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1 Technical Information

Table of Contents

Conversion Units . ................................................................................. 6


Terms and Definitions ........................................................................... 7
Basic Engineering Information ............................................................ 9
Drive Mechanisms .................................................................................11
ACME Lead Screws...........................................................................11
Ball Screws........................................................................................12
Selecting and Sizing Screw Drive Systems.......................................13
Travel Rate vs. Length, ACME Lead Screws.....................................14
Load vs. Length, Ball Screws & ACME Lead Screws....................... 15
Load and Speed Limits, Ball Screws.................................................16
Ball & ACME Lead Screw Assembly Life Expectancy....................... 18
Load Bearing Mechanisms ...................................................................19
Plain Bearings....................................................................................19
Rolling Element Bearings..................................................................20
Radial Ball Bearings..........................................................................20
Thrust Ball Bearings..........................................................................20
Linear Bearings..................................................................................21
Roller Bearings..................................................................................23
Selecting and Sizing Bearing Systems..............................................23
Motors and Encoders . ..........................................................................25
Stepper Motors..................................................................................25
Servomotors......................................................................................26
Rotary Optical Encoders....................................................................27
Sizing Stepper Motors.......................................................................28
Sizing Servomotors............................................................................33
Control and Electronics ........................................................................35
Input and Output Devices..................................................................35
Stepper Motor Drivers........................................................................36
Servomotor Drivers............................................................................36
Stepper Control..................................................................................37
Servo Control.....................................................................................38
Wiring .....................................................................................................39
Grounding..........................................................................................40
Electric Noise.....................................................................................40
Choosing Between Stepper and Servomotors ...................................41
Selecting a Ball Screw Driven Slide ....................................................42
Selecting a Belt Drive Slide ..................................................................46
Application Examples ..........................................................................49
Fax Your Design Requirements ...........................................................51

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Technical Information

1) Conversion Units, SI and Metric


Conventional
Quantity SI Unit Conversion Factors
Inch Unit Metric Unit
Inch Meter Meter 1 inch = 25.4 mm 1 m = 3.2808 ft
Length
Inch m m 1 mm = 0.03937 inch 1 ft = 0.3048 m

Area Square Inch Square Centimeter Square Meter 1 inch2 = 6.4516 cm2 1 m2 = 10.764 ft2
Inch2 cm2 m2 1 cm2 = 0.155 inch2 1 ft2 = 0.092903 m2
Pound Mass Kilogram Mass Kilogram Mass 1 lb = 0.45359237 kg
Mass 1 kg = 2.2046 lb
lb kg kg
Pound Force Kilogram Force Newton 1 lbf = 0.45359237 kgf 1 kgf = 9.80665 N
Force 1 lbf = 4.44822 N 1 N = 0.1019716 kgf
lbf kgf N 1 kgf = 2.2046 lbf 1 N = 0.224809 lbf
Pounds Per Kilograms Per Pascal 1 MPa = 106 N / m2 = 1 N / mm2 1 lbf / inch2 = 6.8947 • 10–3 N / mm2
Stress 1 kPa = 103 N / m2 1 kgf / cm2 = 14.2233 lbf / inch2
Pressure Square Inch Square Centimeter N / m2 1 lbf / inch2 = 0.070307 kgf / cm2 1 kgf / cm2 = 9.80665 • 10–2 N / mm2
lbf / inch2 kgf / cm2 Pa 1 lbf / inch = 7.0307 • 10 kgf / mm2
2 –4

1 lbf • inch = 1.1521 kgf • cm 1 kgf • cm = 9.80665 • 10–2 N• m


Torque Inch • Pounds Kilogram−Meters Newton−Meters 1 kgf • cm = 0.8679 lbf • inch 1 N • m = 8.85 lbf • inch
Work lbf • Inch kgf • m N• m 1 lbf • inch = 0.1129848 N • m 1 N • m = 10.19716 kgf • cm
1 kgf • m = 9.80665 N • m
1 kW = 1000 N • m / s 1 hp = 75 kgf • m / s
1 kW = 60000 N • m / min 1 hp = 44741 N • m / min
Power lbf • ft / min kgf • m/s N• m / s 1 kW = 44220 lbf • ft / min 1 hp = 33000 lbf • ft / min
1 kW = 1.34 hp 1 hp = 0.7457 kW
Feet Meters Meters 1 ft / sec = 0.3048 m / sec 1 mile / hr = 0.44704 m / sec
Velocity Per Second Per Second Per Second 1 inch / sec = 2.54 cm / sec 1 km / hr = 0.27777 m / sec
ft / sec m / sec m / sec 1 ft / min = 0.00508 m / sec 1 mile / hr = 1.609344 km / hr

Feet Per Meters Per Meters Per


Acceleration Second Squared Second Squared Second Squared 1 ft / sec2 = 0.3048 m / sec2
ft / sec2 m / sec2 m / sec2

TORQUE
Multiply By To
Obtain
dy • cm g • cm N • m x 10–4 N• m oz • in lb • in lb • ft
1 980.7 1000 107 7.062 x 104 1.130 x 10 8 1.356 x 107 dy • cm
1.020 x 10 –3
1 1.020 1.020 x 10 4
72.01 1.152 x 103 1.383 x 104 g • cm
10–3 9.807 x 10–1 1 104 70.62 1.130 x 103 1.356 x 104 N • m x 10 -4
10–7 9.807 x 10–5 10–4 1 7.062 x 10–3 0.1130 1.356 N• m
1.416 x 10 –5
1.389 x 10 –2
1.416 x 10 –2
141.6 1 16 192 oz • in
8.850 x 10–7 8.681 x 10–4 8.850 x 10–4 8.850 6.250 x 10–2 1 12 lb • in
7.375 x 10 –8
7.234 x 10 –5
7.375 x 10 –5
0.7375 5.208 x 10 –3
8.333 x 10–2 1 lb • ft

