of local streets and collector road,
because it is connected to the two types of roads.
Fig. cross section elements
Cross section elements dimension
The following dimensions were fixed for each elements based on AACRA manual,
based on our hierarchy of road, design speed and other conditions like topography.

Road
category Cross section elements
urban Frontag Boarde Carriag Outer No. Lane median Sidewalk Parking
arterial & e road r eway separato of width width (foot lane
sub r lane path) (bus
arterial bay)
road with Disconti 1.2m
frontage nuous, 4m Dual 5m four 3.5m and 1.8m 2.5m
road both 2.5m (both
directio (near direction
n& interch )
3.5m anges)
Cross section variation
The cross section of urban roads usually varies along a road due many reasons which
will be discussed in detail. This variation means that before land is set aside for future
roads, thorough planning and preliminary design is necessary to define the road
reserve.
The elements comprising a cross section form part of a package; accordingly, decisions
about the dimensions to be adopted for an individual element must recognize the
considerable degree of interdependence of design considerations that occurs. For
instance, decisions on verge width can only logically be made in the light of the
available sight distance on horizontal curves.
For most works the cost of providing the pavement, and its wearing surface, is the most
significant factor in the total cost of a road project. It is therefore important to ensure that

the width of pavement adopted is the appropriate one for the circumstances. Particular
care is needed in cases where improvements are being made to roads on the existing
formation.
Adopting dimensions that will require widening of the formation will cause a large
increase in the cost of the work. As long as possible we tried to examine the cost of
alternatives to ensure that the most cost effective solution is adopted.
1. Curve Widening
The swept path of vehicles increases in width with decreasing curve radius. At
intersections, the required width is firstly approximated by the use of turning templates
and then refined using software such as Auto Turn. Since our intersection is not located
on low radius curve there is no need of using Auto turn. The widening which are
provided for each of low radius curves on our road network will be listed in the following
table
Design vehicle Curve radius Curve widening (m)

161 0.49
19m Semi-trailer 200 0.35
268 0.29
2. Working Width & Dynamic Deflection
All crash barriers require space to fit the barrier and also space for dynamic effects
when collisions occur. All flexible barrier types must provide space for the dynamic
deflection of the barrier. All rigid systems require space called “working width” for the
rolling of the design truck. This space prevents the tilted truck from striking the object
behind the barrier. For our road, the normal cross section is assumed to perform the
above mentioned tasks.

3. Barrier Systems
Freeways and arterial roads require barrier systems to protect vehicles from roadside
hazards, control pedestrian movement, and prevent head on collisions. The spatial
provision for these barriers influences verge width, outer separator width, and median
width. For our road, the normal cross section elements are assumed to perform the
above mentioned tasks.
4. Horizontal Sight Distance Widening
This widening is due to the need to use curves of relatively low radius to meet site
constraints on the road alignment. These curves may involve the sight line crossing the
verge or residual median. If this occurs, any road furniture, landscape planting, structure
or batter will need to be located clear of the sight line.
Sight distance standards frequently require widening of the verge or residual median
and adjustment of the proposed structure. These adjustments will then require a wider
cross section and longer bridge overpass structures. Bridges may also require widening
so that sight distance to the road pavement is not obstructed by the bridge parapet.
Trucks travelling on the same direction as the carriageway under design are normally
considered a transient obstruction, and are not treated as a sight distance restriction.
However, trucks on an adjacent carriageway are considered a potential sight distance
restriction to both cars and trucks.
On our road network the above scenario was not an issue. Therefore we did not provide
any widening for improving horizontal sight distance.
5. Frontage, boarder and median width variation
There are two types of cross section types along the road section based on the reason
our frontage road is discontinuous. The one is for the road section which has frontage
road and the other one is for the road section without frontage road.
Border is one of cross section element on our road section and it got two features. The
first one is just a footpath without any other road furniture and the other one is a

footpath plus a bus seat. And this border width variation in turn will cause total cross
section variation.
The median on our road section got two different widths. I.e. at normal road alignment
and intersections. And this in turn will cause total cross section variation. And cross
section variation and their dimensions will be listed in the following table.
Type of cross section variation Change of the cross section due to the
variation
introducing Frontage road
7m
Boarder width variation
2.2m
Median width variation
1.3m
Crossfall of cross section elements
Crossfall is defined as the side slope, normal to the alignment, of the surface of any part
of the carriageway. And it is Expressed as a percentage, this is the cross slope of the
road surface at right angles to the road alignment. The crossfall provided for each cross
section element on our road network will be discussed in the following section.
1. Pavement crossfall
Crossfall is provided primarily to facilitate pavement drainage. The usual arrangement

for straight sections of road is for the pavement crossfall to slope down from either the

centerline or the median. However inward sloping crossfall or one way crossfall may be
useful for certain grades, drainage or side slope situations.
For wide multilane pavements, it may be appropriate to crown the pavement with one or
two lanes draining to the median. This minimizes the depth of flow on the pavement
surface, reducing aquaplaning potential. Crossfall has the important function of
shedding water from the roadway to reduce the possibility of a vehicle aquaplaning in
wet conditions.
On curved section of highway, Crossfall is up slope and is known as superelevation.

Superelevation design on our road section will be discussed in detail in the horizontal
alignment design.
Based on AACRA manual the typical pavement Crossfall for asphaltic concrete is 2.5-3.
Based on this recommendation we designed our pavement Crossfall to be 2.5%. And
the term pavement Crossfall refers to both through carriageway and frontage road.
2. Cross-over Crown Line
On straight sections of road, the maximum algebraic change in crossfall over a crown
line is 7%. According to AACRA where a turning roadway with average running speed
of greater than 50km/h through road exits from a carriageway, and a different crossfall
is required on the through road and the turning roadway, the algebraic change in
crossfall over the crown line formed must be limited to 5%.
3. Median Crossfall
Medians up to 8 m wide are generally level or follow the crossfall of the road.
Depressed medians greater than 8 m wide should have a desirable crossfall of 1 on 10.
At intersections where signals are to be installed, the median cross slope must match
the slope of the road through the intersection and should not be greater than 6%. Since
our maximum width of median is 2.5m, we adopt a level median.

4. Border Crossfall
It is usual to slope the footpath and the rest of the border towards the road so that water
does not drain on to adjoining properties. Where it is not possible to do this, drainage
onto adjacent properties will have to be arranged with the property owners. The slope of
the footpath should be 2% - 2.5% so that it drains but is useable by wheelchairs. We
designed our border (footpath) Crossfall as 2%.
Batter design along the road
Batters are the side slopes of cuttings and embankments. The slope is expressed as a
ratio, one unit of vertical rise on the horizontal distance X (1 on X). Maximum slopes are
determined from the geotechnical properties of the materials involved.
Batter
Slopes flatter than the maximum should be used where possible. Generally flatter batter
slopes are safer, more resistant to erosion and have a better appearance. The cost of
stabilizing, planting and maintaining steep slopes may exceed the cost of the additional
earthworks and road reserve required to provide a flatter, possibly traversable slope.

Flatter slopes also reduce the extent of safety barrier and reduce potential
environmental impacts (erosion and sedimentation). However, the impact of flatter
batters must be balanced against the desirability of retaining significant native flora,
other environmental issues and property impacts.
Rounding at tops of cuttings and embankments can reduce scouring, remove loose
material and improve the appearance of the road. The amount of rounding on the top of
cuttings usually depends on the material, the depth of rock (if any) and the natural
contours of the ground. And for our road network we strictly recommend rounding of
cutting and embankments during construction whenever possible.
Cut and fill batters designs along the road network will be listed in the following table
Depth of cut or fill Fill batter Cut batter
<1m 1 on 4 (1:4) 1 on 4 (1:4)
1-2m 1 on 4 (1:4) 1 on 4 (1:4)
2-3m 1 on 3 (1:3) 1 on 3 (1:3)
3-10m 1 on 2 (1:2) 1 on 2 (1:2)
10m> Benching Benching
A bench is a near horizontal ledge that is constructed on a side slope to provide slope
stability and assist with batter drainage. They may also be used to provide additional
sight distance in a cutting that may be required due to horizontal curvature or an
adjacent intersection.
Traversable embankment batters assist by providing an errant vehicle an opportunity to

recover and return to the through carriageway by maintaining all wheels in contact with
the ground. According to AACRA all of our batter slopes can be considered as
Traversable embankment batters because they are 1:3 and flatter.

2.3 Sight distance
Introduction
Sight distance is the distance over which visibility occurs between a driver and an object
or between two drivers at specific heights above the carriageway. For safety on the
road, sufficient sight distance must be provided to enable drivers to control their
vehicles to avoid collisions with other vehicles or objects on the road.
Simply put, sight distance is the distance visible to the driver of a passenger car. For
highway safety, the designer must provide sight distances of sufficient length that
drivers can control the operation of their vehicles. They must be able to avoid striking an
unexpected object on the traveled way. Two-lane highways should also have sufficient
sight distance to enable drivers to occupy the opposing traffic lane for passing
maneuvers, without risk of accident.
Minimum sight distance based on car braking performance must be obtained at all
points along the roadway for the chosen design speed. In some circumstances,
additional sight distance for trucks may be desirable. These situations include (but are
not limited to): horizontal curves on downgrades, sag vertical curves with overpass
structures or sign gantries and intersections.
Sight Distance Parameters
The parameters that are going to be checked for calculation of different types of sight
distances will be discussed in detail in the following section
1. Truck Sight Distance Check
Roads and junctions must be designed to provide safe operating conditions for both
cars and trucks. Both truck and car stopping distance requirements need to be
considered. The design speed for cars in urban areas is usually 10km greater than the
posted speed limit. The truck sight distance check shall be undertaken using the speed
limit (usually 10km/h less than the car design speed) or the estimated truck operating

speed, whichever is the lower. Allowance for the different operating speeds of cars and
trucks should be made. For example, on an uphill grade truck speeds will be reduced
and the truck stopping distance will be reduced by the effect of gravity.
The increased height of the truck gives better visibility over crests, median barriers and
bridge parapets. In some circumstances, this extra visibility compensates for the longer
stopping distance of trucks. In other cases, such as on horizontal curves with adjacent
retaining walls (or in curved tunnels) the truck driver eye height does not increase sight
distance.
Trucks require significantly greater time to cross intersections and to turn on and off
main roads. The recognition of the longer gap in opposing traffic flows requires longer
sight distances for trucks than cars. The additional eye height assists obtain the longer
sight distance if a crest vertical curve is in the vicinity of the intersection. However,
horizontal curvature and sight distance obstruction by roadside development may limit
the visibility. Intersections with significant truck usage and restricted visibility may
require the installation of traffic signals for safety reasons.
2. Truck Speeds on Grades
Using charts which are constructed based on the observed performance of trucks with
120kg weight for each kW of power we estimated truck operating speed and the
appropriate truck sight distance checks carried out For a given grade and grade
distance. On downgrades, the truck should be assumed not to exceed the speed limit.

The following two charts can be used for to estimate Trucks speeds on upgrades and
acceleration of trucks on upgrades and downgrades
3. Driver Reaction Time
The representative driver reaction time for sight distance calculation purposes is 2.5
seconds. Absolute minimum stopping sight distances based on a 2.0 second reaction
time may be used for mid-block sections where an economic design cannot be achieved
using 2.5 second reaction time. Junction design must be based on 2.5 second reaction
time. And for our road network we adopt a 2.5 second reaction time.
4. Driver Eye Height
The representative height for design calculations of the car driver’s eye is 1.05m. And
the representative height of a truck driver’s eye for design calculations is 2.40m. For our
road network we used the above figures for calculation purpose.

5. Object Height
The height of object that is to be used during sight distance calculations is different for
varying situations. And the following table will illustrate this scenario.
Object Height m Situation

0.0 (Pavement) Intersection design (ASD)
Sight line to line marking
Sight line to freeway exit lane
Sight line to freeway exit nose
0.2 (Object on road) Mid-block crest vertical curve design
(SSD)
Horizontal curve line of sight (SSD):
• generally
• on bridges and where crash barrier
present
• in tunnels, past bridge abutments
and retaining walls
0.6 (Car tail lights and Sight lines under bridges/sign gantries at
turn indicators) sag vertical curves (SSD)
Sight lines to ends of queues at
intersections (SSD)
Sight line used for gap acceptance object
(MGSD)
1.05 (Car) Intersection design (SISD)
1.3 (Car roof) Horizontal curve line of sight over roadside
safety barrier or bridge parapet

Mid- block Sight Distance
The term mid-block sight distance accounts for stopping sight distance, overtaking sight
distance and sight distance on horizontal curves. And each of them will be discussed in
detail in the following section.
1. Stopping Sight Distance

SSD=d1 +d2
Where:
d1 = reaction distance=RT*V/3.6
RT= reaction time: 2.5 sec (from the above discussion)
V = operating speed: 70km/h (design speed of the road network)
d2 = braking distance =V2/254(F1+0.01G)
F1 = longitudinal friction factor: for bituminous and concrete surfaces with a design
speed of 70km/h AACRA recommends longitudinal friction factors for cars to be 0.45
and longitudinal friction factors for trucks to be 0.29.
G=longitudinal grade in % (+ for upgrade, – for down grade and 0 for level grade)
 Truck stopping sight distance calculation
SSD=d1 +d2
2.5 ∗ 70 /ℎ
1= = 48.61
3.6
70km/h ∗ 70km/h
d2 = = 66.52m
254(0.29 + 0)
SSD = 48.61+66.52
=115.13 approximately 116m

 Car stopping sight distanc
SSD = d1 +d2
d1 = (2.5sec*70km/hr/3.6) =48.61m
d2 = (70km/hr*70km/hr)/254(0.49+0) = 42.87m
SSD = 48.61+42.87m
= 91.48 approximately 92m
According to the above calculation the critical case is for trucks (truck SSD is greater
than car SSD). Therefore the stopping distance of the road network will be 116m.
SSD for cars and truck can also be calculated from the following charts along with grade
correction. But for our road network the critical condition is for level ground

2. Overtaking Sight Distance
Overtaking sight distance is of relevance on two way roads in rural areas. In urban
areas, overtaking sight distance is not usually a design consideration on local streets.
Arterial roads and freeways are normally dual carriageway or multi-lane, and overtaking
sight distance is again not an issue. However, the initial development of a freeway or
arterial road may involve the construction of a single carriageway operated two-way
until traffic volumes increase and duplication is necessary. Allowing overtaking sight
distance will increase the capacity of the initial two way road, but any additional cost of
achieving better sight distance would need to be considered.
Since our road is a divided arterial road there no need of considering Overtaking sight
distance.
3. Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves
Sight distance on horizontal curves is frequently an issue in urban road design. This is
due to the need to use curves of relatively low radius to meet site constraints on the
road alignment. These curves may involve the sight line crossing the verge or residual
median. If this occurs, any road furniture, landscape planting, structure or batter will
need to be located clear of the sight line.

We determined visibility offset of 11m from chart in the AACRA manual for the required
SSD which is 116m. And the chart was based on the assumption Trucks travelling on
the same direction as the carriageway under design are normally considered a transient
obstruction, and are not treated as a sight distance restriction. However, trucks on an
adjacent carriageway are considered a potential sight distance restriction to both cars
and trucks.
Intersection Sight Distance
Intersection performance is dependent upon adequate horizontal and vertical sight

distance for all entering traffic. A feature of intersections is that sight lines are often
required at large angles to the users' normal view point. In a motor vehicle, the driver
may have to look through the side windows; pedestrians can be required to make
observations over an arc of 180° (or more). As well, the paths travelled are often
significantly curved which means that stopping distances (measured along the travel
path) are more difficult for people to estimate.

The type and extent of sight distance available will significantly influence the design and
location of an intersection. Both horizontal and vertical sight lines must be taken into
account to check for disruption by natural objects, (e.g. trees), structures, (e.g. fences
and buildings) and roadside furniture (e.g. safety barriers, direction signs).
In the following section different types and calculation of sight distances that should be
checked for design of signalized intersection and roundabouts will be discussed
1. Approach Sight Distance (ASD ) (for All Intersections, All

Roundabouts, All Approaches)
Approach Sight Distance, appropriate to the approach speed limit or truck operating
speed, is the minimum to be provided on each leg of an intersection. It is measured
between an eye height of 1.05m (2.4m for trucks) and zero (pavement surface).
The minimum value for ASD is SSD (corrected for grade) and our governing SSD is
116m therefore our minimum ASD is 116m.
2. Safe Intersection Sight Distance (SISD) (All Intersections, Legs with

Priority, Signalized Intersections)
Safe intersection Sight Distance is the minimum sight distance which should be
available from vehicles approaching an intersection on legs with priority to vehicles
which could emerge from non signalized legs. It is measured 1.05m to 1.05m for cars,
and from 2.40m to 1.05m for truck to car sight distance.

SISD comprises stopping sight distance for the car speed limit* or truck operating speed
(SSD) plus three seconds of travel time (observation time). This provides sufficient
distance for a driver on an approach with priority to observe a vehicle entering from a
side street, decelerate and stop prior to a point of conflict. It also provides sufficient
sight distance to see an articulated vehicle emerging from the side street, which has
properly commenced a manoeuvre from a leg without priority, but still creating an
obstruction because of its length.
Values of SISD are determined by adding the observation distances to the grade
corrected SSD distances of for cars and trucks respectively. For truck operating speed
of 60km/h (which is applicable to our road network) AACRA recommends observation
distances of 50m. Therefore
SISD = SSD + observation distance

= 116m + 50m
= 166m
3. Minimum Gap Sight Distance (MGSD) (All intersections, Turning

Traffic, and Signalized Intersections)
Minimum Gap Distance (MGSD) is measured from 1.05m to 0.6m (car driver eye height
to height of turn indicators) for vehicles at an intersection wishing to enter the
intersection from a side road or turn from the main road into a side road. MGSD is

measured from the point of conflict (between approaching and entering vehicles) back
along the centre of the travel lane of the approaching vehicle.
If the gap seeking vehicle is in a side street, the vehicle is assumed positioned 7.0m
(5.0m min) from the potential conflict point - i.e. the intersection of the centerlines of the
lanes. If the vehicle is turning left off a main road, the gap seeking vehicle position is in
the left turn lane. This factor requires vehicles to be oriented so that drivers are able to
see traffic which will conflict with the intended manoeuvre and judge whether there is a
gap of sufficient length to make the manoeuvre.
MGSD Values is calculated from
MGSD (m) = 0.278V x ta
Where; V = Speed limit (km/h) and ta = gap acceptance time
Also ta vary depending on type of manoeuvre - left turn/right turn/crossing, width of

carriageway - increased time required for greater widths, one way or two way traffic
flows – increased time required to look both ways and type and speed of vehicles, (for
example, large heavy vehicles; the presence of bicycles) for our road network the
critical ta is 8.5sec for Left hand turn from minor road.

Therefore;
MGSD (m) = 0.278V x ta

= 0.278 *60km/h * 8.5
= 141.78m approximately 142m
4. Entering Sight Distance (Cars)
ESD is a high standard criterion that allows cars to enter a traffic stream from a side
road or driveway and accelerate so that traffic on the major road is unimpeded. ESD is
rarely achieved except in flat terrain or in a large sag vertical curve. It should be
regarded as an optimum objective. It is unrealistic for trucks to enter traffic streams
without some interference. And for speed limit of 60km/h (which is applicable for our
road network) AACRA recommends ESD of 160m.
2.4 Alignment design
Introduction
The overall quality and appearance of a road will be determined by the quality of the
alignment design (horizontal and vertical) and its relationship to the surrounding
environment. An important concept in highway design is that every project is unique.
The setting and character of the area, the values of the community, the needs of the
highway users, and the challenges and opportunities are unique factors that designers
must consider with each highway project. Whether the design to be developed is for a
modest safety improvement or 10 miles of new-location rural freeway, there are no
patented solutions. For each potential project, designers are faced with the task of

balancing the need of the highway improvement with the need to safely integrate the
design into the surrounding natural and human environments. And it is important that all
of the necessary information on both physical constraints and community expectations
is obtained early in the process.
A holistic approach to the design is required where the various elements of the road
design are considered as a whole in the context of the environment through which the
road passes and the expectations of the community affected by the road. To achieve
the best result, we consider the engineering requirements of the road in question
together with the characteristics of the area in which the road is located. The designer
must consider the character of the area in the context of its physical location and give
proper weight to: City Master Plan physical characteristics of the area including property
access requirements, use of the corridor (destination spots, pedestrians, cyclists,
industry, urban residential etc), the type and scale of the road to be designed
vegetation in the corridor (density, type), views available, scenic values, historic
features (including cultural heritage), features to preserve (including natural
environment), existing roads in the corridor and the provision of intersections (if an at
grade road) or road closures, grade separations or interchanges (if a freeway). We
employed our imagination, ingenuity and flexibility to get the best result.
Design Principles
Design principles have to consider the entire range of factors impinging on the design -
engineering, landscape, environmental, community expectations.
In engineering terms, road alignments have to service traffic in terms of providing a

route that meets constraints imposed by vehicle dynamics, occupant comfort, and
topography. This means that most road alignments are in fact complex three-
dimensional splines that do not have a simple mathematical definition. This problem has
historically been addressed by reducing the three-dimensional alignment to two two-
dimensional alignments. In each case, the alignments are made up of geometric
elements that are convenient to calculate and construct yet still ensure that vehicle
dynamics constraints are met.