POWER INERTIA
Multiply By To Multiply By To
Obtain Obtain
oz • in • rpm W hp g • cm 2
kg • m 2
oz • in • s 2
oz • in 2

1 1352 1.008 x 106 oz • in • rpm 1 107 7.062 x 104 182.9 g • cm2


7.345 x 10 –4
1 745.7 W 10–7
1 7.062 x 10 –3
1.829 x 10 –5 kg • m2
9.917 x 10–7 1.341 x 10–3 1 hp 1.416 x 10 –5
141.6 1 2.590 x 10 –3 oz • in • s2
5.467 x 10–3 5.467 x 104 386.09 1 oz • in2

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Technical Information

2) Terms and Definitions for Linear Motion Systems

There are many terms that are commonly used in industry that are not always understood by designers, end
users, and other technical persons. Although some of the terms take on obvious meanings, others may not.
This section is provided so that such people can use these terms in proper context, to relieve the possibility of
design criteria and specifications being too tightly constrained due to lack of effective communication. Having the
following terms explained and understood allows for a more efficient design process, and a more cost-effective
solution.

Point-to-point accuracy or accuracy is defined as the difference between the statistical mean of a series of
measurements and the theoretically correct position. Another way of stating this is to say that point-to-point
accuracy is the ability to travel to a desired point or series of points with respect to some known reference.

Straight line accuracy is the ability of a machine to accurately travel in a straight line with respect to a known
reference plane, and the specification refers to the maximum possible deviation from the desired straight line
path.

Accuracy affects how closely parts are made to specifications. There are many factors that contribute to the
accuracy of a system, but the most significant ones are the accuracy of the drive mechanism, the accuracy of
the motor, and the presence of play, or backlash. Accuracy may also be referred to as “system error”.

Repeatability is defined as the degree to which repetitive measurements on a single system are in agreement.
Another way of stating this definition is to say that repeatability is how close a system returns to a desired location
or locations time after time under repeated cycling. Major contributing factors to repeatability are the precision
of the bearing ways and the amount of play, or backlash in the system. Repeatability affects how identical parts
may differ slightly.

There is a direct relationship between system cost, accuracy and repeatability; therefore it is essential
that the terms are understood. If an application involves a motion stopped by an operator, a position sensor,
or a mechanical stop, then the application requires only repeatability. Similarly, if an application requires that
the same location be found time after time as with inlay applications, then only repeatability is needed. If an
application involves cycled point-to-point motion or exact length motion as with high-precision parts machining,
then both accuracy and repeatability are required. The following diagrams provide a good visual representation
of these two terms.

Case 1: Accurate and Repeatable Case 2: Not Accurate but Repeatable


(Mean = Absolute Position, σ small) (Mean ≠ Absolute Position, σ small)
Mean
Absolute = Mean Absolute Position
Position Position Position X
12 —
12 — X
Number of Samples

F–––Error –––E
Number of Samples

10 — 10 —
8 — 8 —
6 — 6 —
4 — 4 —
2 — 2 —
0 — 0 —





















.007
.008
.009
.010
.011
.012
.013
.014
.015
.016
.017
.007
.008
.009
.010
.011
.012
.013
.014
.015
.016
.017

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Technical Information

Case 3: Not Accurate and not Repeatable Case 4: Accurate but not Repeatable
(Mean ≠ Absolute Position, σ large) ~ Absolute Position, σ large)
(Mean =
Absolute
Absolute Mean Position Mean
Position Position 12 — Position

Number of Samples
Number of Samples

12 — X
X 10 —
10 —
8 — –––E F–– Error
F––– Error –––E
8 —
6 —
6 —
4 —
4 —
2 —
2 —
0 —
0 —

.007 —
.008 —
.009 —
.010 —
.011 —
.012 —
.013 —
.014 —
.015 —
.016 —
.017 —













.010
.011
.012
.013
.014
.015
.016
.017
.018
.019
.020
.021
.022

Backlash is defined as the “dead band” experienced when changing directions. This phenomenon is caused
by a clearance between interactive elements in a drive train and/or bearing system. Backlash is typically found
between gears or between a nut and screw. A common and less technical description of backlash is defined to
be the amount of “play” or “slop” in a system. The largest contributing factors to backlash stem from the drive
train and bearings being imprecise or worn. Preloading the drive train and bearings will remove excess play in
a system, and this type of system is generally referred to as “anti-backlash”.

Resolution is defined as the smallest attainable increment of adjustment or positioning. The minimum amount
that a positioning system can be moved is referred to as the system resolution. Among the factors that determine
resolution are the type of motor and control used, and mechanical advantages found within the drive train.

Lifetime is defined as the cumulative number of linear inches of travel guaranteed by the manufacturer of a
linear motion system. This specification varies greatly with load and speed so care should be taken to confirm
operating conditions.

Friction is defined as a nonconservative force that acts in the opposing direction of a motion. By means of heat
dissipation, friction results in the loss of useful energy and contributes to system wear. As a result of friction,
systems become inefficient, inaccurate, and expensive to maintain. Friction due to rolling contact is far less than
that due to sliding contact. This should be considered when selecting load bearings and drive trains. For example,
lead screws and plain bearings have higher friction forces than ball screws and ball and roller bearings.

Static analysis is defined as force and torque analysis of a body or system of bodies when they are at rest
(or when they are at “equilibrium”). Although acceleration forces are present in all gravitational fields, they are
counteracted by equal and opposite forces in a static system and motion is constrained. A static load is a load
acting on a body or system of bodies that is supported by an equal and opposite force. This type of system is
analyzed using Newton’s 2nd Law in the case where the accelerations acting on all bodies are equal to zero.

Dynamic analysis is defined as force, torque and motion analysis of a body or system of bodies when they are
not at rest (or when they are not at “equilibrium”). A dynamic system will have force and torque acting that are
not counteracted, resulting in motion of the body or bodies. A dynamic load is a load that is not supported by an
equal and opposite force and results in a dynamic, or changing system with respect to motion. This type of system
is analyzed using Newton’s 2nd Law in the case where the accelerations acting on all bodies may be nonzero.
Note that dynamic conditions complicate load and life calculations because of shock loads and vibrations.

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Technical Information

3) Basic Engineering Information

The following engineering information will help solve technical problems frequently encountered in designing and
selecting power transmission components and systems.

Torque: Accelerating torque and force:


• Of rotating objects:
T = FR (1) (WK 2) ∆N
where: T = –––––––––– (5)
308t
T = Torque (lb • ft)
F = Force (lb) where:
R = Radius, or distance that the force is from the T = Torque required (lb • ft)
pivotal point (ft) WK 2 = Total inertia of load to be accelerated (lb • ft2)
See formulas 7, 8, 9 and 10
∆N = Change in speed (rpm)
Linear to rotary motion: t = Time to accelerate load (sec)
V
N = ––––––– (2)
0.262D • Objects in linear motion:
where: W ∆V
F = –––––– (6)
N = Speed of shaft rotation (rpm) 1933t
V = Velocity of material (fpm) where:
D = Diameter of pulley or sprocket (in) F = Force required (lb)
W = Weight (lb)
∆N = Change in velocity (fpm)
t = Time to accelerate load (sec)
V
–––––––––E N
E

Moment of Inertia
D
• Solid cylinder rotating about its own axis
1
WK 2 = ––– WR 2 (7)
2
Horsepower:
where:
• Rotating objects: WK 2 = Moment of inertia (lb • ft2)
TN
P = ––––––– (3) W = Weight of object (lb)
5250
R = Radius of cylinder (ft)
where:
P = Power (hp)
T = Torque (lb • ft)
N = Shaft speed (rpm)
R
• Objects in linear motion:
FV
P = ––––––– (4)
33000

where:
P = Power (hp)
F = Force (lb)
V = Velocity (fpm)

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Technical Information

• Hollow cylinder rotating about its own axis: Duty cycle calculation
1 The RMS (root mean squared) value of a load is one
WK 2 = ––– W (R 2 + R 2) (8)
2 1 2 of the quantities often used to size PT components.
_____________________
where:
WK 2 = Moment of inertia (lb • ft2)
W = Weight of object (lb)

LRMS =

A
L12t1 + L22t2 + ... + Ln2tn
––––––––––––––––––
t1 + t2 + ... tn

(11)

R1 = Outside radius (ft)


R2 = Inside radius (ft) where:
LRMS = RMS value of the load which can be in any
unit — hp, amp, etc.
L1 = Load during time period 1
L2 = Load during time period 2, etc.
t1 = Duration of time period 1
R1 t2 = Duration of time period 2, etc.
R2
L1

L3

L2
Load

• Material in linear motion with a continuous fixed


relation to a rotational speed, such as a conveyor F––––––– t1 –––––––EF––––– t2 –––EF––––––––––––––––– t3 ––––––––––––E

system:
Time
V
WKL2 = W (–––––)2 (9)
2πN
where: Modulus of elasticity
WKL2 = Linear inertia (lb • ft2) PL
W = Weight of material (lb) E = –––– (12)
A∆d
V = Linear velocity (fpm)
N = Rotational speed of shaft (rpm) where:
E = Modulus of elasticity (lb/ in2)
P = Axial load (lb)
• Reflected inertia of a load through a speed L = Length of object (in)
reduction means — gear, chain, or belt system: A = Area of object (in2)
WKL2 ∆d = Increase in length resulting from axial load (in)
WKR 2 = ––––– (10)
Rr2
Circumferential
where:
WKR2 = Reflected inertia (lb • ft2)
WKL2 = Load inertia (lb • ft2)
R r = Reduction ratio

Radial
Axial
Tangential

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Technical Information

4) Drive Mechanisms

This section will introduce most of the more common types of drive mechanisms found in linear motion machinery.
Ideally, a drive system should not support any loads, with all the loads being handled by a bearing system. Topics
discussed will include, but not be limited to, the mechanism of actuation, efficiency, accuracy, load transfer, speed,
pitch, life cycle, application and maintenance. Each type of drive system will be accompanied by a diagram and
useful equations when applicable. Some of the terms used with screws, the most common drive component,
are as follows:

lead — advance of the nut along the length of the screw per revolution.
pitch — distance between corresponding points on adjacent thread forms (pitch = lead / # of starts).
# of threads — number of teeth found along a unit length of the screw (1 / pitch).
# of starts — number of helical grooves cut into the length of the shaft.
outer diameter — largest diameter over the threaded section (at top of threads).
root diameter — smallest diameter over the threaded section (at base of threads).
stub — specific type of ACME thread where the root diameter is larger to provide for a more heavy-
duty screw (the threads look “stubby”).
critical shaft speed — operating speed of spinning shaft that produces severe vibrations during
operation. This is a function of length, diameter, and end supports.
maximum compressive load — maximum load that can be axially applied to the screw before buckling or
permanent deformation is experienced. Also referred to as column strength.
end bearing supports — the screw must be supported at one or both ends with thrust type bearings.
Depending upon the application, it may also be desirable to provide for a stiffer system by incorporating
angular contact bearings (fixed support).