1. Driver Perception of Roadway
Drivers use the visual information of the roadway geometry to develop their perception
of the road conditions and thereby control the speed and position of their vehicles on
the roadway. They need sufficient information to allow them to take the necessary
decisions to safely negotiate each geometric feature. For our road network it had been
made full effort to increase driver perception along the road way.
2. Holistic Design Approach
We must take a holistic approach to the total road design and consider the effects of
each element on the other elements of the design. The horizontal and vertical
alignments were considered together and the effect of the cross section is also
considered at this time.
An important issue is the size of the road compared to its surroundings (its scale). The
cross section has the greatest effect on this - the wider the road, the greater the scale.
In some environments, a large scale may fit well with the surrounds and be compatible
with them. However, it is often the case that roads will have a scale too large for the
environment and the design should attempt to mitigate this effect. For our road network,
even though the cross section is wide it fits well with the surrounds.
For using this principle (holistic approach) on our road network we tried to eliminate the
application of minimum requirements in the design as long as possible. Because
Combinations of the minimum requirements of complementary elements will rarely
produce a satisfactory result and in many cases will produce an unsafe result. And a
better result will usually be achieved by adopting better than the minimum and this can
often be done at the same or lower cost.
3. Aesthetics of Road Design
It is important to realize that no road can be regarded as aesthetically successful if it is

not integrated with the natural and manmade features that surround it. Cosmetic
treatments in the form of shrubs and trees cannot overcome the aesthetic deficiencies

of poor location and design. In addition to providing a pleasant visual experience to

drivers (and possibly because of it), accident rates are lower on roads with good
aesthetic characteristics. Roads designed to fit the terrain and take advantage of
adjacent natural features create less driving tension and weariness for the driver.
4. Designing for Sun Position
The impact of the sun shining directly into a driver's eyes should be considered in the
location and design of a road. It is not always possible to design a road to avoid this
problem in all circumstances but careful consideration should be given to it particularly
when conflict situations occur. An intersection on the crest of a hill (traffic signals as well
as pedestrians and other vehicles may be difficult to see) is one such case. Tunnels or
long underpasses aligned to correspond with a rising or setting sun may be susceptible
to glare problems, particularly if the exit faces uphill. Judicious application of curvature,
subtle changes in direction and provision of appropriate landscaping can help to
alleviate some of the situations where sun glare is a problem. The different sun
positions throughout the year make have to be considered. Low sun angles that
correspond with peak period traffic flows are of particular concern as the incidence of
accidents may increase, and some reduction in traffic capacity may also occur.
On our road section this factor was not considered in detail, because we do not have
scenarios like an intersection on the crest of a hill, Tunnels or long underpasses and
judicious application of curvature.
Horizontal alignment
The horizontal alignment of a road is usually a series of straights (tangents) and circular
curves which may or may not be connected by transition curves. A suitable horizontal
alignment is chosen by an iterative process in which trial horizontal alignments are
tested for vertical geometry and conformance to controls on the alignment.

1. Consistency
According to AACRA Design speeds of successive horizontal curves should decrease

by not more than 15km/h, with a desirable change not exceeding 10km/h. Compound
curves should be avoided, but if used the design speeds of the two curves should be
within 5km/h of each other. And on our road section there is only one design which is
70km/h which will be more consistent for 2.4km. And the need to limit changes in side
friction demand becomes a desirable secondary control for ensuring geometric
consistency. Increases in side friction are considered to be a secondary control because
drivers select their speed through their perception of the horizontal curvature. In turn,
the selected speed reflects driver experience with a number of factors relating to vehicle
control, including side friction demand.
2. Controls
Controls on the alignment may be conveniently considered as primary, secondary and

tertiary.
Primary controls are where the alignment must be adjusted to fit a situation such as the
start and end points of the section, existing bridges that are to be re-used, land that
cannot be acquired for the road reserve, interchange and intersection locations,
sensitive environments etc.
And the primary controls on our road networks are the beginning and the end points
which are winget-asco. And the road reserve made for signalized intersection and
roundabout.
Secondary controls are those that should be accepted providing the resulting outcome
is an acceptable and safe road. An example is existing services that could be
repositioned, but at a significant cost. No secondary control on our road section.
Tertiary controls are controls that are sensible to conform to if this can be achieved
without significant disadvantages arising.

3. Alternate route consideration
For the road design of asco-winget we considered three alternatives for the horizontal
road alignment on the give route corridor. And from the options we provided, the best
one was selected considering the following points. The first criterion was its coordination
with the vertical alignment. And second point was total volume of earth work that may
incur from each option. The other criteria are land acquisition, locations of spoil and
borrow areas and possible sources of construction materials. Since our options are on
the same corridor there is no need of checking the latter criteria.
The horizontal alignment that we designed has the best coordination (no phasing
problem) and it has the least total earth work volume which in turn least cost compared
to the other two options
Option Phasing problem Total volume Selection for

horizontal alignment
Option one No 112,390 No
Option two No 64,567 No
Option three No 44,000 Yes
4. Movement on a Circular Path
As a vehicle traverses a circular curve, it is subject to forces associated with the circular
path. According to the principle of inertia, in the absence of forces, a moving body will
travel in a straight line. A force must be applied to change direction. For a circular
change of direction, the force is called centripetal force and, in road design, this is
provided by side friction developed between the tires and the pavement, and by
superelevation.
e + f = v2 / gR = V2 / 127R

R = V2 / 127 (e + f)
Where;
e= pavement superelevation (m/m or tangent of angle). This is taken as positive if the
pavement falls towards the centre of the curve
f = coefficient of side friction force developed between the vehicle tires and the road
pavement –this is taken as positive if the frictional force on the vehicle acts towards the
centre of the curve.
g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m/s²
v = speed of vehicle (m/s)
V = speed of vehicle (km/h)
R = curve radius (m)
From the above formula we can easily deduct that, to have the minimum radius
pavement super elevation and coefficient of side friction should me maximum. The
above reasoning can be described using the following formula
Rmin= V2 / 127 (emax + fmax)
Where f equals zero in the formula, all of the centripetal force is provided by the
superelevation.
This condition can occur on large radius curves with positive superelevation or for slow
moving vehicles on curves of any radius. At low speeds, f can be negative, and the
curve is then over superelevated for that speed. Curves are generally designed,
however, so that a positive f is required for the range of vehicle speeds likely to occur.
5. Selection of Maximum Side Friction (f max)
AACRA recommends maximum Side Friction based on different design speeds for car
and trucks. And the maximum side friction that is adopted for our road section will be
discussed in the following table

Design speed Type of vehicle Maximum side friction

(desirable)
Car 0.19
70km/h truck 0.14
As we can see from the above table the maximum side friction from car and truck goes
to car. Therefore we adopt the maximum side friction of our road network to 0.19.
Horizontal curves on which high values of side friction are likely to be demanded should
be provided with a pavement surfacing capable of providing good skid resistance. And
the following treatments will help decrease the likelihood of skidding on horizontal
curves other than super elevation; surfacing with materials using aggregates with a high
Polished Aggregate Friction Value and Crushing Value, applying larger aggregates with
sprayed seals (provides good drainage routes if applied properly (i.e. texture depths up
to 2.5mm)), using polymer modified surfacing (helps stone retention in asphalt and
sprayed seals), applying specially designed surfacing (e.g. open graded asphalts, tar
based binders, epoxy resins, slurry treatments), reducing drainage paths by designing
appropriate crossfall and providing drainage inlets/structures, adopting pavement
designs that reduce rutting during the life of the pavement
6. Selection of maximum Superelevation
It is normal practice for horizontal curves to be superelevated. This allows a component

of the vehicle weight to provide some of the centripetal force that is needed for the
vehicle to move in a circular path. If a curve is not superelevated, the curve is said to
have adverse or negative superelevation.
With adverse superelevation, there is a component of the vehicle weight that acts
opposite to the centripetal force that is needed for the vehicle to move in a circular path.
This in turn requires greater side friction than for a curve of given radius with positive
superelevation if the vehicle is to take the curve at the same speed.

During the selection of the superelevation our primary base was safety, but other factors
are comfort and appearance. The superelevation that is applied to the horizontal curve
take into account the following points: tendency to increase the tracking of the rear
wheels of slow moving vehicles towards the centre, stability of high laden commercial
vehicles, stability of vehicle loads, difference between inner and outer formation level,
especially in flat country, length available to introduce the necessary superelevation, the
need to avoid major changes in side friction demand between successive horizontal
curves, the amount of centripetal force provided by superelevation versus that provided
by side.
A maximum value of superelevation to be used in urban areas is 5% and it is normal

practice to superelevate all curves to a value that is at least equal to the normal crossfall
on straights. We adopt 4% for our road network.
7. Minimum Length of Superelevation on Horizontal Curves
In constrained situations such as mountainous terrain or urban roads, curves should be

fully superelevated even if only instantaneously. But it is desirable that there be at least
30m of fully superelevated curve. For our road network the minimum length of fully
superelevated curve is achieved and the detail calculation will be shown below.
8. Superelevation Development Length
Superelevation is developed by rotating the roadway cross-section about some axis;

most commonly the horizontal control line.
Superelevation development length is defined as the length required rotating the

pavement from the point of normal crossfall on the approach tangent (straight) to the
point where the full superelevation for the curve is attained. In turn, this superelevation
development length has two components:
Superelevation runoff length - this is the length from the point where the pavement has
been rotated to zero crossfall to the point where the full curve superelevation has been
attained

The normal minimum lengths for superelevation runoff for a curve are 40 m for
transitioned curves, which ties to a 40 m minimum transition length, 50 m for an un-
transitioned curve when the curve design speed is greater than 80 km/h, with this length
normally being equidistant about the curve tangent point, 30 m for an un-transitioned
curve when the curve design speed is less than or equal to 80 km/h, with this length
normally being equidistant about the curve tangent point.
For our road network we provided 40m runoff length for transition curves and 30m for
un-transition curve.
Tangent run out -this is the residual length from the point of normal crossfall to the point
of zero crossfall (this component lies on the approach tangent)
There are two criteria that are used to determine the length of superelevation
development: maximum rate of rotation of crossfall and relative grade between the edge
of the carriageway and the control line
The superelevation development length to be adopted will generally be the longer value
calculated for the two criteria above, notwithstanding normal minimum lengths of
superelevation runoff. The maximum rate of rotation criterion is a mandatory standard
that must be adopted as a minimum. The relative grade criterion is for appearance
purposes and should be obtained at all locations unless economic or safety
considerations dictate otherwise e.g. between reverse curves on steep grades.
Criteria one
Le = 0.278 V (e2-e1)/r
Where,
Le = superelevation development length (m)
V = design speed (km/h) (for our road network70km/h is applicable)

e1, e2= crossfall or superelevation at ends of development length (m/m); +ve when
sloping upwards from the control line;–ve when sloping downwards from the control line
(for our road network 0.04 is applicable)
r = rate of rotation of the road crossfall (radians/second) for 70km/h AACRA

recommends 0.035 radians per second
Substituting the above values in the formula the development length will be 22.24<the
minimum. Therefore we adopt 30m.
Criteria two
Le = 100W (e2-e1)/Gr
Le = superelevation development length (m)
W = maximum width from axis of rotation to edge of running lane (m) (for our road
network 22.5m is applicable)
e1, e2= crossfall or superelevation at ends of development length (m/m); +ve when
sloping upwards from the control line; –ve when sloping downwards from the control line
(for our road network 0.04 is applicable)
Gr = allowable relative grade AACRA recommends 1 for multilane highway with a

design speed of 70km/h
Substituting the above values in the formula the development length will be 90m>the
minimum. Therefore we adopt 90m.

9. Radius adopted for the curves
Using Rmin= V2 / 127 (emax + fmax) and based on the maximum superelevation and
side friction adopted earlier, the minimum radius that should be adopted for our road
network is 161m. For curves on our alignment we used 165m, 200m, and 268m radius
which are above the minimum and therefore they are applicable. During radius selection
we experienced one of urban road design problem, which is constraint from the
adjoining land to have a large radius of curves.
10. Positioning of Superelevation Development
For curves with transitions, we matched superelevation runoff with the transition. That
is, the point of 0% crossfall corresponds to the start of the transition (for a vehicle
entering the curve) and the full superelevation for the curve (e %) is attained at the end
of the transition. The superelevation development is extended back from the start at the
same rotation rate to the point of normal crossfall on the approach tangent.
The theoretical basis for the uniform development of the superelevation along the length
of the transition is that when combined with the uniform increase in curvature provided
by the clothoid spiral transition, there will be a uniform attainment of the side friction
demand that will be used on the horizontal curve.
Positioning of the superelevation development for curves on the road alignment without
transitions is as follows: from Tangent to Curve and Vice Versa: Positioned such that
50% of the superelevation runoff length (from 0% crossfall to e% for the curve) is

located on the tangent and 50% is located on the curve. This positioning is considered
to correspond with the transition path that is described by the majority of vehicles
entering or leaving the curve.
But in constrained situations such as mountainous areas or urban roads, shorter than
desirable arc lengths may force the positioning to be 70% on the tangent and 30% on
the curve Development of the superelevation entirely on the tangent for an un-
transitioned curve is normally not preferred because the superelevation development
will not correspond sufficiently with the transition path that is described by the majority
of vehicles. Therefore when vehicles approach the curve, there will be a section where
a vehicle will still be travelling straight and the crossfall is sufficient to affect tire slip
angles. This will cause drivers to steer slightly in the direction opposite to the pending
curve.
11. Adjacent Curves
On the horizontal alignment we designed different curves along the road. Their
description and design will be discussed in the following sections separately.
Reverse Curves
Reverse Curves are horizontal curves turning in opposite directions that adjoin (have
common tangent points) or have a short length of tangent between the curves. There
are two reverse curves on our rod section.

Broken Back Curves
Broken back curves (also called similar curves) are horizontal curves turning in the
same direction joined by a short length of straight or two relatively small unidirectional
curves connected by a large radius curve. No broken back curve on our road section
Compound Curves
Compound curves are horizontal curves of different radii turning in the same direction
with a common tangent point. No broken back curve on our road section
Transition Curves
It is the one that provides a transition path as it changes from a straight to a circular
horizontal curve and vice versa, or between the elements of a compound curve.

A properly designed transition curve allows the vehicle's centripetal acceleration to

increase or decrease gradually as the vehicle enters or leaves a circular curve. This
transition curve minimizes encroachment on adjoining traffic lanes. The transition curve
length provides a convenient desirable arrangement for superelevation runoff. The
change in the cross fall can be effected along the length of the transition curve in a
manner closely fitting the radius-speed relation for the vehicle traversing it.
On our road network we provided transition curves for curves with radius of 165m only.
N.B the length of each curve has been checked and all of them are above the minimum
requirements of AACRA
12. Detail calculations for curve design
Curve no.1
Station: 0+389.64
Curve type: circular curve with spiral
V
R =
127(e +f )
emax = maximum superelevation for urban road recommended by AACRA = 5%
For a design speed of 70km/h fmax = desirable maximum for a car = 0.19
fmax = desirable maximum for truck = 0.14
fprovided = 0.19
70
R = = 161m
127(0.05 + 0.19)
Rprovided=165m
∆
T=R × tan Where ∆= 59°

T = 165 × tan
T = 93.97
∆ 59
E = R sec − 1 = 165 sec − 1
2 2
E = 24.88
2π 2π
L= ∆×R = 59 × 165
360 360
L = 170.84
∆ 59
M = R 1 − cos = 165 1 − cos = 21.62
2 2
∆ 59
C = 2R sin = 2 × 165 × sin
2 2
C = 163.3
P. C = P. I − T = (0 + 389.64) − 93.97
P. C = 0 + 295.67
P. T = P. C + L = (0 + 295.67) + 170.84
P. T = 0 + 466.51
Spiral curve
Condition 1: from super elevation runoff
= ( + )×
2
Maximum rate of rotation of the superelevation for a design speed of 70km/h from
AACRA V/H=0.035=1/29
e=0.05, N=crown slope=2.5%=0.025, Rw=width of the road= [(3.5x2) +2.5] x2=19m

19
Ls = 29(0.05 + 0.025) ×
2
Ls = 20.6m
Condition 2: minimum spiral length as per AACRA
For design speed of 70km/h and radius of 165m, Ls=40m
 The spiral length obtained from the super elevation runoff is less than the
minimum value from AACRA. Then the minimum spiral length is adopted.
Curveno.2
Station: 0+657.43
Curve type: un-transitioned circular curve
Rmin=161m
Rprovided=268m
∆
T=R × tan , where ∆= 43.5°
2
43.5
T = 268 × tan = 107.85
2
∆ 43.5
E = R sec − 1 = 268 sec −1
2 2
= 20.88
2 2
=∆× = 43.5 × 268
360 360
= 205.1
∆ 43.5
= 1− = 268 1 −
2 2
= 19.37

∆ 43.5
=2 = 2 × 268 ×
2 2
= 200.09
. = . − = (0 + 657.43) − 107.85
. = 0 + 549.58
. = . + = (0 + 549.58) + 205.1
. = 0 + 754.68
Curve no.3
Station: 1+127.359
Rmin=161m
Rprovided=200m
∆
= × , ℎ ∆= 62.3°
2
62.3
= 200 × = 121.38
2
∆ 62.3
= − 1 = 200 −1
2 2
= 33.95
2 2
=∆× = 62.3 × 200
360 360
= 218.2
∆ 62.3
= 1− = 200 1 −
2 2

= 29.026
∆ 62.3
=2 = 2 × 200 ×
2 2
= 207.54
. = . − = (1 + 127.359) − 107.85
. = 1 + 019.5
. = . + = (1 + 019.5) + 218.2
. = 1 + 237.7
Curve no.4
Station: 1+384.951
Rmin=161m
Rprovided=268m
∆
= × , ℎ ∆= 39.06°
2
39.06
= 268 × = 95.2
2
∆ 39.06
= − 1 = 268 −1
2 2
= 16.4
2 2
=∆× = 39.06 × 268
360 360
= 182.96

∆ 39.06
= 1− = 268 1 −
2 2
= 15.4
∆ 39.06
=2 = 2 × 268 ×
2 2
= 179.4
. = . − = (1 + 384.951) − 95.2
. = 1 + 289.75
. = . + = (1 + 289.75) + 182.96
. = 1 + 472.71
Curve no.5 and 6
Station: 1+815.3 and 2+023.45
Curve type: un-transitioned reverse curve, two circular curves
Curve at station 1+815.3
Rmin=161m
Rprovided=200
∆
= × , ℎ ∆= 59.4°
2
59.4
= 200 × = 114.8
2
∆ 59.4
= − 1 = 200 −1
2 2
= 30.6

2 2
=∆× = 59.4 × 200
360 360
= 208.5
∆ 59.4
= 1− = 200 1 −
2 2
= 26.5
∆ 59.4
=2 = 2 × 200 ×
2 2
= 199.1
. = . − = (1 + 815.3) − 114.8
. = 1 + 700.5
. = . + = (1 + 700.5) + 208.5
. = 1 + 909
Curve at station 2+023.45
Rmin=161m
Rprovided=200
∆
= × , ℎ ∆= 47.3°
2
47.3
= 200 × = 88
2
∆ 47.3
= − 1 = 200 −1
2 2
= 18.5
2 2
=∆× = 47.3 × 200
360 360

= 165.9
∆ 47.3
= 1− = 200 1 −
2 2
= 16.96
∆ 47.3
=2 = 2 × 200 ×
2 2
= 161
. = . − = (2 + 023.45) − 88
. = 1 + 035.45
. = . + = (1 + 035.45) + 165.9
. = 1 + 201.3
Vertical alignment
Vertical alignment (referred to as grade line or longitudinal section) consists of straight

grades joined by vertical curves. The principal vertical alignment design objectives are
to obtain the necessary sight distance and to fit to the natural terrain. In designing the
vertical alignment we give consideration to the maximum allowable grades, the volume
and balancing of the earthworks, the appearance, property acquisition, environmental
impacts, and the co-ordination with the horizontal alignment.
The sight distance requirements include obtaining minimum radius vertical curves for
stopping sight distance (SSD) and the sight distance to intersections or ramps. The
design criteria which dominate in deciding on the appropriate vertical alignment vary
with the type of road being considered. On minor urban roads, obtaining sight distance
to property access points and intersections and minimizing the impacts on adjacent
property dominate. On major roads, sight distance to intersections (or ramps) and
appearance will tend to dominate other factors such as earthworks balance, but the
need to provide an economically sound design cannot be ignored. It may be possible

with good design and appropriate co-ordination with the horizontal alignment to achieve
all of the design objectives.
On undivided roads, the vertical alignment is designed as the surface of the pavement
along the construction centre line. On divided roads, the vertical alignment is usually
represented by the line along the lane edge against the median (residual median if there
are median shoulders).
Since our road section has not a residual (narrow median with a width of 1.2m) the
vertical alignment is designed as the surface of the pavement along the construction
centre line
1. Grades
Generally, grades should be as flat as possible consistent with economy. Flat grades
permit all vehicles to operate at similar speeds (away from intersections). Steeper
grades produce variation in speeds between lighter vehicles and the heavier vehicles
both in the uphill and downhill directions. This speed variation leads to higher relative
speeds of vehicles producing the potential for higher accident rates and lower traffic
capacity. This speed variation also results in increased queuing and overtaking
requirements on single carriageway roads which give rise to further safety problems
particularly at higher traffic volumes. In addition, freight costs are increased due to the
slow speed of heavy vehicles.
For a given design (70km/h) and hierarchy of road (arterial and sub arterial) AACRA
recommends the maximum grade on our road section to be 4% and we satisfied this
criterion during the design of our road section.
Grades for pedestrian footpaths are 5-7% or less and roads with significant pedestrian
movement should be located so that pedestrian grades are not excessive. Where
access to sloping ground is required (e.g. for residential development) the collector road
and principal footpath may be located to run along the contours of the land, with local
roads and access places running up the slope, possibly at an angle to minimize the

grade. This will reduce the length of travel on steep roads and footpaths for both
vehicles and pedestrians.
Since the footpath on our road section is designed along with the carriage way the
maximum grade is limited to 4%.
2. General Maximum Lengths of Steep Grade
It is undesirable to have a very long length of steep grade. On both the upgrade and
downgrade, the lower operating speed of trucks may cause inconvenience to other
traffic. On arterial roads, consideration should be given to providing an auxiliary lane
both in the uphill and downhill directions where traffic volumes and numbers of trucks
are high. On the following table we will discuss the grades and their distance on our
road alignment.
Grade Distance (m)

1.46 100
3.07 420
2.34 180
0.96 370
2.26 140
1.78 310
1.46 240
Cross checking the above results with the with the AACRA manual requirement for the
maximum length for the steep grade, our road alignment grade satisfies the
requirement.
3. Steep Grade Considerations
Although speeds of cars may be reduced slightly on steep upgrades, large differences
between speeds of light and heavy vehicles will occur and speeds of the latter will be
quite slow. It is important, therefore, to provide adequate horizontal sight distance to

enable faster vehicle operators to recognize when they are catching up to a slow vehicle
and to adjust their speed accordingly.
On any generally rising or generally falling section of road, adverse grades (grades
opposite to the general rise or fall of the section) should be avoided as much as
practicable, as they are wasteful of energy. On steep downgrades, it is desirable to
increase the design speed of the individual geometric elements progressively towards
the foot of the steep grade. Where this cannot be achieved and where percentages of
heavy vehicles are high, consideration should be given to construction of runaway
vehicle facilities.
On our road network there is no adverse grade. So there is no need of special

consideration for our alignment.
4. Minimum Grades
Very flat grades may make it difficult to provide longitudinal drainage in table drains,
kerb and channel and medians, where these parallel the road grade. As far as possible,
these drainage requirements should not dictate the road grade; rather the drainage
facility should be designed to accommodate the road grade. This may require greater
recourse to sub-surface drains with closely spaced inlets, or independently graded table
drains, or other solutions to suit the circumstances.
Care should be taken in cases where a flat grade is combined with superelevated
horizontal curves. The rotation of the pavement may create a situation where the flow
path crosses from one side of a lane to the other, resulting in undesirable depths of
water on the pavement surface. Worse conditions can occur on steep grades combined
with successive curves in opposite directions. The combination of grade and pavement
rotation can create a situation where the flow path meanders from one side of the road
to the other with the depth of flow becoming excessive.
AACRA recommends the minimum grade to be 0.5% and from the above table we can
see that every grade has satisfied this requirement.