Although shafts, gear trains, belt and pulley, rack and pinion, and chain and sprocket drives are practical in other
applications, they require special consideration when used in CNC machinery. This is because there is typically
backlash associated with these types of drives, which increases the system error. Thorough technical descriptions
of these types of drives can be found in the Stock Drive Products Components Library.

Lead Nut –––––


Lead screws are threaded rods that are fitted with a nut. There
Lead Screw
–––

–––––
are many types of threads used, but the most prevalent in
–––

––E

–––

industry is the ACME lead screw. Because the ACME thread is


–E

an industry standardized thread style, it is easily interchanged


with parts from various manufacturers. The basic function of a
screw is to convert rotary input motion to linear output motion.
The nut is constrained from rotating with the screw, so as the
screw is rotated the nut travels back and forth along the length
of the shaft. The friction on the nut is a function of environment,
lubrication, load, and duty cycle; therefore, practical life cycle
Lead Screw System
is difficult to quantify.
Lead screw/nut drive systems are available in a variety of sizes and tolerances. Contact is primarily sliding, resulting
in relatively low efficiency and a wear rate proportional to usage. Advantages include the self-locking capability
in back drive mode which is good for vertical applications, low initial costs, near silent operation, manufacturing
ease, and a wide choice of a materials. Disadvantages of ACME screws include lower efficiencies (typically
30-50%, depending on nut preload) which require larger motor drives, and unpredictable service life.

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Technical Information
Ball Screws are very similar to lead screws with the
Ball Nut –––––
exception of a ball bearing train riding between the screw

–––
and nut in a recirculating raceway. This raceway is Balls

–––
Ball Screw –––––

––
– ––

– ––
–E
generally lubricated, which allows for predictable service

––E

–E

––E


life. Due to the increased number of mating and moving


parts, matching tolerances becomes more critical. The
screw threads have rounded shapes to conform to the
shape of the balls. The function, terminology, and formulas
are the same as found with lead screws, however the

––E
performance of ball screws is far superior. The rolling


Ball Return
action of the balls versus the sliding action of the ACME
nut provides significant advantages. Advantages of Ball Screw System
ball screw drives are increased efficiency (typically up to 90 – 95%) which allows required motor torque to be
lower, predictable service life, low wear rate and maintenance costs. Disadvantages include limited material
choice, higher initial cost, and an auxiliary brake is required to prevent back driving with vertical applications.

Helpful Formulas: When determining the amount of input torque required to produce an amount of output linear
force, there are many factors to consider. The following equations provide a practical approach in making force
and torque calculations.

Force Calculations:

FT = FA + FE + FF
(1)

where: FT = Total Force


FA = Acceleration Force
FE = External Force
FF = Friction Force
W a
F = ––– x ––– lb (2)
A g 12
where: W = total weight to accelerate (lb)
a = linear acceleration (in/sec2)
g = acceleration from gravity (ft/sec2)

External Force (FE) may be due to gravity in vertical applications, or may be from external work requirements
(feeding material, stretching material, etc.)

Friction Force (FF) required to overcome all of the friction in the load bearing system (with a low friction
bearing system, this can be negligible)

NOTE: The Total force must be below the compressive (thrust) rating of the screw chosen. A modest
factor of safety should be added to the total force so that unexpected dynamic loads are safely
handled by the screw system.

Torque Calculations:

For most typical applications, rotary inertia, motor rotor inertia, and screw inertia are negligible, therefore left out
of the torque calculations.
1
T = FT x ––––– (3)
2πpe
where: FT = Total Force
p = screw pitch (revolutions per inch)
e = efficiency (no units)
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Technical Information

NOTE: The Torque required should be well below the torque rating of the motor chosen. A modest
factor of safety should be added to the torque required so that unexpected dynamic loads are
safely handled by the driving system.

Selecting and Sizing Screw Drive Systems: When choosing a particular screw for a given application, there
are several factors to be considered. Required rpm, critical speed and maximum compressive strength are the
most important design features that determine screw design parameters, and can be calculated according to the
following equations. Since thread style design is irrelevant in these calculations, the same equations and charts
can be used for both lead screws and ball screws. Bearing configuration must be considered when using these
equations. The following diagrams represent the typical bearing end support arrangements.

A. Fixed-Free B. Simple-Simple C. Fixed-Simple D. Fixed-Fixed

linear velocity (in/min)


rpm = –––––––––––––––––––– (4)
lead (in/rev)

Maximum Speed: Maximum Load

d d4
C = F (4.76 x 10 6) ––– (5) P = F (14.03 x 10 6) ––– (6)
S L2 L2
where: where:
CS = critical speed (rpm) P = maximum load (lbs) (critical load)
d = root diameter of screw (inches) d = root diameter of screw (inches)
L = length between supports (inches) L = maximum distance between nut and load
F = end support factor (see diagram) carrying bearing
case A.: 0.36 F = end support factor (see diagram)
case B.: 1.00 case A.: 0.25
case C.: 1.47 case B.: 1.00
case D.: 2.23 case C.: 2.00
case D.: 4.00

The formulas above can be represented graphically by the charts on following pages. These charts have been
compiled for screws made of stainless steel. Speeds, loads, diameters, bearing arrangements and products are
referenced. It must be realized that a screw may be able to rotate at very high rpm’s, but the nut may have more
strict limitations. For this reason, we have truncated the ball screw rpm diagrams to a top end of 4000 rpm, and
provided each type screw with their own charts. Please note that the ball screw charts are only represented for
screws of 16 mm and 25 mm diameter.

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Technical Information

Travel Rate vs. Length


For Standard ACME Lead Screws
100000 CRITICAL SPEED
80000
60000

40000
30000

20000 PURPOSE
This graph was designed to simplify the
10000
selection of the proper lead screw so
8000 as to avoid lengths and speeds which
6000 will result in vibration of the assembly
TRAVEL RATE IN INCHES / MIN.

(critical speed). The factors which


4000
can be controlled after a particular
3000
maximum length is determined are:
2000 method of bearing support and choice
of lead screw diameter.
1000
800
600 USE OF THE GRAPH
1. Choose preferred bearing
400
support means, based on design
300
considerations.
200 2. On the proper bearing support
horizontal line (A, B, C or D) choose
100
25161 length of lead screw.
37161 31084 3. Draw vertical line at the lead screw
80 37084
37101
60 37122 43082 length, determined at (2.), and draw
50101 a horizontal line at the travel rate.
40 62101
75101 4. All screw diameters to the right and
30
above the intersection point in (3.)
20 31032 62102 are suitable for this application.
37081 75061
5. Screw sizes are coded as follows:
10
ONE END FIXED REF
A 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 INCHES
OTHER END FREE

REF
BOTH ENDS SUPPORTED B 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 INCHES
Diameter (in)
REF Threads / in
ONE END FIXED
OTHER END SUPPORTED
C 12 24 36 48 61 73 85 INCHES Starts
REF
BOTH ENDS FIXED D 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 INCHES

LENGTH

MAXIMUM LENGTH (IN.) ADJUSTED FOR BEARING SUPPORT


“Y” DIMENSION

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Technical Information

Compression Load vs. Length


For Standard Ball Screws and ACME Lead Screws COLUMN LOADS
Load
40000
30000
Load
20000

PURPOSE
10000 This graph was designed to simplify the
8000 selection of the proper lead screw so
COMPRESSION LOAD (lbs)

6000 as to avoid buckling when subjected to


4000
the axial loading by means of the nut.
The factors which can be controlled
3000
after a particular maximum length is
2000 determined are: method of bearing
support and choice of lead screw
diameter.
1000
800 75101

600 75061 75081 USE OF THE GRAPH


400
62081 62101 62102 1. Choose preferred bearing
50101 support means, based on design
300 43082 43084
considerations.
37161
200 2. On the proper bearing support
37081 37101 37121 37122 37084
horizontal line (A, B, C or D) choose
25161 31082 81084 31122 length of lead screw.
100
REF 3. Draw vertical line at the lead screw
ONE END FIXED
OTHER END FREE
A 5 10 15 20 25 30 INCHES length, determined at (2.), and draw
REF a horizontal line at the compression
BOTH ENDS SUPPORTED B 10 20 30 40 50 60 INCHES load the unit is exerting on the
screw.
ONE END FIXED REF
OTHER END SUPPORTED C 14 28 42 57 71 85 INCHES
4. All screw diameters to the right and
above the intersection point in (3.)
REF are suitable for this application.
BOTH ENDS FIXED D 20 40 60 80 100 120 INCHES
5. Screw sizes are coded as follows:
LENGTH

Diameter (in)
Threads / in
Starts

MAXIMUM LENGTH (IN.) ADJUSTED FOR BEARING SUPPORT


“X” DIMENSION

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Technical Information

Critical Speed & Load


Load and Speed Limits on 16 mm Ball Screws

CRITICAL SPEED

SPEED
(rpm)

BEARING SUPPORT TYPES

FF – Fixed, Fixed
LENGTH (mm)

CRITICAL LOAD FO – Fixed, Open

FS – Fixed, Simple

LOAD
(kg)
SS – Simple, Simple

LENGTH (mm)

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Technical Information

Critical Speed & Load


Load and Speed Limits on 25 mm Ball Screws

CRITICAL SPEED

SPEED
(rpm)

BEARING SUPPORT TYPES

FF – Fixed, Fixed
LENGTH (mm)

CRITICAL LOAD
FO – Fixed, Open

FS – Fixed, Simple

LOAD
(kg) SS – Simple, Simple

LENGTH (mm)

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Technical Information

Ball & Acme LEAD Screw Assembly


Life Expectancy

16 mm LIFE EXPECTANCY SPECIFICATIONS


Screw Axial Load (N)
Pitch Dia. Dynamic (Ca) Static
2.5 16 3500 5500
4 16 2600 4200
5 16 4600 7200
5 25 5100 12600
10 16 4200 6500
10 25 5100 12600
20 16 1900 2500
LIFE (Rev’s)

20 25 3570 8800

Ca 3
L= x 106
Fm

L = life expectancy expressed in number of revolutions

Ca = dynamic load rating (N) [for acme nuts, see design load
column on catalog pages].
AXIAL LOAD (N)
Fm = average axial load (N).

Example: For 10 mm pitch screw,16 mm dia., Ca = 4200 N


25 mm LIFE EXPECTANCY carrying an average axial load, Fm = 200 N (45 lbs) the expected
life is:


L= 4200 3
x 106 = 9.261 x 109 revolutions.
200

At an average of 1000 rpm this will result in:


LIFE (Rev’s)

9.261 x 109 revolutions x 1 hour


= 154,000 hours
1000 rpm 60 minutes

of expected operational life. Note that the nature of the
motion (jerky, smooth, etc.) will affect the life expectancy.