5. Curve Geometry
Generally, the type of vertical curve used is a parabolic curve. The parabola is normally
used because of its simplicity and because all formulae are exact whereas the same
formulae used with the circle would be approximate. The vertical offsets from a tangent
are proportional to the square of the distances measured horizontally from the tangent
point to the offset point
It is convenient to specify parabolic vertical curves by the length of curve required for a
change of grade of 1%, this being a constant for the parabola:
K = L/A
And the detail calculation for each of our curve geometry will be discussed later
6. Minimum K Values of Crest Vertical Curves
Generally, large radii vertical curves should be used provided they are reasonably
economical. However in difficult situations, vertical curves approaching the minimum
may be considered where there are significant additional costs (e.g. deep excavation in
rock).
There are cases where the provision of a sharper crest vertical curve with a longer
uniform grade adjacent will result in better designs. On freeways, the sight distance to
ramps can sometimes be improved in this way. On roads with at-grade intersections, a
section of uniform grade interposed between a crest and an intersection will often give
both SSD on the crest and ASD, SISD and MGSD (see Sight distance section) to an
intersection, whereas a long vertical curve encompassing the intersection may give
better than minimum SSD on the crest but fail to provide all of the sight requirements for
the intersection. On two way roads, longer and safer overtaking opportunities may be
achieved by this approach.
Vertical curves are based on achieving stopping sight distance (SSD) and sometimes
intersection sight distance. While SSD needs to be adjusted for the effects of
longitudinal grade, on a crest these corrections are not usually applied. For cars, the
upgrade and downgrade corrections are numerically similar for uphill and downhill, and

the crest K values are calculated on the basis of SSD on a level grade. Truck crest K
values are also calculated for level road SSD, although in the case of trucks, the braking
distance increase downhill is much greater than the decrease uphill. For simplicity, it is
recommended that crests for both cars and trucks be checked on the basis of SSD on
level ground. Crest K Values based on SSD will be discussed in the following table
Design speed Type of vehicle Minimum K value
car 20
70km/h Truck 17
But during the design of our road section the minimum crest K value is 35 which
satisfies the requirement of the manual
7. Sag Vertical Curves
We provide K values for sags based upon comfort criteria. Discomfort is felt by a person
subjected to rapid changes in vertical acceleration. To minimize such discomfort when
passing from one grade to another, it is usual to limit the vertical acceleration generated
on the vertical curve to a value less than 0.05g where g is the acceleration due to
gravity. On low standard roads, at intersections or where economically justified, a limit
of 0.10g may be used.
Sight distance on sag curves is not restricted by the vertical geometry in daylight
conditions or at night with full roadway lighting unless overhead obstructions are
present. Under night conditions on unlit roads, limitations of vehicle headlights on high
beam restrict sight distance to between 120-50m for modern vehicles. On high standard
roads not likely to be provided with roadway lighting, consideration may be given to
providing headlight sight distance. Nevertheless, where horizontal curvature would
cause the light beam to shine off the pavement (assuming 3 degrees lateral spread
each way), little is gained by flattening the sag curves other than improved appearance.
In all cases adequate sight distance to the tail lights is provided.

Minimum K Values for Sag Vertical Curves Based on Headlight Criterion and Truck
SSD is 29 but on our vertical alignment the minimum K value used is 35 therefore it
satisfies the requirement.
8. Minimum Lengths of Curves
According to AACRA, for design speed of 70km/h the minimum length should be 50-60
and on our vertical design the minimum length is 57.5 which satisfies the requirement of
the manual.
9. Reverse Vertical Curves
Reverse vertical curves with common tangent points are considered quite satisfactory
and this geometry is often used in grading interchange ramps to achieve the maximum
elevation in the shortest acceptable distance. In the case of short radius reverse vertical
curves it is necessary to check that the sum of the radial accelerations at the common
tangent point does not exceed the tolerable allowance for riding comfort i.e. 0.1g or
0.05g, whichever is appropriate. No reverse curve was designed on our alignment.
10. Broken Back/Compound Vertical Curves
Broken back vertical curves consist of two curves, either both sag or both crest, usually
of different radii, joined by a short length of straight grade. They should be avoided,
particularly in the case of sag curves, and it is usually easy to do so. However, where
the length of grade exceeds 0.4Vm (V = design speed in km/h) the curves are not then
deemed to be broken-backed. If there is no grade, that is, the tangent points are
common, the curves are compound, not broken-backed, and are permitted. On our road
alignment there is no Broken Back/Compound Vertical Curves design.
11. Detail calculations for curve design
The length of curve required for sight distance is given by the following expressions
c
L = 2D −
A
When the length of curve is less than the sight distance and

D D
L = × A and K =
c c
When the length of curve is greater than the sight distance
A = Algebraic difference of vertical grades (%)
D = sight distance
For crest curve the value of c is
C = 200[√h + √h ]
h1=height of eyes above the road level way surface
h2=height of object above the road way surface
For sag curve the value of c is
C = 200[h + D tan q]
h = headlight mounting height (m)
D = sight distance
q = headlight elevation angle
For the crest curves
h1=1.07m, h2=0.15m
C = 200[√h + √h ]
C = 200[√1. 07 + √0. 15]
C = 404.2
For the sag curves
h=0.6m, q = 1°

C = 200[h + D tan q]
C = 200[0.6 + 116 tan 1]
C = 524.9
Curve no.1
Station: 0+100
Type of curve: crest curve
Approaching grade=1.46%
Exit grade= -3.07%
The sight distance is (D) =119m
A = 1.46 − (−3.07) = 4.53
D 119
K= = = 35
c 404.2
D
L = × A = K × A = 35 × 4.53
c
L = 158.55
Curve no.2
Station: 0+520
Type of curve: sag curve
Approaching grade= -3.07%
Exit grade= 2.34%
A = 2.34 − (−3.07) = 5.41

D 116
K= = = 25
c 524.9
K = 35
D
L = × A = K × A = 35 × 5.41
c
L = 189.27
Curve no.3
Station: 0+700
Approaching grade=2.34
Exit grade= -0.96%
A = 2.34 − (−0.96) = 3.3
D 135
K= = = 45
c 404.2
D
L = × A = K × A = 45 × 3.3
c
L = 148.5
Curve no.4
Station: 1+070
Exit grade= -2.26%

A = −2.26 − (−0.96) = −1.3
D 220
K= = = 120
c 404.2
D
L = × A = K × A = 120 × 1.3
c
L = 156.77
Curve no.5
Station: 1+210
Exit grade= -1.78%
A = −2.26 − (−1.78) = −0.48
D 116
K= = = 25.6
c 524.9
K = 120
D
L = × A = K × A = 120 × 0.48
c
L = 57.67
Curve no.6
Station: 1+520

Exit grade= -1.46%
A = −1.78— (−1.46) = −0.32
D 116
K= = = 25
c 524.9
K = 180
D
L = × A = K × A = 180 × 0.32
c
L = 57.55
Curve no.7
Station: 1+760
Exit grade= 2.62%
A = 2.62— (−1.46) = 4.08
D 116
K= = = 25
c 524.9
K = 35
D
L = × A = K × A = 35 × 4.08
c
L = 143

Curve no.8
Station: 2+100
Approaching grade= 2.62%
Exit grade= -2.53%
A = 2.62— (−2.53) = 5.15
D 119
K= = = 35
c 404.2
K = 35
D
L = × A = K × A = 35 × 5.15
c
L = 180.2
Mass Haul Diagrams
The mass haul diagram is a curve plotted on a distance base, the ordinate at any point
of which represents the algebraic sum up to that point of the volumes of cuttings and
embankments from the start of the project or from any arbitrary point. In obtaining the
algebraic sum, cuttings are considered positive and embankments negative. And the
diagram helps us balance the earthworks, optimize the length of leads from cuts to fill,
locate job borrow areas;
It is established design practice to achieve the most economical solution when

designing a road. A key aspect in achieving this requirement is to seek a balance in
earthworks and to reduce the haulage distance from cuts to fills.

In calculating earthwork quantities, should allow for bulking and compaction factors. In
situ material when excavated increases in volume i.e. it bulks up. When this material is
placed and compacted it decreases in volume. Factors are specific to the material being
handled and we seek from other fields of study
Characteristics of mass haul diagram is provided below
1. Upward slope of the curve in the direction of the algebraic summation indicates
excavation. Downward slope indicates filling.
2. A maximum earthwork occurs at the end of an excavation and a minimum point
(4) at the end of an embankment.
3. The vertical distance between a maximum point and the next forward minimum
point represents the whole volume of an embankment. Similarly, between a
minimum and the next forward maximum point, the whole volume of an
excavation.
4. Between any two points where the curve cuts the base line the volume of
excavation equals that of embankment, since the algebraic sum of the quantities
between such points is zero.
The mass haul diagram is attached to this document
Alignment Coordination
The importance of alignment coordination cannot be over emphasized. The

appearance, economy and safety of the road design depend on the successful
achievement of proper coordination.
Coordination of alignment and profile should not be left to chance but should begin at
the concept stage, during which adjustments can readily be made. we study long,
continuous stretches of highway in both plan and profile and visualize the whole in three
dimensions. Modern road design packages can quickly produce perspective views of
trial alignments, and this ability may be taken full advantage of.

If long lengths are not considered, it is possible to produce discontinuities in appearance

even though the shorter lengths, taken in isolation, are satisfactory.
The interrelationship of horizontal and vertical alignment is best addressed in the route
location and preliminary design phases of the project. At this stage, appropriate trade-
offs and balances between design speed and the character of the road - traffic volume,
topography and existing development - can be made. Because they must be
complementary, horizontal and vertical geometry must be designed concurrently.
Uncoordinated horizontal and vertical geometry can ruin the best parts and accentuate
the weak points of each element. Excellence in the combination of their designs
increases efficiency and safety, encourages uniform speed, and improves appearance –
almost always without additional cost.”
Phasing of horizontal and vertical alignment
Phasing of the vertical and horizontal curves of a road implies their coordination so that
the line of the road appears to a driver to flow smoothly, avoiding the creation of
hazards and visual defects. It is particularly important in the design of high-speed roads
on which a driver must be able to anticipate changes in both horizontal and vertical
alignment well within the safe stopping distance. It becomes more important with small
radius curves than with large. Defects may arise if an alignment is mis-phased.
Cases of mis-phasing fall into several types. These are described below together with
the necessary corrective action for each type.
Vertical Curve Overlaps One End of the Horizontal Curve
If a vertical curve overlaps either the beginning or the end of a horizontal curve, a
driver’s perception of the change of direction at the start of the horizontal curve may be
delayed because his sight distance is reduced by the vertical curve. This defect is
hazardous. The position of the crest is important because the vehicles tend to increase
speed on the down gradient following the highest point of the crest curve, and the
danger due to an unexpected change of direction is consequently greater.

Insufficient separation between the curves
If there is insufficient separation between the ends of the horizontal and vertical curves,
a false reverse curve may appear on the outside edge-line at the beginning of the
horizontal curve.
Both ends of the vertical curve lie on the horizontal curve
If both ends of a crest curve lie on a sharp horizontal curve, the radius of the horizontal
curve may appear to the driver to decrease abruptly over the length of the crest curve. If
the vertical curve is a sag curve, the radius of the horizontal curve may appear to
increase.
Vertical curve overlaps both ends of the horizontal curve
If a vertical crest curve overlaps both ends of a sharp horizontal curve, a hazard may be
created because a vehicle has to undergo a sudden change of direction during the
passage of the vertical curve while sight distance is reduced.
The corrective action is to make both ends of the curves coincident. If the horizontal
curve is less sharp, a hazard may still be created if the crest occurs off the horizontal
curve. This is because the change of direction at the beginning of the horizontal curve
will then occur on a downgrade (for traffic in one direction) where vehicles may be
increasing speed. The corrective action is to make the curves coincident at one end so
as to bring the crest on to the horizontal curve.
Other mis-phasing
A sag curve occurs between two horizontal curves in the same direction and a double
sag curve occurs at one horizontal curve
For our road network we checked all the mis-phasing and coordination problems and
our alignment is a coordinated and it has no problem of phasing. And it looks like as the
following picture

2.5 Intersection at grade design
Introduction
A junction, or intersection, is the general area where two or more roads join. A
disproportionate amount of traffic accidents occur at junctions, and thus we designed
our intersection in such a way that allow transition from one route to another or through
movement on the main route and intersecting route with minimum delay and maximum
safety.
And our intersection is a signalized one. At the signalized intersection, the additional
element of time allocation is introduced into the concept of capacity. A traffic signal
essentially allocates time among conflicting traffic movements that seek use of the
same physical space. Since the way in which time is allocated has a significant impact
on the operation and the capacity of the intersection and its approaches we picked it
based on our design level of service.
Types of intersection
There is a variety of layout options available for an intersection. These can be broadly
classified as at- grade or grade separated. It will be noted that grade separated layouts
are automatically selected by legs being designated as full access control freeways. An
at-grade intersection is formed when two or more roads cross at the same, one and two
level difference. According to AACRA the basic forms of intersection are:
 three-leg (T)
 four-leg (cross)
 multi-leg

The intersection treatments may be:
 plain
 flared
 channelized (including roundabouts)
 unsignalized or signalized
And except roundabouts, multi-leg and intersection with grade separation; the rest will
be discussed here
T junctions
Plain T Junction
Single carriageway two lane roads will generally be collector roads or local roads. In
new development areas, plain T junctions should be used. The observation angle of
120° to approaching traffic from right turning vehicles will be exceeded when the kerb
return radius exceeds 11 meters. Accordingly, designs should use kerb return radii in
the range 6m -11m
Flared T Intersection
If traffic volumes are significant on a single carriageway road (such as the first stage of
an arterial road or a collector road with a shopping centre access) then additional road
width to allow vehicles to pass turning vehicles may be provided. The medians may be
painted or raised

T Junction – Dual Carriageway
One pedestrian crosswalk of the major road located so that the left turn from the minor
road does not conflict with the pedestrian movement. By having the right turn cross the
pedestrian crossing there is less risk of pedestrians being injured by turning vehicles
sharing the same signal phase.
Seagull T Junction
The seagull intersection may be either signalized or unsignalized. A seagull intersection

allows the left turn from the side road to run concurrently with one of the through road
movements. The through road movement must be stopped when there is a pedestrian
demand, so this style of intersection may not offer a significant advantage in areas with
heavy pedestrian demand

Wide Median T Junction (Unsignalized)
The wide median treatment allows left turning traffic from the minor road to stage their
entry to the main road The advantage of the wide median treatment is that a gap in
traffic the main road carriageway nearest the minor road can be used simultaneously by
minor road traffic turning left and main road traffic turning left
Staggered T Junctions
Staggered T-junction is which caters to cross-traffic

T Junction with Turn Bans
Where the length of right turn lanes required for deceleration and storage cannot be
obtained, consideration may be given to banning some or all of the turns and diverting
the traffic to other locations where the necessary road geometry can be provided. Turn
bans may also be considered where insufficient sight distanced is available for safe left
turns.
Four Way Junctions
A cross junction has four legs and is present where two highways cross each other.
Selection of Junction Type
Our junction type is a signalized T dual carriageway intersection without roundabout and
process of selecting this type is discussed below; since every junction type has its own
advantage and disadvantage for example; Priority (T-Junction, Cross-Junction). For low
flows, it can cause long delays, requires sufficient stopping sight distance and delays
can be improved by signal installation;
During the selection of junction type for our network we followed two different
approaches. The first one is based on different combinations of traffic flows of major
and minor roads and reading graph from ERA manual which recommend about the
junction type

Major road has traffic volume of 27800 veh/day and the minor road has traffic volume of
5400 veh/day, so reading from the graph our junction type should be roundabout or
signalized intersection.
After narrowing our options, for our road network we picked a signalized T dual
carriageway intersection by using detail reasoning from AACRA manual. And the
reasoning’s which are made will be discussed in detail
1. Safety of Motorists, Cyclists and Pedestrians
When operating within their capacity limitations, roundabouts offer superior safety to
traffic signals for motorists. However, at higher traffic flows, the more positive control of
signal operation may provide safer crossing opportunities, particularly for the very young
and the aged.
2. Operating Efficiency
The volume and distribution of turning traffic are the prime considerations in determining
relative operating efficiency between roundabouts and signals. Traffic signals are clearly
favored when through flows predominate, whereas roundabouts perform best when left

turning flows are relatively heavy and balanced between legs. Since at this segment our
road network since through traffic dominates signalized intersection is dominant
3. Delays to Traffic
Also roundabouts operating within their capacity have lower delays than traffic signals,
to have the other advantages which will be gained by using intersection at this segment
we stick to the intersection design
4. Downstream Intersections
Uncontrolled downstream intersections may operate more satisfactorily if traffic signals
are installed upstream. This is because the exit flow from roundabouts tends to be
uniform and lacks the interruption caused by signals. Since we have uncontrolled
downstream roundabout downstream the selection of intersection is favored
5. Consistency with Adjacent Intersections
Traffic signals are readily linked to provide progression. A roundabout within a system of
linked signals may be inappropriate. Similarly, a traffic signal adjacent to a roundabout
may cause operational problems due to queues from the signals banking up and
disrupting flow on the roundabout. Conversely, a roundabout may benefit from an
adjacent signal if the effects of flow monopolization at the roundabout are reduced by
the signal. For this factor both are visible
6. Road Layout Issues
Note that the design of roundabouts in new areas can be improved by offsetting the
intersecting roads, as the required deflection to control speeds is achieved with a
smaller diameter roundabout and with a smoother exit path. The roundabout provides
the opportunity to introduce an angle change in the road alignment. This can be useful
in achieving direction changes without recourse to low radius curves. Such curves
reduce visibility to driveways and inhibit the location of intersections on the inside of
curves. For this factor both options are visible for this segment of road network
7. Traffic Growth and / or Traffic Redistribution
The capacity of the control type needs to be adequate for possible future growth and
this may favor a particular control type. The introduction of a control may either attract
or divert traffic to a particular intersection depending upon the relative congestion and

delays associated with alternative routes. For this factor both options are visible for this
segment of road network
8. Public Transport
The need to accommodate public transport routes may influence the choice of control
type. Traffic signals offer greater scope for providing priority for public transport through
an intersection.
9. Long Vehicles
Long vehicles, because of their wide swept path when turning, may not be readily
accommodated through small roundabouts. However, the channelization may be
designed for occasional mounting by over-dimensional (check) vehicles. But a well
designed intersection will perform better. Therefore, for this section of our road network
a signalized intersection is appropriate
10. Speed of Traffic
Roundabouts, as well as controlling the speed of traffic, are inherently safer in high
speed environments. Roundabouts have been used successfully in areas with 100km/h
speed limits. Traffic signals should only be used in areas with speed limits of 80km/h or
less. So our intersection is visible for this criterion
11. Construction Costs

Construction costs are normally site specific but in green fields situations traffic signals
and roundabouts with similar capacity have been shown to favor roundabout
construction primarily due to their adaptability for staging purposes. Since we do not
have staging situation intersection is visible for our road section
12. Operating and Maintenance Cost
A signalized intersection is more costly to operate and maintain than a roundabout. But
we designed our signalization in such a way that Signal lantern power consumption and
bulb replacement costs to be reduced by the use of light emitting diodes. Capital cost of
these is higher than conventional bulbs.
13. Staging of Construction
If the roadwork’s are to be staged (e.g. one carriageway of a future dual carriageway)
then the intersections will need to accommodate the initial works as well as being

capable of modification to suit the ultimate layout. Since staging is not an issue for our
road network both options are visible.
14. Land Take
High capacity roundabouts are generally more consumptive of land. However, small
roundabouts can often be provided within the normal road reserve. For this factor both
options are visible.
15. Traffic Management During Construction
This aspect requires examination to determine if a design solution has any particular
advantage in maintaining traffic flow through an existing intersection. And For this factor
both options are visible.
16. Service Alterations

The location of underground and overhead services may inhibit the development of
certain control types. In particular, installation of roundabouts on existing T junctions is
often inhibited by property constraints and existing services. Since there is no service
around our intersection both options are visible.
17. Environmental Factors

The operation of traffic signals causes stop-start traffic at all times of the day which may
be environmentally intrusive whereas roundabouts permit un-interrupted flow during
much of the day and night. However, any form of control may increase noise levels over
the uncontrolled situation. And this can be considered as one disadvantage of
signalized intersection
18. Urban Design/Ceremonial Considerations
Traffic signals, while introducing obtrusive elements in the form of lanterns allow the
continuity of through pavements to be maintained which may be of importance on
ceremonial routes to maintain vistas and permit the passage of processions.
Roundabouts, because of the requirement to install channelization, regulatory and

warning signs and street lighting, may interrupt vistas and processions along routes. For
this factor intersection design will be more visible.
19. Adjacent Land Use
Adjacent land use may influence control type. For example, if a school or elderly citizen
facilities are nearby, the speed reduction effected by a roundabout may indicate
preference for this form of control. For our road network there is no special adjacent
land use that should be taken in to consideration. Therefore both options are visible.
Capacity of the intersection
The capacity that is expected from our intersection after construction based on Highway
Capacity Manual is discussed below. Capacity at intersections is defined for each lane
group. The lane group capacity is the maximum hourly rate at which vehicles can
reasonably be expected to pass through the intersection under prevailing traffic,
roadway, and signalization conditions. The flow rate is generally measured or projected
for a 15-minute period, and capacity is stated in vehicles per hour (veh/h).
DDHV = AADT * K * D where K, Peak-hour volume of

daily
DDHV = 27800 * 0.10 * 0.50 D, Directional distribution
DDHV = 1390 veh/h
In the above paragraph Traffic conditions include volumes on each approach, the
distribution of vehicles by movement (left, through, right), the vehicle type distribution
within each movement, the location of and use of bus stops within the intersection area,
pedestrian crossing flows, and parking movements on approaches to the intersection.
Roadway conditions include the basic geometrics of the intersection, including the
number and width of lanes, grades, and lane use allocations (including parking lanes).
Signalization conditions include a full definition of the signal phasing, timing, and type of
control, and an evaluation of signal progression for each lane group.

Level of service of the intersection
Level of service for signalized intersections is defined in terms of control delay, which is
a measure of driver discomfort, frustration, fuel consumption, and increased travel time.
The delay experienced by a motorist is made up of a number of factors that relate to
control, geometrics, traffic, and incidents. Total delay is the difference between the
travel time actually experienced and the reference travel time that would result during
base conditions: in the absence of traffic control, in the absence of geometric delay, in
the absence of any incidents, and when no other vehicles are on the road. Control delay
is the portion of the total delay attributed to traffic signal operation for signalized
intersections. Control delay includes initial deceleration delay, queue move-up time,
stopped delay and final acceleration delay. Specifically, level of service (LOS) criteria
for traffic signals is stated in terms of the average control delay per vehicle, typically for
a 15-minute analysis period. HCM level of service definitions are discussed and LOS for
our road id determined.
Level of Service A describes operations with very low control delay, up to 10 s/veh. This
level of service occurs when progression is extremely favorable and most vehicles
arrive during the green phase. Many vehicles do not stop at all. Short cycle lengths may
tend to contribute to low delay values.
Level of Service B describes operations with control delay greater than 10 and up to 20
s/veh. This level generally occurs with good progression, short cycle lengths, or both.
More vehicles stop than with LOS A, causing higher levels of delay.
Level of Service C describes operations with control delay greater than 20 and up to35
s/veh. These higher delays may result from only fair progression, longer cycle lengths,
or both. Individual cycle failures may begin to appear at this level. The number of
vehicles stopping is significant at this level, though many still pass through the
intersection without stopping.
Level of Service D describes operations with control delay greater than 35 and up to 55
s/veh. At level D, the influence of congestion becomes more noticeable. Longer delays

may result from some combination of unfavorable progression, long cycle lengths, or
high v/c ratios. Many vehicles stop, and the proportion of vehicles not stopping declines.
Individual cycle failures are noticeable.
Level of Service E describes operations with control delay greater than 55 and up to 80
s/veh. These high delay values generally indicate poor progression, long cycle lengths,
and high v/c ratios. Individual cycle failures are frequent occurrences.
Level of Service F describes operations with control delay in excess of 80 s/veh. This
level, considered to be unacceptable to most drivers, often occurs with oversaturation,
that is, when arrival flow rates exceed the capacity of lane groups. It may also occur at
high v/c ratios with many individual cycle failures. Poor progression and long cycle
lengths may also be major contributing causes to such delay levels.
For our intersection we designed it to have a LOS of C.
Safety of the intersection
Intersections involve traffic conflicts. Where there are conflicts there is risk of accidents.
Even if high percentage of accidents involve some degree of error by drivers and/or
pedestrians safety of intersection is a function of exposure, speed, and the number of
conflict points, sight distance, and other factors which are site specific. The number and
severity of accidents may be reduced and the consequences of those accidents that do
occur may be reduced by the application of the following safety principles:
 exposure control - reduce risks by reducing the amount of movement, or by
substituting safer activities for relatively unsafe actions (e.g. separating motor
vehicles from unprotected road users)
 crash prevention by the road system design, operation and condition
 behavior modification by education and appropriate enforcement
 injury control - reduce severity of crash by vehicle design, reducing relative
speeds of conflicting vehicles, and removal of hazards from roadside
 injury management - provide treatment quickly to those who have been injured

The application of these safety principles at intersections results in the four general
rules which operates based on the four types of conflict types
1. Diverging in which the vehicle following is forced to slow (D)
2. Merging (M)
3. Crossing (C)
4. Weaving (W)
And the rules that are applicable for using safety principles are as follows

1. Reducing and Separating the Points of Conflict (exposure control, injury control)
The reduction or minimization of conflicts is particularly important. Type and
number of conflict for different types of intersection is given in the table below;
Method of Control
Intersection Type No positive Signals Roundabout
control
3 Way 3D, 3M, 3C (9) 3D, 1M, 1C (5) 3D, 3M or 3W(6)
4 way 8D, 12M, 12C 8D, 4M, 4C (16) 4D, 4M or 4W (8)
(32)
Based on the above table for our intersection type which is a three way signalized
junction the conflict number will be five, which is the minimum of all types.
2. Keeping It Simple (exposure control, crash prevention)
Complicated intersections have poor accident records. A fundamental check is to

imagine what a driver, using the intersection for the first time, would do. for our
intersection this rule was considered by applying the following points; no driver should
need special knowledge of how to negotiate the intersection and there is a clear order of
precedence within the intersection
3. Minimizing the Area of Conflict (exposure control, crash prevention)
We satisfy this rule for our intersection by reducing the area of pavement where conflict
can occur by defining vehicle paths and providing medians and islands.
4. Controlling Speed (exposure control, crash prevention, behavior modification and

injury Control)
and we provide approach channelization to achieve this rule.

Location of the intersection
Since our intersection is on new alignment we considered the following points, near
horizontal curves of large radii, on the outside of horizontal curves or on straights, near
sags to maximize sight distance, away from any constraints that might impact on a
future capacity upgrade (arterial roads), and away from in curves with superelevation
greater than 3% and within the area of superelevation development.
Visibility from Vehicles
At each conflict point, the vehicle paths, and orientation was developed with the
following visibility angles in mind.
AACRA recommends that Road centre lines should be designed to intersect at between
70° and 110°. For curved alignment the angle of the tangent(s) at the intersection point
should not be less than 70°, or more than 110°. Where existing roads intersect at an
angle outside this range, channelization should be provided that will result in vehicles
being positioned within the acceptable range at the holding line or stop line.
Our road center lines are designed to intersect at angle of 900.

Design and detail of the intersection
1. Channelization (raised island and isolated & raised median)

Intersection channelization is undertaken using medians, separators and islands.
Medians are located between the though carriageways and separate opposing traffic
flow. Separators are used between a service road and a through carriageway. Medians,
separators and islands can be raised, depressed, or defined by markings on the
pavement. Islands are used to delineate spaces at intersections that are clear of the
vehicle turning paths.
For our road network at the intersection we used raised median (including isolated) and
island which are generally preferred in urban areas as they provide a pedestrian refuge
and positively channel traffic. Median and island which are used on our intersection are
defined using semi-mountable kerbs. Semi-mountable kerbs are used as they permit
the occasional mounting of the kerb by over-dimensional vehicles. They also may allow
a disabled vehicle to be pushed onto a median or island, reducing traffic disruption due
to the breakdown or accident. Detail design of our raised isolated median is listed in the
following table
. Detail design of raised & isolated median
Item Description Dimension (meter)

Length 15
Isolated and raised median Width 3
Offset from approach 0.64
centerline
Curve radius 0.5
Offset from edge of road 6
For our island we select giveaway geometry rather than geometry with acceleration lane
this is because on our road network the minor traffic and the right turning traffic have
less chance of conflicting

Detail design for raised island
Item Description Dimension

Area 35m2
Raised island Length 10m
Pedestal offset from island 1m
Curve radius 0.3-0.5m
2. Auxiliary Lanes (Left Turn and Right Turn Lanes)

At an intersection, an auxiliary lane is an additional left turn or right turn lane (or lanes)
added to the through carriageway for safety and/or intersection capacity purposes.
Auxiliary lanes can be added to either the near or the off side (or both), and on the
approach or departure (or both). On the approach side they are designed on the basis
of various deceleration models; on the departure side, models of acceleration are used.
Auxiliary through lanes are often required to increase the capacity of a signalized
intersection. These lanes are added on the approach to the intersection, carried through
the intersection and dropped on the departure side.
For our road network to maintain capacity of the through road, an auxiliary left turn or
right turn lane is designed to operate with very minor interference to the through
movement.
Detail design consideration of elements of auxiliary lanes will be discussed below
I. Divergence length
Diverge length is the distance required for a vehicle to diverge from the through lane
into the auxiliary lane. It is calculated from the formula:

T d = VY / 3.6 S
Where:
T d = diverge length (meters)
V= design speed (km/h) which is 70 km/h for our road network
S = rate of lateral movement (1.0m/sec)
Y = width of lateral movement (meters) which is 3.5m for our road network
And substituting the above values in to the formula divergence length will be 68m and
for the design speed of 70km/h AACRA recommends a divergence length of 70m so we
adopt the later dimension for our right and left turn lanes
II. Deceleration lane
The deceleration length is the distance required for a vehicle to decelerate from the
speed limit to stop, or to a turning speed governed by the radius of the turn for free
flowing lanes. For design speed of 70km/h and exit curve design speed of 40 AACRA
recommends deceleration lane length of 50m. But according to AACRA if divergence
length is greater than deceleration lane then we should adopt deceleration lane length
to be equal to divergence length. Based on this principle our divergence length is 70m.
Since our grade of the road network is 0-2% around the intersection there is no need of
grade Corrections to Deceleration Lengths
III. Storage length
The storage length is the distance required to store vehicles in a lane while they are
waiting to pass through the intersection. Storage lengths can be determined by
simulating the operation of an intersection using various computer programs such as
aaSIDRA. Since, such kind of software are not available we are not able to calculate
storage length.
IV. Taper Lengths (Approach)
The approach taper is the length over which the kerb, or edge line, transitions at the
beginning of the auxiliary lane. The maximum taper length should not exceed the
diverge length. For our intersection we adopt taper length of 20m.
V. Lane Extensions
The lane extension is additional length added to an auxiliary lane to prevent the through
lane queue blocking entry to the auxiliary lane. Left turn lane length is governed by the

left turn queue length. The right turn length is governed by the deceleration length. And
for our road network the left turning traffic has no queue blocking issue. Therefore we
did not adopt lane extensions
VI. Lane Length

The absolute minimum length of the auxiliary lane should be the deceleration length
(including taper) to the stop line or the storage length plus taper, whichever is the
greater. If the diverge length is greater than the deceleration distance, then diverge
length is used instead. If the lane length determined in this way will be blocked by
through lane queues, then a lane extension should be added so that the auxiliary lane is
accessible, and intersection capacity achieved. In this situation, the auxiliary lane length
will be the through lane storage length plus taper. For our intersection the auxiliary lane
length will be divergence length (including taper) which is 70m.
VII. Turn Lane Radii

The desirable minimum radius turning is a minimum radius of 8.0m for cars, and 15.0m
for heavy vehicles (20m for B-Doubles). General use of an absolute minimum 12.5m
radius for heavy vehicles should be avoided as this can only be achieved by turning
onto full steering lock at very low speeds. Conversely, large curve radii at intersections
may promote speeds that place pedestrians at risk. Turn lanes should not exceed about
20m radius for this reason as turning traffic often shares a phase with pedestrians.
For our intersection design we adopt 20 and 15 meter turning radius
VIII. Through Lane Conversions

Conversion of an approach through lane of a multi-lane road into an exclusive left turn
or right turn lane should be avoided as it may cause some through traffic to change
lanes at the last moment, creating a potential for accidents. For our road alignment we
avoided such kind of situation.

Summary for Left Turn and Right Turn Lanes design
Item Description Dimension (meter)

Diverge length 70
Deceleration lane length 50
Left Turn and Right Turn Storage length -
Lanes Taper Lengths (Approach) 20
Lane Extensions -
Lane Length 70
Width 3
Turn Lane Radii 15 & 20
 Drawing for the intersection is available to the soft copy
Roundabout design
Introduction
A roundabout is a one-way circulatory system around a central island, entry to which is

controlled by markings and signs. Priority is given to traffic already in the roundabout.
Roundabouts provide high capacity and minimal delay. Roundabouts have a good
safety record. Vehicles entering a roundabout are required to yield to vehicles within the
circulating roadway. Traffic circles sometimes employ stop or signal control or give
priority to entering vehicles.
The circulating vehicles are not subjected to any other right-of-way conflicts and
weaving is kept to a minimum. This provides the means by which the priority is
distributed and alternated among vehicles. A vehicle entering as a subordinate vehicle
immediately becomes a priority vehicle until it exits the roundabout.
The speed at which a vehicle is able to negotiate the circulating roadway is controlled
by the location of the central island with respect to the alignment of the right entry curb

and the circulating roadway cross section. It is important that the speeds of vehicles on
the roundabout are low. This feature is responsible for the improved safety record of
roundabouts. Some large traffic circles provide straight paths for major movements or
are designed for higher speeds within the circulating roadway. Some small traffic circles
do not achieve adequate deflection for speed control because of the small central island
diameter.
In general, a well designed roundabout is the safest type of intersection control. Before
and after type studies have shown that in general, fewer vehicle accidents occur at
roundabouts than at intersections containing traffic signals, stop or give way signs. The
primary reason for this is that the potential relative speeds of vehicles are considerably
lower for a well designed roundabout than for other types of at grade intersections.
For roundabouts to perform effectively they must be easily identified in the road system,
the layout must be apparent to approaching drivers and the approaches must
encourage drivers to enter the intersection slowly. Adequate sight distance should be
provided to enable drivers to observe the movements of other vehicles, cyclists, and
pedestrians.
General layout of Roundabout

Appropriateness of roundabout on our site
The process of selecting roundabout over other types of junction type was conducted by
following the same procedure which is followed during selection of signalized
intersection. I.e. Roundabout is the most visible type of junction for our road network
because of the following reasons;
1. traffic volumes on the intersecting roads are such that stop or give way signs or
the T junction rule result in unacceptable delays for the minor road traffic
2. traffic signals would result in greater delays than a roundabout for traffic volumes
on the intersecting roads
3. there are high proportions of left-turning traffic - unlike most other intersection
treatments, roundabouts can operate efficiently with high volumes of left-turning
vehicles
4. traffic growth is expected to be high and where future traffic patterns are
uncertain or changeable
Capacity of the roundabout
Both AACRA and HCM recommend capacity of round about to be undertaken using
different software such as aaSIDRA. Since this kind software is not available to us we
skipped this part.
Design and detail of the intersection
I. Number of Roundabout Legs / Angle between Legs

For single lane roundabout, aligning roundabout legs at approximately 90° is the most
preferable treatment because it results in the least amount of driver confusion. This
treatment limits the number of roundabout legs to four. However, the provision of a
greater number of legs on a single lane roundabout is allowable if economic constraints
dictate. However, those more than six legs would lead to driver confusion as to which
exit leg is required. Adequate signing would also be difficult to obtain.

For number of legs should be limited to a maximum of four legs with legs at
approximately 90°.
Three and four leg multi-lane lane roundabouts allow legs to be formed at approximately
90°, which helps motorists determine the appropriate lane choice for their path through
the roundabout. Multi-lane roundabouts with more than four legs have some or all legs
aligned at angles other than 90°. On these roundabouts, motorists can experience
difficulty in determining which is the appropriate lane choice required for left, through
and right turns on some of the approaches.
Since our round about is a multilane (two lanes), in the design of our roundabout we
adopt four legs which are aligned at 900.
II. Number of Roundabout Lanes

The minimum number of roundabout lanes (entry, circulating and exit lanes) to achieve
the desired capacity and operating requirements for the projected future traffic volumes
should be provided. This is because the rates of several types of accidents at
roundabouts increase with an increase in the number of lanes provided. Also,
construction costs are unnecessarily high.
a. Number of Circulating Lanes

The number of circulating lanes from any particular approach must be equal to or
greater than the maximum number of entry lanes on that approach. It is not essential to
provide the same number of circulating lanes for the entire length of the circulating
carriageway as long as the appropriate multilane exits are provided prior to reducing the
number of circulating lanes.
For our roundabout design we adopt two circulating lanes.
b. Number of Exit Lanes
The number of exit lanes must not be greater than the number of circulating lanes. On
multi-lane roundabouts, the number of exit lanes is based on the lane usage as
determined by the pavement arrows on the approaches. Where no pavement arrows
are shown, the number of exit lanes should equal the number of circulating lanes prior
to the exit.

For our roundabout design we adopt two exit lanes.

c. Right Turn Slip Lanes
Provision of a right turn slip lane is beneficial on approaches where a significant
proportion of the traffic turns right. In some cases, the use of a right turn slip lane can
avoid the need to build an additional entry lane. And we provided right turn slip lanes to
our roundabout design.
III. Roundabout Diameter
Larger roundabouts enable better geometry to be designed. Increasing the diameter of
a roundabout usually enables provision of better approach geometry which leads to a
reduction in vehicle approach speeds. An increase in roundabout diameter will also
usually provide a reduction in the angle formed between the entering and circulating
vehicle paths thus reducing the relative speed between these vehicles which in turn
lowers the entering/circulating vehicle accident rate.
Larger roundabouts also provide greater separation between adjacent conflict areas
and make it easier for entering drivers to determine whether vehicles, already on the
circulating carriageway, are exiting or continuing on around the circulating carriageway.
For a two lane roundabout and design speed of 70km/h (which is the design speed of
our road) AACRA recommends the minimum central island diameter to be 30m and for
our roundabout we take diameter of 40m.
IV. Width of Circulating Carriageway
For Single Lane Roundabouts the circulating carriageway width of single lane
roundabouts should cater for the movement of the largest vehicle normally expected to
use the roundabout. An offset of 0.6m from each edge of the vehicle path to the lane
edge/kerb should be provided.
The circulating carriageway width of dual lane roundabouts would normally need to
cater for the movement of the largest anticipated vehicle alongside a passenger car. A
distance of 1.2m from the edge of both vehicle paths and a distance of 0.6m from the
edge of the vehicle paths to the lane edge/kerb should be provided. The heavy vehicle

in these cases will have to travel part way into the adjacent lane in order to complete the
manoeuvre.
Based on the above note the width of circulating carriageway for our roundabout is
calculated as follows.
 Dual lane carriageway, each of the lanes having width of 3.5m, totally 7m.
 0.6m offset from the edge of the vehicle paths to the lane edge/kerb
 1.2m from the edge of both vehicle paths
Therefore adding the above three dimensions width of circulating carriageway will be
10m. Based on design speed of 70km/h AACRA also recommends circulating
carriageway width of 10m.
V. Entry and Exit Widths

Entry and exit widths directly affect the location of the vehicle paths through the
roundabout. Generally, smaller entry and exit widths provide smaller vehicle path radii
on the entry curve and more deflection through the roundabout thus decreasing speeds
through the roundabout.
Generally, lane widths will fall within the range 3.4m to 4.0m. Exceptions are for kerbed
single lane entrances and exits where a minimum width of 5.0m between kerbs is
usually provided to allow traffic to pass a disabled vehicle.
Entry and exit widths on our roundabout have width of 3.5m
VI. Over-Dimensional (OD) Vehicles
Over-dimensional vehicles are those having greater than the legal maximum
dimensions for vehicles and may be permitted to operate on major arterial routes.
Roundabouts on major arterial routes need to cater for these vehicles. Because the size
of these vehicles can vary greatly, it is not essential that such vehicles be able to
traverse the intersection without encroaching onto the central island area and/or the
approach splitter islands.
For our roundabout this encroachment area is designed to be constructed of load
bearing pavement and where kerbs are expected to be traversed, semi- mountable or
fully mountable kerbs to be used.