AXIAL LOAD (N)

18 Techno Linear Motion Catalog www.technoautomation.com


Technical Information

5) Load Bearing Mechanisms

Load bearing mechanisms are the structural backbone of any linear/rotary motion system, and are a critical
consideration. This section will introduce most of the more common types of load bearing mechanisms found
in linear motion machinery. In general, bearings allow smooth, low friction motion between two surfaces loaded
against each other. The motion can be either rotary (such as in a turning shaft) or linear (such as a machine
part moving back and forth). Some applications require that a bearing accommodate both types of motion
simultaneously, which is referred to as a combination bearing. In both cases there should be a strong attempt
to provide enough lubrication to keep the bearing surfaces separated by a film of oil. The absence of physical
contact provides most bearings with long service lives.

Bearings are evaluated on the basis of how much load they carry, at what speeds they can carry the load,
and how long they will serve under those conditions. Friction, start-up torque, shock- and impact-resistance,
operating environment, rigidity, size, cost, complexity, and lubricating procedures are also important design
considerations.

The following diagram reveals the basic bearing families more widely found in linear motion systems. The distinction
between families is made by the type of motion and type of loading being considered. Bearings accommodate
rotational and/or translational motion. Translational bearings, or linear bearings, are loaded perpendicular (radial)
to the direction of motion. Rotational bearings can be loaded either perpendicular to the axis of rotation (radial)
or parallel to the axis of rotation (thrust).

––
––
––
––
F
Thrust

–E
––
F

––
––
––


–––
––
––

TRANSLATION ROTATION

Radial
(OR LINEAR) Load
F––––

Motion Load
Motion
F––––
––––

––
––
–E

–E

JOURNAL Load
THRUST Bearing
F––––

OR RADIAL surface
BEARING
––

BEARING
––
–E

­­
Most bearings can be classified into one of two general types. The distinction between bearing types is made by
the nature of the bearing mechanism. The two types each have a number of different possible configurations,
and some of the more common configurations will now be discussed. Since many bearings are either specialized
or of proprietary design, this discussion is by no means intended to be all exhaustive, but rather to serve as an
introduction.

Plain Bearings, or Journal Bearings, are the most basic type of bearing. – Journal
––
They have no moving parts, they support loads through sliding contact, ––
– ––
––
and are usually the least costly to install. Some plain bearings are self- F

lubricating and maintenance-free while others are not. In fact, some plain
bearings are classified as to the lubricating method required. Typically,
plain bearings will operate right up to the point of failure with little or no F
–––
–––
warning signs. Since the motion involved is usually low level, the results –––

Bearing
of failure are typically noncatastrophic, and replacement or repair is fairly
simple. There are several ways to size plain bearings for an application, PLAIN BEARING
as outlined at the end of this section.

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Technical Information

Rolling Element Bearings, or roller bearings, make up the bulk of Outer race
––
commercially available and applied bearings. These types of bearings ––
– ––

rely on either balls or rollers to carry the load. The rolling motion produces ––
–– Rolling element
––
F
less friction than found in plain bearings. For this reason, roller bearings ––
– ––

are also referred to as antifriction bearings. Both radial loads and thrust F

loads can be supported by this type of bearing. Lubrication is either


permanently sealed in the bearing or is required during operation. The F––––
–––––– Inner

largest causes of failure are either exceeding temperature, load and speed Race
limits, or providing insufficient lubrication during operation. Since roller
bearing applications often involve heavy loads and high speeds, failure can
be catastrophic, extremely costly and time consuming to repair. Usually
there will be an increase in the sound of the balls or rollers in the raceways
when approaching failure. There are many different configurations of roller
ROLLING ELEMENT
element bearings, and some are discussed in the following section.

Radial Ball Bearings come in two basic variations which are


called the Conrad type, or nonfilling slot, and the maximum-
capacity type, or filling slot. The Conrad type has a deep,
uninterrupted raceway in inner and outer rings. This design is
capable of carrying heavy radial and moderate bi-directional
thrust loads. The maximum-capacity bearing has more balls
than an equivalent sized Conrad type, therefore carries a higher
radial load. However, the filling slots require that the thrust loads
be light and applied only in combination with a heavier radial
load. If moderate thrust loads are present, the maximum type
can be replaced by a double row Conrad type bearing. Selection
Raceways Filling slots
of this type bearing is outlined in the following section.
Conrad type ball bearing, left, and maxi-
mum-capacity (filling slot) type, right
A
Thrust Ball Bearings are designed to
provide axial shaft location and support
thrust loads. Angular contact ball bearings
support radial as well as thrust loads, and
B
the ratio of permissible radial to thrust
loads depends upon the angle of contact
between the races and the bearing axis.
Thrust ball bearings are commonly used
in linear motion systems to support the
drive screw. Flat-race, flat-seat thrust ball bearing, A, and
A grooved-race, flat-seat thrust ball bearing, B

Banded thrust ball bearing, A, and aligning, Aligning, double-acting, grooved-race


single-acting, grooved-race thrust ball bearing
thrust ball bearing, B

20 Techno Linear Motion Catalog www.technoautomation.com


Technical Information

Flat-race, flat-seat bearings consist of two flat washers and a ball retaining assembly. They are used when the
ball retainer assembly must carry thrust loads without restraining shaft oscillations or flexures. They work well
with light loads and are very economical.

Grooved-race, flat-seat bearings are the most common type of thrust ball bearing. They consist of a shaft-
mounted small bore washer, a large housing-mounted bore washer, and a ball retaining assembly. Grooved-race
bearings have a load-bearing capacity approximately 4 times greater than flat-race bearings.