VII. Curvature and Deflection

a. Entry Curve
The entry curve is one of the most important geometric parameters to be designed at
roundabouts. Only a right hand entry curve should be considered. The provision of an
appropriate radius on the entry curve encourages drivers to slow down before reaching
the roundabout. Care should be taken to ensure that the entry curve radius is not so
large as to result in an unacceptably high speed entry onto the circulating carriageway.
The entry curve radius on our roundabout is 20m
b. Deflection Through Roundabouts
Adequate deflection of the paths of vehicles entering a roundabout is an important
factor influencing their safe operation. It is achieved by adjusting the geometry of the
approach carriageway
Deflection at Roundabouts with Two or Three Circulating Lanes differs from that used at
single lane roundabouts in that the fastest (maximum radius) vehicle path is assumed to
start in the right entry lane, cut across the circulating lanes and passes no closer than
1.5m to the central island before exiting the roundabout in the right lane.
c. Exit Curves
In areas where there are no pedestrians, the exit from a roundabout should be as easy
to negotiate as practicable. After having been slowed down by the curved entry path
into the circulating carriageway, vehicles should be able to accelerate on the exit out of
the circulating carriageway. Therefore, the radius of the exit curve should generally be
greater than the circulating radius. Ideally, a straight path tangential to the central island
is preferable for exiting vehicles, in contrast to the curved entering path. In areas where

there are pedestrians, the exit speed should be minimized by providing exit geometry
similar to entry geometry.
VIII. Central Island
On our roundabout the Central Island Shape is circular. Circular Central Island is
preferable to circular as continually changing curvature of the circulating
Carriageway increases the driving task demand. Our central island is kerbed to
enhance the prominence of the roundabout. The kerbing is designed to painted white.
IX. Splitter Islands
Kerbed splitter islands should be provided on all approaches. They provide shelter for
pedestrians, assist in controlling entry speed, guide traffic onto the roundabout and
deter left-turners from taking dangerous wrong way short cut movements through the
roundabout. Splitter island kerbing should be light colored or painted white. Our splitter
island is designed to have width of 4.8m, area of 58m2 and to be painted white.
X. Crossfall and Grades

The crossfall of the circulating carriageway is a significant factor influencing single
vehicle accidents for trucks. Adverse crossfall on the circulating carriageway results in
higher single vehicle accidents for trucks than doe’s superelevation on the circulating
carriageway. Pavement crossfall of 0.025 m/m is adopted for the circulating
carriageway.
On our design Grades on the circulating carriageway greater than 4 per cent are
avoided.
 Drawing for design of roundabout is available to the softcopy.

CHAPTER THREE
PAVEMENT DESIGN
Introduction
Highways are vitally important to a country’s economic development. The construction

of a high quality road network directly increases a nation’s economic output by reducing
journey times and costs, making a region more attractive economically. The actual
construction process will have the added effect of stimulating the construction market.
A highway pavement is composed of a system of overlaid strata of chosen processed

materials that is positioned on the in-situ soil, termed the subgrade. Its basic
requirement is the provision of a uniform skid-resistant running surface with adequate
life and requiring minimum maintenance. The chief structural purpose of the pavement
is the support of vehicle wheel loads applied to the carriageway and the distribution of
them to the subgrade immediately underneath. The pavement designer must develop
the most economical combination of layers that will guarantee adequate dispersion of
the incident wheel stresses so that each layer in the pavement does not become
overstressed during the design life of the highway.
The major variables in the design of a highway pavement are:
 The thickness of each layer in the pavement

 The material contained within each layer of the pavement
 The type of vehicles in the traffic stream
 The volume of traffic predicted to use the highway over its design life
 The strength of the underlying subgrade soil.
There are three basic components of the highway pavement which are Foundation,
Roadbase & Surfacing. Their general definitions are given as shown below.
1) Foundation
The foundation consists of the native subgrade soil and the layer of graded stone
(subbase and possibly capping) immediately overlaying it. The function of the subbase

and capping is to provide a platform on which to place the roadbase material as well as
to insulate the subgrade below it against the effects of inclement weather. These layers
may form the temporary road surface used during the construction phase of the
highway.
2) Roadbase
The roadbase is the main structural layer whose main function is to withstand the
applied wheel stresses and strains incident on it and distribute them in such a manner
that the materials beneath it do not become overloaded.
3) Surfacing
The surfacing combines good riding quality with adequate skidding resistance, while
also minimizing the probability of water infiltrating the pavement with consequent
surface cracks. Texture and durability are vital requirements of a good pavement
surface as are surface regularity and flexibility.
General Types
In broad terms, the two main pavement types can be described briefly as:
 Flexible pavements The surfacing and roadbase materials, bound with bitumen
binder, overlay granular unbound or cement-bound material.
 Rigid pavements Pavement quality concrete, used for the combined surfacing
and roadbase, overlays granular cement-bound material. The concrete may be
reinforced with steel.
For flexible pavements, the surfacing is normally applied in two layers – basecourse and
wearing course – with the basecourse an extension of the roadbase layer but providing
a regulating course on which the final layer is applied. In the case of rigid pavements,
the structural function of both the roadbase and surfacing layers are integrated within
the concrete slab.
The general layout of these two pavement types is shown in Figs 1 and 2 below.

Figure 1 Layers within a typical flexible highway pavement.
Figure 2 Layers within a typical rigid highway pavement.
Pavement Types (According to AACRA)
AACRA Pavement design manual deals with the structural design of pavements
containing:
 Entirely granular materials which are defined as flexible pavements; or

 One or more stabilized bound or thick bituminous layers which are defined as
semi-rigid pavements.
Flexible Pavements
A commonly used pavement structure is the flexible pavement type whereby a surface
treatment or a bituminous mix is placed over a base course made of granular materials.
Other flexible pavement types being used in Addis Ababa currently consist of base
courses made of penetration macadam. The typical mode of distress in fully granular

pavements is deformation arising from shear or densification within the granular

pavement materials or deformation of the subgrade. This pavement type is sensitive to
timely periodic maintenance by resealing.
Semi-Rigid Pavements
Semi-rigid pavements are those utilizing cemented or bituminous materials in the base
course layer or both the base course and subbase layer. Where both base course and
subbase are cemented, this pavement type is a viable option for high traffic conditions.
Pavements with only the base course cemented with granular subbase have limitations
in the upper ranges of traffic loading. The use of a cemented material improves the load
bearing capacity of the pavement by reducing surface deflections and hence strains in
the bituminous surfacing. The typical mode of distress is by fatigue cracking of the
cemented material until its structural behavior eventually approaches that of a granular
layer. The post-cracked phase of the cemented material can be expected to add
considerable useful life to the pavement because the material will then function as a
granular layer. The modes of distress in bituminous base courses can be deformation or
fatigue cracking depending on site conditions and material properties. The preferred
method to minimize the risk of fatigue cracking is primarily by providing the stiffest
possible support for the base course and thereby minimizing strain in the layer. Strongly
cemented subbase however may lead to crack reflection from the subbase through the
bituminous base course and is not a desirable option.
 For our road project we selected a flexible pavement since it is the

most commonly used type in the country!!
DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE ASPHALT PAVEMENT
The objective of structural pavement design is to provide a road surface which can
withstand the expected traffic loading over a specified time without deteriorating below a
predetermined level of service. This is achieved by providing a pavement structure
whereby stresses on the subgrade induced by traffic are reduced to acceptable levels.

Stresses within pavement layers must in addition be kept within acceptable limits
depending on the properties of the materials being used.
Design Traffic
Traffic load is being the main input for pavement design, which needs
proper attention and consideration. The effect of traffic loads on road
pavement is evaluated in terms of number of traffic, representing repetition
of load application and axle loads representing the magnitude of the load.
Thus, the design traffic is expressed in terms of the number of the
cumulative equivalent standard axles over the design period of the road.
The structural deterioration of paved roads caused by traffic mainly

depends on (MoW, 1999):
 magnitude of the loads (axle loads)

 number of load repetitions
The damage that vehicles do to a road depends greatly on the magnitude
of the axle loads and as such, the damaging effect of an axle loading
follows an exponential function.
The damaging effect of all axles expected to traverse the road, as stated
above, is converted into Equivalent Standard Axles (ESA) and added up
over a chosen design period to become the basis for the structural
pavement design.
The deterioration of paved roads caused by traffic results from both the
magnitude of the individual wheel loads and the number of times these
loads are applied. For pavement design purposes it is necessary to consider not
only the total number of vehicles that will use the road but also the wheel loads (or, for
convenience, the axle loads) of these vehicles (TRL, 1993).

 From traffic count data shown on the previous pages we found AADT
for both directions to be 13887 & 13915 for the right & left lanes
respectively!
Percentage ESAs per Lane for Multiple Lanes
When the pavement design is for carriageways with more than one traffic lane in each
direction, a reduction may be considered in the cumulative ESA to take into account for
the design. The ranges given in Table 2-4 are suggested for the percentage of design
ESAs to consider in the design lane (ERA):
The pavement design thicknesses required for the design lane are usually applied to the
whole carriageway width.
Vehicle classification system
The following table shows vehicle classifications system of AACRA Pavement design
manual.
Vehicle class Vehicle Type

Cars • Car‐ Standard Cars
• Wagons and Pickups
• Minibus and Vans( seats <12)
Light vehicles • Small bus( Seats Less than 24)
• Medium bus( Seats b/n 25 and 44)
• Large Bus( seats greater than 44)

• Single Rear axle Truck( total of two

Heavy vehicles • Two rear axle trucks( Total of three
axles)( Carrying
capacity between 3.5 ton and 7 ton)
• Three rear axle trucks( Total of Four
axles)( capacity
between 7 ton and 12 ton)
Articulated • Articulated Trucks with more than 4 axles
( carrying capacity > 12 ton)
• Truck Trailers
Design Period
The design period is the length of time expressed in years before it is anticipated that
rehabilitation of the pavement will be necessary to restore shape, repair other forms of
distress, or to provide additional pavement strength (Austroads, 1992).
The design period starts when the completed pavement is opened to public traffic over
the entire length of a construction project. Any public traffic or construction traffic using
the completed pavement before the start of the design period shall be estimated
separately and included in the design traffic loading for the purpose of pavement design
(MoW, 1999).
Strengthening of the pavement is normally required for the road to carry further traffic at
an acceptable level of serviceability after the end of the design period. Normal
maintenance is assumed to take place throughout the design period for the design to be
valid. Premature failures may result if normal maintenance is neglected during the
desaign period (MoW, 1999).
For most road projects an economic analysis period of 20 years from the date of
opening is appropriate. Whatever time period is chosen for the appraisal of a project,
the road will always have some residual value at the end of this period. Choosing a
pavement design life that is the same as the analysis period simplifies the economic

appraisal by minimizing the residual value, which is normally difficult to estimate

accurately (TRL, 1993).
The recommended design periods for pavements in Addis Ababa are:
 New granular and semi-rigid pavements = 20 years

 New rigid pavements = 40 years
 New gravel pavements = 10 years
 Asphalt overlays = 15 years
 Granular overlays = 10 years
Rehabilitation, which may consist of granular or asphalt overlay, major patching or
improvements or removal of selected areas of pavement materials, initiates a new
design period. In this regard, resurfacing a pavement with a sprayed seal or a very thin
asphalt overlay does not in itself constitute rehabilitation in the pavement design sense.
 For our road project, we selected a design period of 20 years.

Axle Loads and Equivalency Factors
All design of bitumen surfaced road pavements shall be based on axle load surveys.
The surveys shall be carried out separately from weigh-bridge measurements
undertaken for the purpose of enforcing axle load limits.
The damaging effect of an axle passing over the pavement is expressed by the
equivalency factor related to an equivalent standard axle (ESA) of 8160 kg load:
According to AACRA, generic values may be used based on results from previous
studies completed in Addis Ababa. These are shown in the following table (Table 6-3
Typical Equivalency Factors for Addis Ababa Traffic) taken from AACRA pavement
design manual.

 Since we don’t have an axle load survey data we took the typical EF
for each vehicle class.
In order to determine the initial daily traffic loading from the survey data, the following
procedure should be followed (TRL, 1993; Austroads, 1992):
(1) Determine the daily traffic flow for each class of vehicle from the results of this traffic
survey and other recent traffic count information that is available (Section 6.1 and Traffic
and Axle Load Study Manual).
(2) Adjust the flows for two way traffic, lane factors and seasonal adjustment
(3) Determine the mean equivalence factor for each class of vehicle from the results of
the axle load survey or default values from Table 6.2.
(4) Determine the initial daily traffic loading by summing the products of the daily flow in
each class by the mean equivalence factor for each respective class:
= + + +
Where N = initial daily Equivalent Standard Axles
NL is the daily number of light vehicles in the current year
NM is the daily number of medium vehicles in the current year
NH is the daily number of heavy vehicles in the current year
NA is the daily number of articulated vehicles in the current year

EFL the equivalency factor for the average light vehicle
EFM the equivalency factor for the average medium vehicles
EFH the equivalency factor for the average heavy vehicles
EFA the equivalency factor for the average articulated vehicles
Growth Rate
The forecasting of traffic growth shall include separate estimates for the 5 vehicle
categories. It is necessary to assess future traffic in respect of the following types:
 Normal traffic that would use the route regardless of the condition of the road
 Diverted traffic that moves from an alternative route due to the improvement of
the road, but at otherwise unchanged origin and destination
 Generated traffic:
 Additional traffic occurring due to the improvement of the road
There is a considerable uncertainty and risk of making large errors in estimations of
traffic growth since a number of individually uncertain factors are brought together in
the analysis. Where little information is available, historical data, origin-destination
surveys and records from AACRA are among the sources of information for
assessment of traffic growth. The designer may have to resort to the use of growth
figures for GDP in the estimation of movement of goods (MoW, 1999).
Based on road traffic survey information, it is reasonable, in most circumstances, to

assume that traffic volumes will increase geometrically either for the entire design
period or up to a stage where "road capacity" is reached (in which case traffic volumes
are assumed to remain constant for the remainder of the design period (Austroads,
1992).
If there is an indication that "road capacity" is likely to be reached within the design
period, it is recommended that the designer establish that there is no planned upgrading
of the road geometry within the design period before he adopts "no growth" traffic
volume for the period of "full capacity". Adoption of "no-growth" traffic volumes for a

period of "saturation" will entail modification of the approach used below to aggregate
daily traffic volumes for total design traffic.
For geometric traffic growth throughout the design period, total traffic over the design
period is determined by multiplying the total traffic in the first year by the appropriate
Cumulative Growth Factor from the table below (AACRA Table 6-4) or calculated
exactly using the following equation:
(1 + 0.01 )[(1 + 0.01 ) − 1]

=
0.01
Where i = Growth Rate (% pa)
y - Design Period (years)
Table 6-4 Cumulative Growth Factors (GF)
In the absence of specific traffic survey and study results, typical values for growth rates
can be adopted with caution based on the economic growth zones shown in Figure 6-
1(AACRA pavement design manual section 6) and the zone / road classification matrix

presented in Table 6-5 (AACRA, 2002).These values should be used with the
recommended design period in Equation 6.3 to determine the appropriate approximate
Growth Factor.
 Since our project is located in zone five and the road type is arterial,
we took the traffic growth rate to be 7.2%.
Vehicle compositions
Vehicle composition shows the percentage of each vehicle class using the road. This
percentage is multiplied with the AADT value we found for the entire vehicles in both
directions, which are 13887 & 13915 for the right & left lanes respectively. The
following table shows the vehicle composition data for each vehicle classification.
Vehicle classes Car Light Medium Heavy Articulated

Vehicle composition 89.87 7.5 2.5 0.08 0.05
Calculation of Design Traffic
Because asphalt, cemented materials and subgrades each have different performance
relationships, it is necessary to determine separately for each material the number of
standard axles which will cause the same level of accumulated damage as the actual
traffic load spectrum. The design loading is then calculated as the design number of
standard axles for:
Asphalt = Nsa x 365 x GF
Subgrade = Nss x 365 x GF
Cemented materials = Nsc x 365 x GF

GF has been explained above.
Nsa = 1.1 N
Nss = 1.1 N
Nsc = 10.0 N
And N is the initial daily traffic loading.
CALCULATION OF ESAs FOR OUR ROAD
For the traffic count done on both directions (left & right) & separate AADTs calculated,
we can now calculate their respective ESAs.
Right Direction ESA
Vehicle classes Car Light Medium Heavy Articulated

Right direction traffic
volume 12480.2469 1041.525 347.175 11.1096 6.9435
Equivalency factor (EF) 0.03 0.73 1.31 1.61 3.15
initial daily traffic (N) 374.407407 760.31325 454.79925 17.886456 21.872025
From the equation shown in the previous pages,
= 44.9189
= 0.8 ∗ 365 = 0.8 ∗ 1.1 365 = 18,105,230.5
Here 0.8 ⇒ 80% ESAs for the design lane provided the road has two lanes in both
directions (Percentage ESAs per Lane for Multiple Lanes ERA table 2.4 shown in the
theoretical part above).

Left Direction ESA
Vehicle classes Car Light Medium Heavy Articulate

d
Left direction traffic volume 12505.4105 1043.625 347.875 11.132 6.9575
Equivalency factor (EF) 0.03 0.73 1.31 1.61 3.15
initial daily traffic (N) 761.8462
375.162315 5 455.71625 17.92252 21.916125
From the equation shown in the previous pages,
= 44.9189
= 0.8 ∗ 365 = 0.8 ∗ 1.1 365 = 18,141,735.6
Here 0.8 ⇒ 80% ESAs for the design lane provided the road has two lanes in both
directions (Percentage ESAs per Lane for Multiple Lanes ERA table 2.4 shown in the
theoretical part above).
Design CBR
The following table shows Test Pit Profile of Wingate – Asko Asphalt Road Project in
which test pits has been dug on five stations along the proposed alignment.
STATION DEPTH (cm) DESCRIPTION

40 Loose grayish fill material
0+100 80 Light brown clay soil
0+600 65 Reddish clay soil
1+700 30 Loose dark brown fill material
75 Light brown clay soil

From the observation of field investigation, as shown in the table above, the sub-grade
material is almost uniform (homogeneous) alternate brown and dominant reddish clay
soil. Thus, the minimum CBR value of 5% has been taken as design CBR, since the
stretches having black cotton soil has to be replaced with a suitable fill material having a
minimum CBR value of 5%.
Design Standards
For the purpose of economic and durability considerations, different pavement design
manuals have been considered. The main standard manuals used for the design are
AACRA Pavement Design Manual, TRL Road Note 31 (a guide to the structural design
of bitumen – surface roads in tropical and sub-tropical countries) & AASHTO pavement
design manual. Comparisons are made for pavement layers determined using these
manuals so as to recommend technically safe and economical combination of pavement
thicknesses.
The pavement layers obtained based on the aforementioned standard manuals is

presented as follows:-
Pavement Layers Determination

The pavement thickness for the project is determined for a design period of 20 years,
design traffic of 18.142*106 cumulative ESAs and design CBR value of 5%.
Note: 18.142*106 cumulative ESA is for the left direction since it is greater
than the right one. So the thickness will be designed using this ESA value.
1) AACRA Pavement Design Manual

All black cotton soils should be replaced by suitable materials having a minimum CBR value
of 5%, hence for CBR value of 5% and ESA of 18.142*106 then these will provide the
following pavement thicknesses (Using chart 23).
Cemented layer thickness Asphalt thickness Granular

210mm 125mm 100mm

2) TRL Overseas Road Note 31 Design Manual

Since all black cotton soils should be replaced by suitable materials having a minimum CBR
value of 5%, the sub-grade strength class with CBR value of 5% lays in S3 and the ESA of
18.142*106 lays in traffic class T8.Thus, TRL (ORN 31) design manual for the above sub-grade
strength class and traffic class gives the following layer thicknesses:-
Sub-base (mm) Base course Wearing course

275mm 250mm 150mm
3) AASHTO Pavement Design Manual

Definition of drainage quality and finding recommended mi values
Assuming One day for the water to be drained with saturation level moisture exposure=30%.
Drainage mi values = 1 for good quality of drainage (shown in the table below).
Greater than 25%’ category m1=m2=1
Mr (Resilient modulus)
CBR of basecourse =100 (the minimum value is 80%, AACRA)
⇒ Mr=31,000lb/in2
CBR of subbase = 30 (minimum value from AACRA)
⇒ Mr=14,500/in2
CBR of subgrade = 5 (black cotton soil)
⇒ Mr=1,500CBR=1,500*5=7,500lb/ in2

Reliability
Taking Reliability levels (R) = 98%
Therefore SD will be the average value for flexible pavements Standard deviation (So) = 0.49
shown below.
Serviceability Performance: Measured by PSI present Serviceability Index with

scale 0 to 5.
Take: Initial serviceability Pi=4.5

Terminal serviceability Pt = 2.5
NOTE: for all the three figures to find a1, a2 & a3, the colored lines are used to show
how to read the figure.
Taking AC’s Mr at 680F =450,000lb/in2 from the following figure.

∴ Structural no. of the AC surface a = 0.44 (how to read is shown in the)
∴ Structural no. of the base course a = 0.14 (how to read is shown in the)

∴ Structural no. of the sub base a = 0.1 (how to read is shown in the)
Computation of required pavement thickness
Based on ESA=18.142*106

SN3=5.6 SN2=4.6 SN1=3.5
These structural numbers are used to determine the thickness of each layer.
.
SN1=a1D1 ⇒ = = 7.9 = 79
.
SN2=a1D1+a2D2m2
4.6=0.44*7.5+0.14*D2*1 ⇒ D2=7.8cm=78mm
SN3= a1D1+a2D2m2+a3D3m3
5.6=3.3+0.14*13*1+0.1*D3*1 ⇒ D3=9cm=90mm

Comparisons Made Between Different Design Manuals
Name of Road Manuals Traffic loading Cement Sub -base Base Wearing
Project Used layer course Course
(ESA ) (mm)
(mm) (mm) (mm)
Wingate – Asko AACRA 18.14*106 210mm - 100mm 125mm

ROAD Project
TRL 18.14*106 - 275mm 250mm 150mm
AASHTO 18.14*106 - 90mm 78mm 79mm
From the above three methods, it has been observed that AACRA Pavement design manual
provides a 210mm cemented material layer for 18.14*106 ESA. This is uneconomical & also
tedious work may be required.
And also, AASHTO pavement design manual provides minimum thickness relative to the two
methods, which may be economical but not safe compared to TRL.
TRL design manual gives a better approach in providing pavement thicknesses for the road
project. So the layer thickness found for this method are taken.

CHAPTER FOUR
DRAINAGE DESIGN
URBAN ROAD DRAINAGE RUNOFF

Introduction
Construction of urban highways and arterial roads substantially alter the perviousness
of the areas. Large amounts of permeable areas are replaced with hard surfaces. In the
older portions of large cities, the pavements may represent over 50% of the total urban
impervious area. The diminution of permeable surfaces lessens the depression storage
and infiltration. The paved surfaces speed up the conveyance of runoff. Thus, urban
highways result in greater quantities of runoff at higher rates than would occur under
pre-highway conditions. Stormwater management aims at minimizing, or preferably
eliminating entirely, these development-caused increases in runoff.
An important step in the design of road drainage is the assessment of peak flows
because it is the discharge that a given structure must be sized to handle. Of course,
the peak flow varies for each different storm, and it becomes the designer's
responsibility to size a given structure for the magnitude of storm that is determined to
present an acceptable risk in a given situation. Peak flow rates can be affected by many
factors in a watershed, including rainfall, basin size, and the physiographic features.
Travel Time
The travel time of runoff is an important design parameter. Travel times of surface runoff
must be estimated for design of inlets and pipe drainage systems. Some peak
discharge methods use the time of concentration as input to obtain rainfall intensities
from the intensity-duration-frequency curves. Hydrograph times-to-peak, which are in
some cases computed from times of concentration, are used with the hydrograph
methods. Channel routing methods use computed travel times in routing hydrographs
through channel reaches. Thus, estimating travel times are central to a variety of
hydrologic design problems.

Time of Concentration
The time of concentration, tc, is defined as the time required for a particle of water to
flow from the hydraulically most distant point in the watershed to the outlet or design
point. Factors that affect the time of concentration are the length of flow, the slope of the
flow path, and the roughness of the flow path.
CALCULATION OF TIME OF CONCENTRATION
VELOCITY METHOD
The velocity method is applicable to sheet flow, shallow concentrated flow, pipe flow, or
channel flow. It is based on the concept that the travel time, Tt in minutes, for a flow
segment is a function of the length of flow (L, in meters) and the velocity (V, in m/s)
(AACRA drinage design manual Eq. 3.3)
The travel time is computed for the principal flow path. When the principal flow path
consists of segments that have different slopes or land covers, the principal flow path
should be divided into segments and the above equation is used for each flow segment.
Time of concentration is then the sum of travel times:
Where, k = number of segments and the subscript i refers to the flow segment
The velocity of Eq. 3.3, above, is a function of the type of flow (overland, sheet, rill and
gully flow, channel flow, pipe flow), the roughness of the flow path, and the slope of the
flow path. A number of methods have been developed for estimating the velocity.After
short distances; sheet flow tends to concentrate in rills and then gullies of increasing
proportions. Such flow is usually referred to as shallow concentrated flow. The velocity
of such flow can be estimated using an empirical relationship between the velocity and

the slope:
Where V=Velocity (m/s)

S=Slope (%)
K1= intercept coefficient
The value of k1 is a function of the land cover, with values for selected land covers given
in Table 3.2 (AACRA drainage design manual, section 3)
 We used this table to read the intercept coefficients (K)!

Design of Urban Road Drainage Runoff
The Rational Formula
One of the most commonly used equations for the calculation of peak discharges from
small areas is the rational formula. The rational formula is given as:
Where, Q = peak flow in m³/s

i = rainfall intensity for the design storm (mm/h)
A = drainage area (hectares)
C = dimensionless runoff coefficient

The quotient, 1/360, is a unit conversion that can be approximated as 0.00278.
 The drainage area should be smaller than 80 hectares.

 The peak discharge occurs when the entire watershed is contributing.
 A storm that has duration equal to tc produces the highest peak discharge for this
frequency.
 The rainfall intensity is uniform over time duration equal to the time of
concentration.
 The frequency of the computed peak flow is equal to the frequency of the
 Rainfall intensity. In other words, the 10-year rainfall intensity, i, is assumed to
produce the 10-year peak discharge.
Ground cover determines the runoff coefficient, C. Some tables of C provide for
variation due to slope, soil, and the return period of the design discharge. The runoff
coefficient is a volumetric coefficient that relates the peak discharge to the "theoretical
peak" or 100 percent runoff, occurring when runoff matches the net rain rate. Hence C
is also a function of infiltration and other hydrologic abstractions. Some typical values
of C for the rational formula are given in Table 3.3 (AACRA).

Table 3.3: Runoff Coefficients for Rational Formula *(Source: HDS 2, 1996)
 We used this table to read the Runoff coefficients (C)!

In cases where basin contains varying amounts of different covers, a weighted runoff
coefficient for the entire basin can be determined as:
Where, Cw = Weighted runoff coefficient

Ci, Ai = runoff coefficient and area respectively for cover type i
A = total drainage area.

Intensity-Duration-Frequency Curves
Essential data for design of a drainage structure includes the intensity of rainfall that can
be expected for a specific time period for a given recurrence interval. Intensity is defined
as the rate of rainfall and is typically given in units of millimeters per hour. Although
rainfall intensity varies during precipitation events, many of the procedures used to
derive peak flow are based on assumed constant rainfall intensity.
Pre-developed Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) curves are used to determine peak
design discharges. The IDF curves provide a summary of a site's rainfall characteristics
by relating storm duration and exceedence probability (frequency) to rainfall intensity
(assumed constant over the duration).
To interpret an IDF curve, find the rainfall duration along the X-axis, go vertically up the
graph until reaching the proper return period, then go horizontally to the left and read
the intensity off of the Y-axis (The duration of rainfall is first fixed to be equal to time of
concentration and the frequency will be left to be equal to the design period of the
system and the intensity magnitude can be read from y axis.)If the IDF curves are not
available, the designer needs to develop them on a project by project basis.
The following figure shows an IDF curve for bole sub town provided in AACRA drainage
design manual (section 2).

 We used this curve to read the rainfall intensity (I)!
Design Floods
A complete drainage system is composed of minor and major drainage systems. Minor
system consists of components historically considered to be part of ‘storm drainage
system’. These components include curbs, gutters, ditches, inlets, pipes and other
conduits. The minor system is normally designed for a design flood of 10-year ARI
(HEC 22, 1996).
∴ ℎ 10 .

Delineating catchment areas
To design the drainage system for our road, we started from delineating the catchment
areas using Google Earth technology. And to delineate the areas, we tried to inspect the
topography of each area with Google Earth. We used Elevation as basis to decide the
runoff contributing areas.
CALCULATION OF DISCHARGE
Since all the areas are less than 80ha, according to AACRA, we used the rational
formula for the calculation of Discharge. Also the velocity method, explained above, will
be used for the calculation of time of concentration.
The detailed calculations for each catchment area will be shown in the coming pages.
The areas have been found using AutoCAD in which the coordinates of the vertexes of
each polygon has been entered from Google Earth.

Calculation of discharge for catchment area A1
A1=2.15ha
NOTE: For this & the next figures, the numbers in the brackets indicate elevations of the
respective points!
The Lengths are, L1=89.5m & L2=152m
Slope Calculation,
∆
= =
∆
= .
= 0.045 = = 0.026
Intercept coefficient (K) from table 3.2 AACRA (shown above),
KAB=KBC=0.491 for unpaved area.
The velocities can now be calculated using the inputs from above,
. .
= = 0.491 ∗ 4.5 = 1.04 /
. .
= = 0.491 ∗ 2.6 = 0.79 /
So the travel time will be,

89.5
= = = 1.43 = 0.024ℎ
60 ∗ 60 ∗ 1.04
152
= = = 3.3 = 0.056ℎ
60 ∗ 60 ∗ 0.79
Therefore the time of concentration becomes,
= + = 0.024ℎ + 0.056ℎ = 0.076ℎ
The rainfall intensity can be read from the IDF curve given above (An explanation on
how to read the IDF curve is given on the theoretical part above)
T=10yrs
I=100mm/hr
TC=0.076hr
From the table of runoff coefficients given above (AACRA),
For multi units attached, C=0.65
. ∗ / ∗ .
= = = 0.42 /

A2=2.1ha
The Lengths are, L1=90m & L2=180m
Slope Calculation,
= = 0.033 = = 0.0278
.
. .
= = 0.491 ∗ 3.3 = 0.89 /
. .
= = 0.491 ∗ 2.78 = 0.82 /
90
= = = 1.69 = 0.029ℎ
60 ∗ 60 ∗ 0.89
180
= = = 3.66 = 0.062ℎ
60 ∗ 60 ∗ 0.82
= + = 0.029ℎ + 0.062ℎ = 0.09ℎ
T=10yrs
I=106mm/hr
TC=0.09hr

. ∗ / ∗ .
= = = 0.4019 /
A3=1.2ha
Slope Calculation,
= = 0.0085 = = 0.0105
. .
= = 0.491 ∗ 0.85 = 0.456 /
. .
= = 0.491 ∗ 1.05 = 0.507 /
118
= = = 4.32 = 0.072ℎ
60 ∗ 60 ∗ 0.456

95
= = = 3.123 = 0.052ℎ
60 ∗ 60 ∗ 0.507
= + = 0.072ℎ + 0.052ℎ = 0.124ℎ
T=10yrs
I=98mm/hr
TC=0.124hr
. ∗ / ∗ .
= = = 0.2123 /

A4=9.85ha
The Lengths are, L1=138m, L2=141m & L3=294
Slope Calculation,
= = 0.0145 = = 0.021
2543 − 2538
= = 0.017
294
KAB=KBC= KCD= 0.457 for Grassed waterway.
. .
= = 0.457 ∗ 1.45 = 0.55 /
. .
= = 0.457 ∗ 2.1 = 0.66 /
. .
= = 0.457 ∗ 1.7 = 0.59 /
138
= = = 4.18 = 0.07ℎ
60 ∗ 60 ∗ 0.55
141
= = = 3.56 = 0.059ℎ
60 ∗ 60 ∗ 0.66
294
= = = 8.305 = 0.138ℎ
60 ∗ 60 ∗ 0.59
= + + = 0.07ℎ + 0.059ℎ + 0.138ℎ = 0.267ℎ

T=10yrs
I=78mm/hr
TC=0.267hr
For multi units detached, C=0.5
. ∗ / ∗ .
= = = 1.067 /
A5=14.6ha
The Lengths are, L1=381m, L2=204m & L3=242m
Slope Calculation,
= = 0.018 = = 0.0196
2549 − 2542
= = 0.029
242

KAB=KBC= KCD= 0.491 for unpaved area.
. .
= = 0.491 ∗ 1.8 = 0.658 /
. .
= = 0.491 ∗ 1.96 = 0.687 /
. .
= = 0.491 ∗ 2.9 = 0.836 /
381
= = = 9.56 = 0.16ℎ
60 ∗ 60 ∗ 0.658
204
= = = 4.95 = 0.0825ℎ
60 ∗ 60 ∗ 0.687
242
= = = 4.82 = 0.08ℎ
60 ∗ 60 ∗ 0.836
= + + = 0.16ℎ + 0.0825ℎ + 0.08ℎ = 0.322ℎ
T=10yrs
I=74mm/hr
TC=0.322ℎ
. ∗ / ∗ .
= = = 1.2 /

A6=5.34ha
Slope Calculation,
= = 0.09 = = 0.09
KAB=KBC= 0.491 for unpaved area.
. .
= = 0.491 ∗ 9 = 1.473 /
. .
= = 0.491 ∗ 9 = 1.473 /
166
= = = 1.87 = 0.0313ℎ =
60 ∗ 60 ∗ 1.473

=2 = 0.063ℎ
T=10yrs
I=107mm/hr
TC=0.063ℎ
. ∗ / ∗ .
= = = 0.635 /
A7=11.0328ha
Slope Calculation,

= = 0.072 = = 0.057
KAB=KBC=0.305 nearly bare.
. .
= = 0.305 ∗ 7.2 = 0.818 /
. .
= = 0.305 ∗ 5.7 = 0.728 /
189
= = = 3.851 = 0.064ℎ
60 ∗ 60 ∗ 0.818
297
= = = 6.8 = 0.113ℎ
60 ∗ 60 ∗ 0.728
= + = 0.064ℎ + 0.113ℎ = 0.18ℎ
T=10yrs
I=98mm/hr
TC=0.124hr
For Residential, suburb, C=0.325
. ∗ / ∗ .
= = = 0.896 /

A8=2.4ha
The Lengths are, L=296m
Slope Calculation,
= = 0.041
K= 0.491 for unpaved area.
The velocity can now be calculated using the inputs from above,
. .
= = 0.491 ∗ 4.1 =1 /
296
= = = 4.933 = 0.082ℎ
60 ∗ 60 ∗ 1

T=10yrs
I=108mm/hr
TC=0.082ℎ
. ∗ / ∗ .
= = = 0.486 /
A9=2.08ha
Slope Calculation,
= = 0.057 = = 0.066

. .
= = 0.491 ∗ 5.7 = 1.172 /
.
= = 0.491 ∗ 6.60.5 = 1.261 /
89.5
= = = 2.489 = 0.041ℎ
60 ∗ 60 ∗ 1.04
152
= = = 1.798 = 0.03ℎ
60 ∗ 60 ∗ 0.79
= + = 0.041ℎ + 0.03ℎ = 0.071ℎ
T=10yrs
I=109mm/hr
TC=0.076hr
0.675∗109mm/hr∗2.08 3
= = = 0.425 /
360 360

A10=2.1317ha
Slope Calculation,
2553 2542
= 190
= 0.058
= 0.5
= 0.491 ∗ 5.80.5 = 1.182 /
190
= = = 2.679 = 0.4465hr
60 ∗ 60 ∗ 1.182
T=10yrs
I=109mm/hr
TC=0.05hr

0.675∗109mm/hr∗2.1317 3
= = = 0.436 /
360 360
A11=3.826ha
Slope Calculation,
2566 2551
= 190
= 0.045
= 0.5
= 0.491 ∗ 4.50.5 = 1.042 /

336
= = = 5.374 = 0.09ℎ
60 ∗ 60 ∗ 1.042
T=10yrs
I=107mm/hr
= 0.09hr
0.675∗107mm/hr∗3.826 3
= 360
= 360
= 0.768 /
DESIGN OF CONCRET PIPE
Having obtained the discharge (Q) from each catchment (shown in the previous pages),
the next step will be to apply them to their corresponding inlet points to the pipe so that
we can design it. As will be shown in the calculation part, we started designing the pipes
from the peak point down to the right & the left. This allows to collect the discharge from
each catchment down the pipe & to sum up the discharges at the intermediate inlet
points which are going to flow along with the discharge from upstream. The extreme
points on the pipe have been given their stations & elevations as shown in the
calculation part down.
The following terms are the required inputs & specifications for our design taken from
AACRA drainage design manual.
Permissible Flow Velocities

Flow velocities in pipes should be kept within permissible limits to ensure self cleansing
and prevention of erosion and scour. The range of permissible velocities in pipes and
box sections is presented in Table 10-12.

Where calculations indicate that the flow velocities are likely to exceed the absolute
maximum limits, construction of a man hole with a drop is recommended. The drop
dissipates energy to restore the flow velocities to the acceptable levels.
Minimum Cover over Pipes
Recommended minimum covers over pipes are presented in Table 10-10. In special
cases, the cover may be reduced by using stronger pipe, special bedding, concrete
protection or a combination of these (AACRA).
Pipe Capacity
Flow capacity of a pipe can be worked out by Manning’s formula. The values
recommended for the surface roughness to be used in the Manning’s formula are
presented in Table 10-5.

But almost all of our pipes, except one, are designed using a rating curve (for steady
uniform flow in circular pipes) shown below which assumes the pipe to be partially filled.
This provides a free board above the flow surface in the pipe.
Also the following nomograph developed for manning’s formula has been used to read
diameter (D) & velocity (V) values with given discharge (Q) & slope (S). This can easily
be done using rulers.

Figure: Nomograph for Manning formula, for circular pipes flowing full based on n=0.013
To design the pipes, as described above, we started from the peak point (station
2+110.1) based on the final road profile.
Design of pipe 1

= 0.2123 = 212.3
97.383 − 94.808
= = 0.022 ⁄ = 2.2%
257.31 − 142.59
3 4 4
= ⇒ = = ∗ 212.3 = 283
4 3 3
From the nomograph shown above,
= 283 D=400mm
= 0.022 V=2.35m/s
From the rating curve shown above
= 0.75 ⇒ = 0.64 ∴ = 0.64 ∗ 400 = 256
⇒ = 1.1 ∴ = 1.1 ∗ 2.35 / = 2.58 /
Since this value is within the desirable velocity range (AACRA table 10.12) shown above, our
pipe can safely serve the design Q!
Fix the cover above the pipe to be 1.2m (which is greater than the minimum cover given in table
10.10 AACRA, road pavements & under kerb & channel=600mm).
Upper inverted elevation (@ 2+142.59)
= .− −
=2497.383−1.2 −0.4
=2495.78 s
Down inverted elevation (@ 2+257.31)
= .− −
=2494.808−1.2 −0.4
=2493.31
Finally Pipe 1 will have the following form & dimensions.

Design of pipe 2
= + = 212.3 + 401.9 = 614.2
92.559 − 94.808
= = 0.025 m/ m = 2.5%
346.34 − 257.31

3 4 4
= ⇒ = = ∗ 614.2 = 819
4 3 3
= 819 D=575mm
= 0.025 V=3.29m/s
= 0.75 ⇒ = 0.64 ∴ = 0.64 ∗ 575 = 368
⇒ = 1.1 ∴ = 1.1 ∗ 3.29 / = 3.62 /
Since this value is within the desirable velocity range (AACRA table 10.12) shown above, our pipe
can safely serve the design Q!

=2493.31 this is the down inverted elevation for pipe 1.
= .−( + )
= 2494.808− (2493.31+0.575)
= 923 >600 !
= .− −
= 2492.559 −0.923 −0.575
= 2491.1

Design of pipe 3
= + = 614.2 + 420 = 1034.2
92.559 − 90.804
= = 0.025 m/ m = 2.5%
415.84 − 346.34
3 4 4
= ⇒ = = ∗ 1034 = 1379
4 3 3

= 1379 D=700mm
= 0.025 V=3.7m/s
= 0.75 ⇒ = 0.64 ∴ = 0.64 ∗ 700 = 448
⇒ = 1.1 ∴ = 1.1 ∗ 3.7 / = 4.07 /

=2491.1 this is the down inverted elevation for pipe 2.
= .−( + )
=2492.559−(2491.1+0.7)
=760 >600 !
Down inverted elevation (@ 2490.804)
=2491.1 −0.025∗69.5
=2489.36

Design of the pipe to the left of pipe 1 above @station 1+981.5 after leaving a minimum
diameter pipe between the two inlets of pipe 1 & this pipe (Dia = 300mm).
= 1.067 = 1067
95.615 − 91.738
= = 0.026 ⁄ = 2.6%
981.5 − 831.51
3 4 4
= ⇒ = = ∗ 1067 = 1422.7
4 3 3
= 1422 D=700mm
= 0.026 V=3.8m/s
= 0.75 ⇒ = 0.64 ∴ = 0.64 ∗ 700 = 448
⇒ = 1.1 ∴ = 1.1 ∗ 3.8 / = 4.18 /

Fix the cover above the pipe to be 1m (which is greater than the minimum cover given in table
= .− −
=2495.615m−1m−0.7
=2494m
= .− −
=2494−150*0.026
=2490m
Finally this pipe will have the following form & dimensions.

Design of pipe 9
NOTE: this number is used simply for notification.
= 0.425 = 425
3.996 − 0.204
= = 0.021 ⁄ = 2.1%
1151.5 − 870.51
3 4 4
= ⇒ = = ∗ 425 = 566.7
4 3 3
= 566.7 D=525mm
= 0.021 V=2.8m/s
= 0.75 ⇒ = 0.64 ∴ = 0.64 ∗ 525 = 336
⇒ = 1.1 ∴ = 1.1 ∗ 2.8 / = 3.08 /

Fix the cover above the pipe to be 1.5m (which is greater than the minimum cover given in table
= .− −
=2503.996m−1.5m−0.525m
=2502m
= .− −
=2494−150*0.026
=2490m
Pipe @ station 1+151.5

= + = 425 + 486 = 911
2500.204 − 2494.173
= = 0.019 m/ m = 1.9%
151.5 − 471.5
3 4 4
= ⇒ = = ∗ 911 = 1214.66
4 3 3
= 1214.66 D=725mm
= 0.019 V=3.35m/s
= 0.75 ⇒ = 0.64 ∴ = 0.64 ∗ 725 = 471
⇒ = 1.1 ∴ = 1.1 ∗ 3.35 / = 3.68 /

=2,498.2m this is the down inverted elevation for the pipe above.

= .−( + )
=2,500.204− (2,498.2+0.725)
=1,280 >600 !
=2,498.2m−0.019∗320
=2,492.12m
Finally the above pipe will have the following form & dimensions.

= + = 911 + 896 = 1807
94.173 − 92.631
= = 0.015 m/ m = 1.5%
572.5 − 471.5
3 4 4
= ⇒ = = ∗ 1807 = 2409
4 3 3
= 2409 D=925mm
= 0.015 V=3.6m/s
= 0.75 ⇒ = 0.64 ∴ = 0.64 ∗ 925 = 592
⇒ = 1.1 ∴ = 1.1 ∗ 3.6 / = 3.96 /

=2492.12m this is the down inverted elevation for the above pipe.

= .−( + )
=2494.173m− (2492.12+0.925)
=1280 >600 !
=2492.12m−0.015∗101
=2490.6m
Finally the will have the following form & dimensions.