Banded thrust ball bearings are self-contained, have grooved races, have a stationary and rotating face with
full-ball complement, and are encased in a containing band. These bearings are most commonly used where the
bearing’s outer circumference must be protected from contamination, for blind installation, or where separating
forces cause substantial axial motion of bearing components.

Aligning grooved-race bearings are a variation of grooved-race bearings, and are available in single- and
double-acting types. Aligning members compensate for initial misalignment due to shaft deflection or mismatch,
while allowing uniform distribution of the load through the bearing. The double-acting type carries thrust in both
directions.

Linear Bearings are most commonly used in linear motion applications. This type of bearing is used when
loads are to be supported as the bearing rides back and forth along a shaft. Each raceway holds balls in rolling
contact between the shaft and inner bearing race of the bushing. The remaining balls recirculate freely in the back
side of the clearance in the ball train sleeve. A retainer is usually provided so that when the bearing is removed
from the shaft the balls stay in place. Linear bearings are as easy to install as a plain bearing, while utilizing the
advantages of rolling contact. Among the important factors when considering load capacity of a linear bearing
system are life expectancy, shaft hardness, and load orientation with respect to the ball trains. Typically, if a
lifetime of more than 2,000,000 inches is required, or if a shaft hardness of less than Rc 60 is specified, then the
load-carrying capacity of the bearing system will be reduced.

Load-carrying balls
F–––––––––––––––––––––––––––E

F––––––––––––––––––E
Recirculating balls
in clearance

Linear Bearings are the most commonly applied bearing type in linear motion systems. Clearly, many applications
involve using two sets of double linear rails, with two bearing blocks on each rail. In this case, the load found on
each bearing block is of interest when selecting the bearing components. There are three basic orientations for
the bearing system and loads, and each case is represented as follows.

Horizontal Translation with Normal Load: when a normal load is applied to a horizontal bearing system, the
loads on each bearing are found by using the following equations. The equations still apply if the load is acting
inside of the carriage mounting surface area. The orientation of the applied load with respect to the bearing system
is the important feature to consider. This means that these equations can still be used even if the orientation of
the translation is not horizontal, as long as the load to bearing relationship is preserved.

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Technical Information

L L d3 d4
F1 =––– – ––– –––
4 2 d1(+ –––
d2 )
d4
L L d3 d4
4 2 (
F2 = ––– + ––– ––– – –––
d1 d2 ) (7) F1
d3
L
L L d – d F3
F3 = ––– – –––
4 2 (–––
d
–––)
d
3

1
4

2 F4
F2

L L d3 d4
4 2 (
F4 = ––– + ––– ––– + –––
d1 d2 ) d1
d2
Horizontal Translation with Side Load: when a side load
is applied to the bearing system, the loads on the individual
bearings change, and new equations are required. Each
bearing will have a resultant normal load as well as a side
load. The orientation of the applied load with respect to the
bearing system is the important feature to consider. This
means that these equations can still be used even if the
orientation of the translation is not horizontal, as long as
the load to bearing relationship is preserved.
d4
F 1S
L d4
F1 = F2 = –––
2 (
–––
d2 ) F1
L F 2S
L d4
F3 = F4 = – ––– –––
2 d2 ( ) F 3S F2
(8)
L L d3
F1S = F3S = ––– + ––– –––
4 2 d1 ( ) d3
F3
F 4S
d2
L L d3
F2S = F4S = ––– – ––– –––
4 2 d1 ( ) FROM CENTER F4
OF TABLE

Vertical Translation with Vertical Load: when the load is d1


applied in the direction of travel (thrust), then the following
equations should be used to calculate the loads on each
bearing block. This type of configuration is generally found
in vertical applications. The orientation of the applied load
with respect to the bearing system is the important feature
to consider. This means that these equations can still be d3
used even if the orientation of the translation is not vertical, d2
as long as the load to bearing relationship is preserved.
L

L d3
(
F1 = F3 = ––– –––
2 d1 ) F3

F 1S
L d3
F2 = F4 = – ––– –––
2 d1 ( ) (9) d4 F4
F1

L d4 TO CENTER F 2S
F1S = F3S = ––– –––
2 d2 ( ) OF SCREW
d1
F2
L d4
F2S = F4S = – ––– –––
2 d2 ( )

22 Techno Linear Motion Catalog www.technoautomation.com


Technical Information

Roller Bearings are also widely used in linear / rotary motion applications. There are several principal types
of roller bearings. In general, they have higher load capacities than ball bearings of the same size due to the
increased area of contact and, except for the cylindrical type, lower speed capabilities. They are commonly used
in heavy-duty moderate-speed applications; and, as with ball bearings, there are many different styles to choose
from. Because of the geometry, roller bearings are not tolerant of shaft misalignment.

Cylindrical Roller Bearing Needle Bearing Caged Crossed Roller Bearing


Cylindrical Roller Bearings have the highest radial load capacity for a given cross section, and the highest
speed capability for any given roller bearing type. A common problem encountered is roller skidding, which
causes premature failure. Solutions include a slightly concave raceway that pinches the ends of the rollers, or
the use of hollow preloaded rollers to hold position.

Needle Roller Bearings are similar in appearance to cylindrical roller bearings, but typically have a much smaller
diameter to length ratio. They typically exhibit higher load capacities than single row ball bearings of comparable
OD, and can nearly fit into the same space as a plain bearing. In most instances, a hardened shaft acts as the
bearings inner race, although an inner race can be supplied when the shaft cannot be hardened.