= + = 1807 + 635 = 2442
92.631 − 91.09
= = 0.015 m/ m = 1.5%
677.6 − 572.5
3 4 4
= ⇒ = = ∗ 2442 = 3256
4 3 3
Now since this number (3256L/s) is outside the nomograph in which the limiting Q value is
2500L/s, we used manning’s formula!
1
=
= & P=
4
3.21 ∗ ∗
Substituting & , =
√
= 0.013 10.5 ( )
= 0.015
∴ = 1.04 & = 0.849
3.256
= = = 3.833 /
0.849

= 0.75 ⇒ = 0.64 ∴ = 0.64 ∗ 1040 = 665.6
⇒ = 1.1 ∴ = 1.1 ∗ 3.833 / = 4.21 /

=2492.12m this is the down inverted elevation for the above pipe.
= .−( + )
=2492.631m− (2490.6+1.04)
=991 >600 !
=2490.6−0.015∗105
=2489.025m
Finally the pipe will have the following form & dimensions.

Pipe from station 0+ 430 to 0+700.51
= = 436
. .
= = 0.004436 m/ m = 0.4%
700.51−430
Since the mimimum slope for pipe is 0.5%, 1% slope is provided.
3 4 4
= ⇒ = = ∗ 436 = 581.333
4 3 3
= 581.33 D=600mm
= 0.01 V=2.2m/s
= 0.75 ⇒ = 0.64 ∴ = 0.64 ∗ 600 = 384
⇒ = 1.1 ∴ = 1.1 ∗ 2.2 / = 2.42 /

Upper inverted elevation (@ station 0+700.51

=2504.9 −1m−0.6m=2503.3m
=2503.3m −0.01∗270.51
=2500.6m
Down stream cover= 2503.7−0.6−2500.6m=2.5m
2.5m>600 !
Finally THE Pipe will have the following form & dimensions.

Pipe from station 0+00 to 0+305m
= = 768
.
= = 0.015 m/ m = 1.5%
305
3 4 4
= ⇒ = = ∗ 768 = 1024
4 3 3
= 1024 D=675mm
= 0.015 V=2.9m/s
= 0.75 ⇒ = 0.64 ∴ = 0.64 ∗ 675 = 432
⇒ = 1.1 ∴ = 1.1 ∗ 2.9 / = 3.19 /

Upper inverted elevation (@ station 0+700.51

=2512.8−1m−0.675m=2511.125m
=2511.125m −0.015∗305
=2506.55m
Down stream cover= 2508−0.675−2506.55m=0.77m
770mm>600 !
Finally Pipe will have the following form & dimensions.

SUMMARY OF THE PIPE DESIGN CALCULATIONS
The following table shows the pipe design calculation results (Pipe diameters) in the
order of their stations starting from Asco to Wingate.
STATION (m) DIAMETER (mm)

0+00-0+305 675
0+305-0+430 Gorge
0+430-0+700.51 600
0+700.5-0+870.51 Minimum D=300
0+870.51-1+151.51 525
1+151.51-1+471.5 725
1+471.5-1+572.5 925
1+572.5-1+677.6 1,040
1+677.6-1+831.51 Minimum D=300
1+831.51-1+981.5 700
1+981.5-2+110.1 Minimum D=300
2+110.1-2+257.31 400
2+257.31-2+346.34 575
2+346.34-2+415.84 700

CHAPTER FIVE
CULVERT DESIGN
A culvert is a structure that is designed hydraulically to take advantage of submergence

to increase hydraulic capacity. It is also a structure used to convey surface runoff
through embankments. A culvert can be a structure, as distinguished from bridges, that
is usually covered with an embankment and is composed of structural material around
the entire perimeter. These include steel and concrete pipe culverts and concrete box
culverts. In addition, a culvert can be a structure that is 6 meters or less in centerline
span length.
Material Selection— we select concert for the following reasons.
 Durability (service life),

 Availability
 Construction and maintenance easy
 Structural strength,
 Abrasion and corrosion resistance and Water tightness requirements.
We select box culvert
 They are usually specified for larger flows

 They also be used where the cost estimate indicates that concrete box culverts
constructed on site are less expensive than manufactured and/or imported pipe
culverts
Symbol Definition
B= Barrel width m
D =Culvert diameter or barrel height mm or m
D= Depth of flow m
HW =Headwater depth (subscript indicates section) m

L= Length of culvert m
N= Manning’s roughness coefficient m
Q= Rate of discharge m3/s
S =Slope of culvert m/m
TW= Tail water depth above invert of culvert m
HWi=Inlet Control Headwater Depth
HWoi=Outlet Control Headwater Depth at Inlet
dc=Calculate critical depth
HWoi =outlet control headwater
HWc =Controlling Headwater
HWov = height of road above inlet invert
Vo=Outlet Velocity
Design steps
Step 1 Assemble Site Data and Project File
a. Site survey project file contains

 roadway profile and embankment cross section

 Site visit notes indicate no nearby structures
Design criteria
According to ERA for road DS1/DS2 and Short Span Culvert, 2m<span <6m the
recommended design period is 50-year .AACCRA is also recommend 25-50yr
frequency for design for major drainage design. Since our road is urban principal arterial
we take 50yr frequency for design by considering both manual.
Step 2 determination of discharge which comes to the culvert
Using rational formula as given below
CALCULATION OF Q4
From the drainage design calculation we have
A4=9.85ha, C=0.5 & Tc=0.267hr
The rainfall intensity can be read from the IDF curve given on AACRA
T=50yrs
I=98mm/hr
TC=0.267hr
0.5 ∗ 98mm/hr ∗ 9.85ℎ

4= = = 1.34 /
360 360

CALCULATION OF Q5
 From the drainage design calculation we have

A5=14.6ha, C=0.4 & Tc=0.322hr
T=50yrs
I=90mm/hr
TC=0.322hr
0.4 ∗ 90mm/hr ∗ 14.6ℎ

5= = = 1.46 /
360 360
CALCULATION OF Q6
A6=5.34ha, C=0.4 & Tc=0.06hr
T=50yrs
I=130mm/hr
TC=0.06hr
0.4 ∗ 130mm/hr ∗ 5.34ha

6= = = 0.77 /
360 360

CALCULATION OF Q7
A7=11.0328ha, C=0.325 & Tc=0.124hr
T=50yrs
I=124mm/hr
TC=0.124hr
0.325 ∗ 124mm/hr ∗ 11.0328ha

7= = = 1.235 /
360 360
CALCULATION OF Q8
A8=2.4ha, C=0.675 & Tc=0.082hr
T=50yrs
I=130mm/hr
TC=0.082hr
0.675 ∗ 130mm/hr ∗ 2.4ha

8= = = 0.585 /
360 360
CALCULATION OF Q9
A9=2.08ha, C=0.675 & Tc=0.076hr

T=50yrs
I=130mm/hr
TC=0.076hr
0.675 ∗ 130mm/hr ∗ 2.08ha

9= = = 0.0507 /
360 360
The total discharge on the inlet of the culvert
= Q4+Q5+Q6+Q7+Q8+Q9=1.34+1.46+0.77+1.235+0.585+0.507=6.404 /
Step 3 Select Design Alternatives
Selection criterias
1) the volume Q=6.404 & velocity
2) absolute minimum sizes recommended by ERA to avoid maintenance problems

and clogging is 750 mm minimum for cross culverts where cross slopes are not less
than 3%,
Shape - box Size - 1700 mm by 1500 mm
Material – concrete Entrance- Wing walls, 45o bevel, rounded
Step 4 Select Design Discharge
(Qd = Q50 = 6.404 m3/s)
Step 5 Determine Inlet Control Headwater Depth (HWi)
Use inlet control nomograph - Chart 7-6 ERA
a. D = 1.5 m
b. Q/B = 6.404 /1.7 = 3.77 m3/s/m

c. HW/D = 1.2 for 45o bevel
d. HWi = (HW/D)D = (1.2)1.5 = 1.8 m (Neglect the approach velocity)
Step 6 Determine Outlet Control Headwater Depth at Inlet (HWoi)
a. dc = 1.43 m from Chart 7-7
b. (dc + D)/2 = (1.16 + 1.5)/2 = 1.33 m
c. ho = the larger of TW or (dc + D/2), but we don’t have TW data
We take ho = (dc + D)/2 = 1.63 m
e. KE = 0.2 from Table 7-2
f. Determine (H) - use Chart 7-8
 KE scale = 0.2
 culvert length (L) = 56 m
 n = 0.013 same as on chart
 area = 2.55 m2
 H = 0.65 m
g. HWoi = H + ho - SoL = 0.65 + 1.33 - (0.053)56 = - 0.988 m
HWoi < 1.2D=1.8, so control is inlet control.
(Outlet control Computations are for comparison only)
Step 7 Determine Controlling Headwater (HWc)
 HWc = HWi = 1.8 m > HWoi = - 0.988m

 The culvert is in inlet control
Step 8 Compute Discharge over the Roadway (Qr)
a. Calculate depth above the roadway:
HWr = HWc - HWov = 1.8 – 2.5 = - 0.7m

b. If HWr 0, Qr = 0
Step 9 Compute Total Discharges (Qt)
Qt = Qd + Qr = 6.404 m3/s + 0 = 6.404 m3/s
Step 10 Calculate Outlet Velocity (Vo) and Depth (dn)
a. Calculate normal depth (dn):
Q = (1/n) A R2/3 S1/2= 6.404 m3/s
= (1/0.013)(1.7*dn)[(1.7*dn/(1.7+2dn)](2/3) (0.053)(0.5)
= (1.7*dn)[1.7*dn/(1.7+2dn)] (2/3)
By trial and error dn = 0.6 m, 0
b. A = (1.7)0.48 = 0.816 m2
c.Vo = Q/A = 6.404/0.816 = 7.84 m/s
Step 11 Review Results
Compare alternative design with constraints and assumptions, if any of the
Following are exceeded, repeat the Steps .
 barrel cover = HWov –D=2.5-1.5=1m, enough cover cover

 headwalls and wingwalls fit site
 allowable headwater HWov =2.5 m > HWi =1.8 m is ok and
 overtopping flood frequency > 50-year
 The minimum velocity is 0.8 m/s when streambed material size is not known.
7.84 /s> 0.8 m/s therefore there is no sedimentation problem.
 According to “Hydraulic Design of Sewers and Culverts” book (from internet) Special
consideration should be given to culverts with outlet velocities Exceeding 3 m/s.
Since our velocity =7.84m/s exceed 3m/s.
We should have to provide one of the following measures.

 stream bed protection or dissipated with precast flared end sections, and
 velocity reduction rings
Since our design fulfill all the above criteria, our dimension is correct.
The following charts are we used for design


CHAPTER SIX
DESIGN OF RETAINING WALLS
Property of fill material
Unit weight of the back fills soil, = 18 /
Angle of internal friction of the back fills soil, ∅ = 30°
The material for fill is cohesion less soil, c=0
Property of ground soil
The unit weight of the ground soil, = 16 /
Angle of internal friction of the back fills soil, ∅ = 0
Cohesive soil with c=20
The slope of the fill is designed to be filled at an angle of 100 to the horizontal, ∝= 10°
Standard drawing of the dimension of a retaining wall
The height of the retaining wall depends on the height of fill. On the cross section there
are different depths of cut and height of fill. The retaining wall is designed for the cut at

station 1+210 and for other cut sections with a depth of cut of 6m and fill sections with
height of 6m.
Pressure determination
= 0.5 × × ×ℎ
cos − √(cos − cos ∅ )

= cos × = 0.35
cos + √(cos − cos ∅ )
= 0.5 × 0.35 × 18 × 7.5 = 177.19 /
= cos = 177.19 × cos 10 = 174.5
= sin = 177.19 sin 10 = 30.77
Weight determination:
1 = 0.5(0.4 × 6.3) × 25 = 31.5
2 = (0.3 × 6.3) × 25 = 47.25
3 = (0.7 × 4.2) × 25 = 73.5KN
4 = (2.8 × 6.3) × 18 = 317.52

5 = 0.5(2.8 × 0.5) × 18 = 12.6
Weight (KN) Moment arm(m) Moment(KN-M)

W1=31.5 1.25 39.37
W2=47.25 0.967 45.7
W3=73.5 2.1 154.35
W4=317.52 2.8 889
W5=12.6 3.27 41.2
= 482.37 = 1169.62
Stability against overturning
Moment of resistance, = 1169.62
. × .
Overturning moment, = × =
= 436.25 .
.
factor of safety for overturning moment, = = = 2.68 > 2 ok
.
Safety against sliding
× ∑
Factor of safety for sliding, . = =
2
= , = 7/12
3
2 2
4.2 × 3 × 40 + 482.37 × tan 3 × 12 + 175.3
. = =
174.5
. = 2.1 > 2
= tan (45 + ∅)

= 1.52
= 0.5 ℎ + 2 × 40 × √ ×ℎ
= 0.5 × 16 × 1.52 × 1.5 + 2 × 40 × √1.5 × 1.5 = 175.3
Safety against bearing capacity
∑ −∑
= −[ ]<
2 ∑ 6
. . . .
= −[ .
]< = 0.58<0.7 , ok
∑ 6
= 1±
∑
482.37 6 × 0.58
= 1+ = 210 /
4.2 4.2
482.37 6 × 0.58
= 1− = 19.7 /
4.2 4.2
Structural design
1 Design of stain:
Material constants: S=300 , C=30 , Md=1.5Mmax , h=6.3m ,

∅
= tan 45 − = 0.35
2
ℎ
= 0.5 ℎ × cos ∝
3
6.3
= 0.5 × 18 × 6.3 × 3.5 × cos 10 = 258.56 .
3
= 1.5(258.56) = 387 .
Depth of deflection for maximum moment:

Kx=0.448
≥ √
0.8 (1 − 0.4 )
387
≥ √
0.8 × 13.6 × 1000 × 0.448(1 − 0.4 × 0.448)
≥ 311
Since , 311mm< 700mm
Check “d” for shear:
= 0.25 × × × ×
= 1 + 50
0.5 0.5
= = = 0.00167
300
= 1.0835
= 1.6 − > 1 = 1.6 − 0.311 = 1.29
= 1.165 /
= 0.25 × 1.165 × 1.0835 × 1.29 × 1 × 0.7
= 285 > = 174 Ok
Reinforcement design:
√ ×
√
. × × .
= =
.
= 0.00313 > = 0.00167

= 0.00313 × 1000 × 700 = 2192
×
Provide ∅ = = 70.2 ≈ 70
 Use 15 ∅ c/c 70mm
= 50%
= 193.5 .
Upper reinforcement:
= = 0.00167 × 1000 × 300
= 510
Use ∅ = 113.1
1000 × 113.1
= = 220
510
Use 5∅ @ / 220
Lower reinforcement:

= = 0.00167 × 1000 × 700
= 1169
× .
Use ∅ , = = 90
Use 11∅ @90mm
2 Design of heel slab
W4=317.52 w5=12.6
ρmin=19.7kn/m2
ρmax=140kn/m2
Mmax=77.22+314.384-444.528_23.52=76.44kN-m
Md=1.5* Mmax=1.5*76.44=114.7kN-m.
 Determine d for Mmax
.
≥ √ . ( . )
= ≥ √( . ∗ . ∗ ∗ . ∗( . . )
=170mm
Since 170mm<700mm OK
 Checked for shear

 = 0.25 × × × ×
= 0.25*1.165*1.0835*1.29*0.7

=285KN
VP=pd-up ward resistance
=280.8+10.71-(140+19.7)*0.5*2.8*1=68KN
Vrd=285KN>Vp=68KN………OK!
FOR md=114.7 ρ=0.0009 which less than ρmin=0.0016
So we take ρmin=0.00167
AS= ρmin*b*d=0.00167*1000*700mm=1169
Use 2,
12=113.1mm s=1000*113.1/1169=90mm
Use 11 12 @ c/c 90mm
3 Design of the toe slab:
270 × 0.7 × 2 40 × 0.7

= + − 14(0.35)
3 2
= 60.43 .
= 1.5 = 90.65 .
Determination of d for
≥ √ =150mm<700mm…OK!
. ( . )
ℎ ℎ
 = 0.25 × × × ×
= 0.25*1.165*1.0835*1.29*0.7 =285KN> (87-14) KN ………OK
Provide reinforcement
AS= ρ*b*d= ρ=0.0007< ρmin
AS = = 0.00167 × 1000 × 700 =1169mm2
Use 11 12 @ c/c 90mm

Reinforcement detail

CHAPTER SIX
ROAD FURNITURE
Introduction
This chapter deals with road furniture. These features include the elements intended to
improve the driver's perception and comprehension of the continually changing
appearance of the road. Traffic signs provide essential information to drivers for their
safe and efficient maneuvering on the road. Road furniture can be classified in to two
broad parts road lighting and traffic signals.
ROAD LIGHTING
Lighting design is done for two purposes traffic lighting and pedestrian lighting. Accident
black spots, where multiple night-time accidents have occurred, the following items
should be considered during design: -
 Collisions between vehicles, between vehicles and pedestrians between

vehicles and animals or between vehicles and stationary objects, including street
light poles.
 Factors, such as glare from vehicle headlights, glare from buildings or
advertising signs, obstruction of illumination by trees or other objects or driver
distractions such as the movement of animals, which may contribute to the
cause of collisions. In this case the solution should attempt to cure the specific
cause of the accidents, because increased illumination levels may not cure the
problem.
 For Collisions between vehicles or between vehicles and pedestrians or between
vehicles and animals the solution may involve increasing the illumination,
installing traffic lights or roundabouts or controlling pedestrian or animal access.

 For collisions between vehicles and fixed objects the solutions may include
moving the fixed object to a safer location, increasing illumination or providing
retro reflective markers to identify the fixed object. The provision of protective
barriers around the fixed objects may or may not provide a solution in any
individual case. An inappropriate barrier may introduce another collision hazard
but an appropriate barrier may redirect traffic flow away from the hazard.
1) Traffic Lighting
Lighting which is applicable to roads on which the visual requirements of motorists are
dominant. The objective of lighting is to provide a lighted environment that is conducive
to the safe and comfortable movement of vehicular traffic at night. To accomplish this,
the lighting shall reveal necessary visual information. This will consist of the alignment
of the road ahead, kerbs, footpaths, road furniture and surface imperfections, together
with other road users including Pedestrians, cyclists and vehicles, and their movements,
and any other animate or inanimate Obstacles.
A public lighting scheme designed and installed according to the requirements of AS
1158 Public Lighting Code (Category V) achieves the above requirements.
a) Intersection and roundabout lighting
Lighting shall be considered at intersections with raised channelization where the
channelization is in the form of a raised island or median then lighting shall be provided
over the extent of that channelization in accordance with the Public Lighting Code
regardless of the traffic volumes. The T-intersection which is located at station 1+560
consists of a raised island for the right turning vehicles approaching from asko and
raised median on both approaches and intersecting road. Combined traffic signal mast
arms and joint use road lighting poles are used at the intersection. This reduces the
amount of roadside furniture around the intersection.
Category V lighting is used at intersections because of traffic volume and road safety
concerns, and the minimum design area comprise the surface of the carriageway
extending 10m beyond the prolongation of the kerb lines of the intersecting road. This
also further extended to include raised islands and medians, changes in road alignment

and locations of potential traffic conflict in or near the intersection. In addition to this
minimum design area, an additional 2 spans of lighting shall be provided on the main
through road approaches. To aid in the identification of the intersection for motorists
approaching from the side road ensure that one luminary is located in side road
approach. At intersections At least one luminary should be installed within 10 meters.
b) Rout lighting
Route Lighting may be provided in areas where the traffic volume (AADT) exceeds
10,000vpd.The average annual daily traffic (AADT) of our road is 27,800vpd. Therefore
rout lighting is necessary to provide visual information, safe and comfortable movement
of vehicular traffic at night. High mounted luminaries provide greater uniformity of
lighting. To minimize the effect of glare and to provide the most economical lighting
installation, luminaries are mounted at a height of 10m. provision of lightings on the
median with single pole and brunched mast arms is economical and gives better vision
for road users, but this will require a median width of more than 2m.in our case the
median width at the mid-block section is 1.2m.therefore The luminaries are placed at
the right hand side of each carriageway.
1. Pedestrian Area Lighting

Lighting, which is applicable to roads and outdoor public areas where the visual
requirements of Pedestrians are dominant. The objective of pedestrian area lighting is
to provide a lighted environment to assist pedestrians to orient themselves, detect
potential hazards and to discourage crime against both person and property.
A public lighting scheme designed and installed according to the requirements of AS
1158 Public Lighting Code (Category P) achieves the above requirements.
The design of public lighting is divided into two distinct categories, as follows:
 lighting layout design
 electrical layout design

considerations to be taken while designing lighting layout are clear zones, any barriers
to be erected for other purposes, landscape design, bridge design (including conduits
and pole attachment points, median widths, sign design (including placement of signs
on light poles to reduce roadside clutter and reduce costs), choice of pole type,
vehicular access, coordination with other services, and other relevant factors.
Road lighting poles should be located on an alignment with property boundary junctions
where ever possible. This reduces the potential for interference with existing or future
driveways.
Design – Illumination Levels

The Road Lighting Standard AS 1158 classifies Public Lighting into two broad
categories:
a. Category V Lighting - Lighting which is applicable to roads on which the visual

requirements of motorists are dominant, e.g. major roads.
b. Category P Lighting - Lighting which is applicable to roads and outdoor public
areas where the visual requirements of pedestrians are dominant e.g. minor
roads, car parks, pathways, etc.
This category of illumination is appropriate for arterial or main roads with mixed vehicle
and pedestrian traffic, high to very high vehicle and pedestrian volumes, moderate to
low vehicle speeds, stationary vehicles alongside the carriageway, through and local
traffic and high traffic generation from properties abutting the road.
Freeways and Arterial Roads where access is not fully controlled” for which lighting to –
Category V1 to AS/NZS 1158.1.1:1997 plus supplementary lighting at pedestrian
crossings to AS1158.4:1987 is recommended.
Category V3 illumination is also appropriate for arterial roads that predominantly carry
through traffic with moderate to low vehicle speeds. These roads may have mixed
vehicle and pedestrian traffic, moderate to high vehicle volume, high pedestrian

volumes, stationary vehicles alongside the carriageway, some local traffic and moderate
traffic generation from properties abutting the road.
Sub Arterial Streets in the City Road Network (final draft) correspond to Sub-arterial
roads – with recommended lighting Category V4 to AS/NZS 1158.1.1:1997.
Car parks require crime prevention and secure pedestrian access together with vehicle
movements, a high level of horizontal luminance is provided. Vertical luminance from
two opposite directions is also required so that the face of a person approaching from
any direction can be recognized. The appropriate level of luminance is Category P11 to
AS / NZS 1158. Where disabled car parking spaces are provided the level of luminance
is further increased to Category P12.
In taxi-bays and bus terminals, it is critical that the passengers are visible to allow them
to move about safely and to avoid accidents between vehicles and passengers. It is
also necessary for passengers to be able to recognize the correct bus. The appropriate
level of luminance is Category P10 to AS / NZS 1158. This provides higher levels of
vertical and horizontal luminance than those which are required in car parks, where
pedestrian movements are less concentrated.

At intersections between roads requiring different levels of lighting the higher level shall
Apply

Lighting Equipment
Light equipment which offer high efficiency and long life are luminaries with high
pressure sodium vapor, metal halide or mercury vapor lamps. They reduce operating
and lamp maintenance costs. Metal halide lamps are used because they provide
excellent color rendering.
Lamps
Lamps are the source of the light for street lighting. In international best practice the
desirable characteristics of lamps for street lighting include: -
I. High luminous efficacy in terms of lumens output per watt input.
II. Low whole of life cost.
III. Satisfactory color rendering for the location in which they are used.

Luminaries
The function of the luminary is to protect the lamp and to distribute the light in a
controlled manner. The control gear for the lamp is housed in the luminary (integral
control gear) for optimum flexibility in mounting.
The optics of a modern road lighting luminary are frequently designed to distribute the
light in an asymmetrical pattern that minimizes the need to use long outreach arms to
place the luminary close to the centre of the road.
Poles
The primary function of poles is to support the luminaries in the correct location whilst
being planted a safe distance from the roadway. The secondary functions in
international best street lighting practice are:
 To provide an enclosure for the cables between the underground cabling and the
luminary
 To provide an enclosure above ground level for equipment and earthing.
 To provide a cable entry below ground for underground cables.
 To provide an aesthetically pleasing appearance.
To attain all of these functions a galvanized steel pole is used.
International best practice currently recognizes two types of poles specifically for road or
street lighting in addition to electricity distribution poles which are also used for road
lighting. These two types of dedicated street lighting poles are rigid poles and frangible
poles.
Rigid Poles as the name suggests are not designed to break away or yield when struck
by a vehicle. They can be used in locations wherever there is not a high risk of vehicles
colliding with them.
Frangible road lighting poles are designed to break away, yield or otherwise absorb
the impact of an impacting vehicle to the extent that the resultant deceleration forces on
the vehicle and its occupants are reduced to within specified acceptable limits.

The type of pole selected for our road is rigid pole. Because there is slight risk of
collusion of vehicles with poles, that’s because the road is wide enough and the
poles are installed far enough from the carriageway.
The combination of pole setback and the length of the outreach arm fix the location of
the luminary relative to the edge of the road.
The set back requirement for rigid poles with high pedestrian volume
recommended by AACRA is 3m out from the kerb. The range of outreach
arm(arm projection) lengths required for optimum positioning of luminaries are
likely to range between 1metre and 6 meter. To have uniform light distribution on
the carriageway 3m of outreach length is selected. The recommended uplift is
(uplift = 0.5 x outreach=0.5x3)1.5m.
At traffic islands, medians, splitters and separators the standard recommends that no
pole should be installed within 6 meters of the end of the structure from which traffic
approaches. At roundabouts poles should not be installed in the centre of a roundabout.
Pole spacing depends on the requirements for illumination level and uniformity and on
the light distribution and lamp output for the type of luminary being used. The most
accurate way to determine pole spacing is to use a computer program. Some of the
software programs which are mostly used are Perfect Lite software, Reality Real Time
lighting design software and Fael Luce lighting design software. Pole spacing must be
varied slightly to accommodate the positions of existing building entrances and street
intersections.
Maintenance Practices
Maintenance practices will need to be introduced to include the following main elements
I. Regular inspection of the condition and operation of street lights
II. Cleaning of luminaries
III. Replacement of lamps
IV. Repair of faulty equipment
This initial maintenance program will include:

a. Inspection of the condition and operation of each existing street light
b. Replacement of existing faulty lamps

c. Replacement of existing faulty luminaries and other equipment

d. Cleaning of all internal and external optical surfaces of existing serviceable
luminaries.
e. Checking of gaskets and seals and replacement where necessary
f. Checking that all screws and nuts are tight
g. Visual check of electrical components and wiring for signs of overheating
h. Adjusting the horizontal and vertical aiming angles of luminaries if necessary to
improve the distribution of light on the road.
i. Adjusting the height and outreach of luminaries if it is possible and necessary to
improve the distribution of light on the road. The effectiveness of these angle and
position adjustments can best be checked by a combination of visual observation
and measurement.
j. Recording the date and details of repair.
DRAWINGS

Measurements
 The recommended spigot angle is 5 degrees.

 Normal mounting height of 10m.
 Vertical suction height of 8.5.
 Uplift height of 1.5m.
 Projection arm
Traffic signals
introduction
Traffic signals are usually installed at an intersection to provide traffic control at a site
with a traffic capacity or road safety problem to control conflicting movements with high
traffic flows to facilitate access to and from local areas in a major/minor road system.
Factors influencing the provision of traffic signals include:
 traffic flows
 traffic conflicts
 crash history
 pedestrian requirements
 access to major roads
 cost of installation
Data’s required for the preliminary design are physical layout, traffic data and planning
information regarding future developments. On the physical layout the site covering up
to 50m on each approach should include the following on the base plan.
 edges of medians and islands
 parking, bus bays or taxi zones
 location and nature of road lighting;
 paved footpaths and driveways
 location of bridge decks, parapets (incl. height) abutments and relieving slabs.
The traffic data should manifest the peak traffic volume, while designs are based on
peak traffic conditions, efficient operations at peak and lower volumes are provided by

the use of traffic actuated controllers. Traffic volumes are expressed in hourly flow rates
including turning movements and proportion of commercial vehicles. Usually 15 minutes
summation intervals are used so the peak flow rates can be identified.
During the design of traffic signal installations it is necessary to consider future
developments as these may indicate the need for additional features and/or equipment
eg controller location, ducts and cabling that may become necessary. Where
appropriate these should be included in the design.
The Stopping sight distance provided should be able the vehicle to identify the
command of the sign provided and stop before entering in to the intersection. If stopping
sight distance to the rear of a stored vehicle or stationary queue is insufficient the
probability of a rear end collision is high. If front vehicle is a through-vehicle there is no
simple solution to the problem of inadequate stopping sight distance other than re-
grading. If front vehicle is waiting to make a turn then possible solutions are to provide
an exclusive turn bay.
Our T-Intersection is provided with a right turn bay to avoid the problem of rear
end collusion by turning vehicle. For through traffic to avoid collusion ASD
(approach sight distance), SISD (safe intersection sight distance), MGSD
(minimum gap sight distance) and sight distance to signal lanterns are checked.
Right turn islands should be designed to accommodate traffic signal equipment, storage
of pedestrians and the ends of any stop lines and pedestrian crossings. The right turn
island we provide has sufficient dimension for storage of pedestrians until pedestrian
green light is illuminated. Traffic signal posts should always be located behind raised
kerbing.
A. Pavement Markings
Pavement markings are necessary throughout the road especially on places where
there is high traffic conflict like intersections and roundabouts. The following are the
markings provided on the T-intersection and four leg roundabout.

1. Stop Lines
Stop lines should be located at least 3m from conflicting vehicle movement, clear of the
swept path of vehicles turning from other approaches, a minimum of 1.0m from parallel
pedestrian crossings at intersections.
2. Pedestrian Crosswalks
The pedestrian crosswalk width determination depends on the concentration of
pedestrian at that section. The width provided for pedestrian crosswalk at intersection
and round about is 2.5m because there is high concentration of pedestrian at
intersection and round about. And for the mid-block section the same width is used.
Pedestrian crossings should be located as near as possible to the desire lines of
pedestrians, it should be as near as possible to, and no greater than 20 degrees from
the shortest path across the carriageway to minimize clearance time.
FIG.Pedestriancrossing FIG.pedestriancrossing
treatment at the intersection. treatment at the intersection
on the island
3. Longitudinal Lines
Broken lane lines are provided for 51m on the approach and 27m on the depart side of
the T-intersection and roundabout, Where necessary to improve lane discipline may be
marked as unbroken lines.
4. Turn Lines
Turn lines may be used to provide delineation to guide two or more streams of traffic
which turn simultaneously in the same direction. Turn lines should not be carried
through pedestrian crosswalks.

5. Pavement Arrows
Pavement arrows are used to allow movements that would not otherwise be allowed
under traffic regulations and to prohibit movements that would otherwise be allowed
under traffic regulations. A minimum of three arrows in any lane are provided.
6. Painted Islands
Painted island is provided on the roundabout to create free area without obstruction for
the turning traffic.
B. Signs
1. Parking
Signs controlling or prohibiting parking or standing are used extensively in the vicinity of
signalized intersections to improve capacity and to reinforce statutory no standing
requirements associated with traffic signals. Signs of no parking are placed near the
intersection and roundabout to decrease conjunction. Parking prohibiting signs are
provided in the mid-block section of the road to create opportunity for the road users to
use adjacent properties.
2. U-Turns Permitted
U-turns are prohibited by regulation at all intersections controlled by traffic signals. As a
general rule the sign should only be used on intersection approaches with medians and
preferably with left turn auxiliary lanes. U-Turns are allowed in the mid block section far
enough from intersections to avoid interference between vehicles.
C. Signal System
The purpose of this signal system is to reduce traffic conflict and delays, share times
between conflicting movements, and reduce crashes.

Components
I. Vehicular Lanterns
These lanterns convey the control signals to vehicular traffic. They include 200mm
diameter red, yellow and green aspects.
II. Pedestrian Lanterns
These lanterns are provided for the control of pedestrians. Red and green symbolic
displays with 200mm diameter are used.
III. Associated Equipment
Visors are used to minimize sun phantom effects and to reduce the possibility of a
signal being seen by traffic for which it is not intended.
IV. Lantern Supports
Posts, poles, brackets and straps are used to support the signal lanterns at the required
height. They are offset from the kerb by 2m.the height of lantern supports used is 4m.
V. Traffic Signal Controller
The traffic signal controller regulates the sequence and duration of aspects and
intervals.
Main features of this equipment include:
 circuit breakers for the signal lanterns; controls for safe display of lanterns by
interlocking or solid state switching; monitoring by current and voltage feedback
to green and red aspects;
 provision for display of minimum green periods and safe clearance periods
between conflicting movements;
 facilities for traffic personnel to monitor or alter its operation;
D. Phasing
The objectives are promoting safety, efficiency, consistency and simplicity; optimize
capacity and reliability; minimize operation costs and driver frustration. The choice of
phasing for a particular intersection depends primarily on the flows of vehicles and
pedestrians for each movement. Phasing can also depend on geometry.
The design strategy used is to:

 minimize the number of phases to make best use of the available time;
 minimize the cycle time;
 run as many compatible movements as possible during each phase;
 restrict each phase to non-conflicting movements;
 allow each movement to run in as many phases as possible.
There is adequate geometry and site distance at the T-intersection so there is no need
of using complicated phasing, therefore two simplest form of phasing are used.
A phase
B phase
Phase A is the main street and Phase B is to the cross street shown on the intersection
drawing.
The basic sequences that accommodate left turn movements include: Protected Left
Turn, Diamond Turn, Diamond Overlap Turn, Lead-Lag Turn and Split Phase.
A protected left turn phase is provided for motorists approaching the T-intersection from
winget attempting to make a left turn having insufficient opportunities to filter during the
through phase and inter-green period.
Split phasing is selected from the different phasing sequences for road approaching the
T-intersection from asko and the side road where the movements of opposing traffic

flow in totally separate phases. The left turn and associated through movements flow at
the same time whilst all opposing movements are stopped.
Right turn is designed with Corner Island. The lane created by using a corner island is
called a slip lane. One slip lane is provided for the right turn movement. The approach
right turn lane is separated from the through lane. Depending on site conditions and
constraints a right turn movement can be permitted to operate in all phases.
In our case the right turn movements operate in all phases without any signal because
there is no conflict with other vehicle movements and slight conflict with pedestrian
crossing, but pedestrian movement can operate safely by waiting right turn vehicle gap
and by providing Turn Right at Any Time with Care sign for the vehicles.
Pedestrian Movements at Intersections
When a signalized pedestrian crossing is provided at a signalized intersection, the

pedestrian movement normally runs in association with the parallel vehicle movement.
Exclusive pedestrian phases are selected to be used to eliminate all vehicle/pedestrian

conflicts and provide the highest level of safety for pedestrians but they have several
disadvantages. Despite the disadvantages, exclusive pedestrian phases have been
found to be beneficial at certain sites in central business districts and busy shopping
centers where heavy, consistent pedestrian movements would otherwise cause
excessive conflicts with vehicular traffic.
Two stage pedestrian crossing is preferable than one stage crossing because it avoid
delay resulting from lengthy pedestrian clearance time. The provided median at the
intersection is 4m; therefore it is sufficient for pedestrian refuge after the first pedestrian
phase.
E. Lanterns
The four main functions of lanterns are warning, stopping, starting and maneuvering.
Primary lanterns provide the warning and stopping functions while the secondary and
tertiary lanterns provide the starting and maneuvering functions. In this intersection the

three types of lanterns are provided. The functions are generally satisfied by four
lanterns per signal group for each approach.
The dimension of the lantern recommended to use for an approach with design speed
of 70km/h is a three aspect display with 200mm in diameter.
A left turn vehicle display is installed for the approach from winget, this is because to
operate the through movement from asko and from winget simultaneously. The left turn
movement is protected to give more green time for vehicles approaching from winget
because there is a high volume of traffic head from winget to asko. Left turn movements
are fully controlled by a full column of left turn arrow aspects. The green left turn arrow
aspect should be illuminated only when no conflicting traffic movements are permitted.
The yellow left turn aspect should always be illuminated following the green aspect. The
red left turn aspect should be illuminated following the yellow aspect when the left turn
must be protected or when a conflicting movement must be protected.
F. Time Settings
Yellow and All-Red Times
The yellow time is set for each phase with reference to vehicle speeds for each
movement that stops when that phase terminates. Vehicle speeds are considered in two
ranges and the applicable range is normally taken to be the range that includes the
legal speed limit for that approach.
The vehicular clearing interval is indicated by a steady yellow aspect for a period
ranging from 3 to 5 seconds and shall be provided in accordance with the following:
(i) Speed limit up to and including 60 km/h – 4 seconds;
(ii) Speed limit between 60 km/h up to and including 80 km/h - 5 seconds;
The yellow interval is followed by a short all-red interval of sufficient duration to provide
for the safe clearance of vehicles which have lawfully entered the intersection during the
yellow interval.
The speed limit of the approach to the T-intersection is 60km/h. therefore a
yellow time of 4sec. is adopted.

The purpose of the all-red time is to provide a safe clearance time for vehicles that
legitimately enter the intersection during the yellow interval.
The initial settings of all-red time can be calculated as:
 d/14 seconds in 60 km/h zones (up to 60 km/h);
where d= distance, in meters, from the approach stop line to clear the farthest
conflicting point of any opposing traffic stream (including pedestrian crossings) which
can operate in the next phase.
Final settings of all-red times should be determined on site by a visual assessment of
clearance times required by vehicles that legitimately enter the intersection during the
yellow interval.
Initial all-red time=d/14sec
d= 28m
Initial all-red time=28/14sec=2sec
Minimum Green Period
The purpose of a minimum green period is to ensure that the green signals are always
displayed for a safe minimum time. This time should be long enough for a single vehicle
to start up and enter the intersection. A typical setting is 5 seconds recommended by
AACRA. To increase the initial green time beyond the minimum green time to ensure
adequate green time for vehicles queued between the loop and the stop line. Each
vehicle arriving against a red signal will add a small amount of time (an increment) to
the minimum green time. A typical increment recommended is 2 seconds. The number
of vehicle queued depend on the distance between the stop line and the loop, it is
28m.the design vehicle of the intersection is a semi-trailer with a length of 19m,so the
distance can accommodate only one design vehicle at a time. Therefore the increment
will be smaller, which is not safe for small vehicles using the intersection. To have a
suitable minimum green period consider smaller vehicles .which are mostly using the
intersection than the design vehicle. It is assumed a 4m length of vehicles queued then
a maximum number of vehicles queued in 28m distance are 7 in each lane. Therefore

the total amount of increment on the minimum green period will be (7x2)14sec.then the
overall minimum green period will be (14sec+5sec) 19sec.
Pedestrian Times
The pedestrian delay period is to provide a delay until vehicles enter the intersection or
until the end of full green time of the vehicles. The recommended typical setting is 5-
10sec depending on the concentration of pedestrian. Pedestrian delay period of 5 sec is
adopted.
The pedestrian walk period is to set the length of time for the green walk display.
Typical setting is W/2.4 seconds where W is the width of the crossing. An additional 2
seconds is allowed for each rank of pedestrians waiting.
Pedestrian walk period= W/2.4 seconds
The width of the pedestrian crossing is equal to the width of the road that is 9.5m
Pedestrian walk period = 9.5/2.4 = 4sec
The pedestrian clearance period is to determine the duration during which a flashing red
(DON'T WALK) symbol is displayed. And it is determined as
 Total Clearance Period = length of crossing (m) / 1.2 (m/s)
It is by assuming speed of pedestrian 1.2m/s. length of crossing is 9.5m
=9.5/1.2
Total Clearance Period =8sec
The overall pedestrian period = pedestrian delay period + pedestrian walk period
+pedestrian clearance period
= 5sec+4sec+8sec
=17sec

FIG. road signs
FIG. combined traffic signal and lighting provided at intersection

CONCLUSION
Highway project, as we all know is one of the big projects in Civil Engineering. It
accelerates the growth of a country by providing a road network for the community.
Especially urban road project needs extra considerations for its complete design
compared to rural road project which requires relatively less task. And in developing
countries like Ethiopia, road projects are serious tasks for the government to
accomplish. It comes prior to other Engineering projects as it brings faster movement of
people & machineries.
As shown in the whole chapters of our project, we have tried our best to consider every
aspects of a highway design. We started from the design control, the first step, which
shows specifications and preliminary data that are taken from AACRA like functional
classification of the road, the nature of the terrain; the design vehicle etc. Then the
geometric design, pavement design, drainage design & others up to final road furniturs.
We designed every portion of the road based entirely on AACRA (Adis Abeba City
Roads Authority) we used Eagle point Software for the geometric designs of our road &
AutoCAD for our drawings. We also have used Google Earth technology to inspect the
topography of the area especially for the design of drainage systems.
At the beginning of the road, there has been a bridge site from station 0+305-0+430.
But since this bridge spans very large & it needs further consideration (it by itself is a
single project), it would be very difficult for us to design. Therefore we haven’t designed
the bridge. Since our corridor is very narrow the option for our alignment is very limited.
Therefore we have high fill & high cut on the limited alignment. Therefore we provided a
retaining wall as a solution. This also provides aesthetic value for our
Finally we would like to say that our road design can satisfy the needs of countries like
Ethiopia. It will be as economical as they require for construction since it doesn’t have a
complex design & doesn’t ask expensive materials.

Final Document (5th Yr BSC Thesis)

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SCHOOL OF ENGINEERIG AND IT

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

ASKO-WINGATE URBAN ROAD PROJECT

ENDESHAW SHIMELES.....R/0244 /00

Submitted to: DEPARTMENT

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3. Level of service (LOS)

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The Design Vehicle is a hypothetical vehicle whose dimensions and operating

The following design vehicles are used for most purposes:

Design Single-Unit Truck/Bus

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For our road section we select 19m Semi-Trailer.

5. Traffic Study (traffic volume determination)

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The positions of the traffic count is shown in the following picture

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ERA manual terrain classification

Terrain character Slope Terrain type

Flat or gently rolling country

offers few obstacles 0-5% Flat

unrestricted horizontal and vertical alignment

Rolling, hilly or foothill country

Slopes rise and fall Moderately

occasional steep slopes 5-25% Rolling

some restrictions in alignment

Rugged, hilly and mountainous country and river gorges

definite restrictions of alignment 25-50% Mountainous

long steep grades and limited sight distance

switchback roadway >50% Escarpment

side hill transverse sections where earthwork quantities are

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Asco-Winget urban road topography analysis

Left Right Right Terrain

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72 1+460 20.689 2494.486 23.398 2489.762 44.087 10.715177 Rolling

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100 2+020 30.255 2499.905 21.973 2499.781 52.228 0.2374205 Flat

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2.1 Number of lane determination

We used highway capacity manual (HCM) as reference to determine the number of

Application of the methodology

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Limitation of the methodology

Procedure for determining number of lane

Determination of free-flow speed

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FFS = BFFS - fLW - fLC - fM – fA

BFFS = base free-flow speed, km/h,

free-flow speed on multilane highways under base conditions is approximately 11 km/h

BFFS = 70km/h + 11km/h

fLW = adjustment for lane width, km/h,

fLC = adjustment for lateral clearance, km/h,

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fM = adjustment for median type,