Crossed Roller Bearings are very common in heavy-duty precise applications; however, they are extremely
sensitive to contaminants. The principle is similar to that of cylindrical bearings; however, the roller diameter
must be equal to the roller height. The rollers take on an alternating pattern, with their orientations being crossed
at 90 degrees. This arrangement allows very smooth motion, and large load capabilities in all directions normal
to travel. A further benefit of crossed roller bearings is very high straight line accuracy.

Selecting and Sizing Bearing Systems

When selecting and sizing bearings for an application, there are several considerations. Most bearing applications
can be practically analyzed by sizing load and speed requirements. This section is intended to provide a basic
understanding of the bearing selection process, and should not be used as an only source.

Plain Bearing Selection: A plain bearing’s load capacity is generally expressed as pounds per square inch (psi)
of projected bearing area. The size and material of the bearing determine most of the load-carrying ability, and
there are several rules of thumb to use as a guide.

Maximum load capacity for static or very low-speed applications is 1/3 the bearing
materials compressive limit. The compressive limit is the lowest pressure that results in
plastic (permanent) deformation.

Most plain bearings carry less than 400 psi.

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Technical Information

Plain bearings rarely ever carry more than 3000 psi.

Another way of determining a bearing’s load capacity is through maximum PV factor. This is the value of pressure
on the bearing (psi) times the shaft speed (feet/min).

If the PV value for the application is less than the maximum PV value for the bearing
considered, and if the application pressure load does not exceed the compressive
strength of the bearing material, and if the application speed does not exceed the
maximum permissible speed of the bearing considered, then the bearing considered
may well serve the application.

Ball Bearing Selection: The nature of the application load must be known and compared to the load carrying
capability of the considered bearing. Combination loads should be converted into a single equivalent radial or
thrust load using manufacturer’s equations to size the application requirement. Regarding speed requirements,
tolerance grade, lubrication, retainer design and bearing seal type must be considered, and the maximum
application speed must not exceed the maximum allowable bearing speed. A useful guide for ball bearing
selection is to consider the DN value (speed value) of the bearing. The DN value is the product of the bore size
(mm) and the shaft speed (rpm). This quantity will suggest the type of lubrication and tolerance grade required.
Use for the ball bearing type include applications involving shafts that may be slightly misaligned.

Linear Ball Bearing Selection: This selection is generally based on speed and load requirements. Understanding
the orientation and magnitude of the application loads on the bearing is of paramount importance. Most
manufacturers and suppliers of such bearings will include information regarding the load capabilities with respect
to load orientation, as shown below.

80°
1.0
Derating Factor (D) ––––––E

60°
FZ FZ 0.9
F 0.8 40°
F

Angle of Applied Load (A)


0.7
A 20°

A FY
X 0°

FY
20°
0.7
F–––––––

0.8 40°
0.9
60°
1.0
80°
Force on Single Bearing Force on Double Bearing

Roller Bearing Selection: Load, speed, and shaft alignment are the most important features to consider when
selecting roller bearings. It is suggested that, in the case of needle bearings, the shaft parallelism be less than
0.0003" for the entire length of the bearing section. Further, the shaft should be round to within 0.0002" or to
within half the shaft tolerance.

24 Techno Linear Motion Catalog www.technoautomation.com


Technical Information

6) Motors and Encoders

Electric motors are by far the most common component to supply mechanical input to a linear motion system.
Stepper motors and servomotors are the popular choices in linear motion machinery due to their accuracy and
controllability. They exhibit favorable torque-speed characteristics and are relatively inexpensive. The term
NEMA refers to the physical size of the motor, and has become an industry standard. All motors of the same
NEMA frame size should exhibit the same dimensions. This section will discuss the features associated with
each of these types of motors.

Stepper motors convert digital pulse and direction signals into rotary motion and are easily controlled. Although
stepper motors can be used in combination with analog or digital feedback signals, they are usually used without
feedback (open loop). Stepper motors require motor driving voltage and control electronics.

The rotor of a typical hybrid stepper motor has two soft iron cups that surround a permanent magnet which is
axially magnetized. The rotor cups have 50 teeth on their surfaces and guide the flux through the rotor-stator air
gap. In most cases, the teeth of one set are offset from the teeth of the other by one-half tooth pitch for a two
phase stepper motor.
Stator Windings

Rotor

Permanent
Magnet

The stator generally has the same number of teeth as the rotor, but can have two fewer depending upon the
motor’s design. When the teeth on the stator pole are energized with North polarity, the corresponding teeth on
the rotor with South polarity align with them. Similarly, teeth on the stator pole energized with South polarity attract
corresponding teeth on the rotor that are energized with North polarity. By changing the polarity of neighboring
stator teeth one after the other in a rotating sequence, the rotor begins to turn correspondingly as its teeth try
to align themselves with the stator teeth. The strength of the magnetic fields can be precisely controlled by
the amount of current through the windings, thus the position of the rotor can be precisely controlled by these
attractive and repulsive forces.

There are many advantages to using stepper motors. Since maximum dynamic torque occurs at low pulse rates
(low speeds), stepper motors can easily accelerate a load. Stepper motors have large holding torque and stiffness,
so there is usually no need for clutches and brakes (unless a large external load is acting, such as gravity). Stepper
motors are inherently digital. The number of pulses determines position while the pulse frequency determines
velocity. Additional advantages are that they are inexpensive, easily and accurately controlled, and there are no
brushes to maintain. Also, they offer excellent heat dissipation, and they are very stiff motors with high holding
torques for their size. The digital nature of stepper motors also eliminates tuning parameters.

There are disadvantages associated with stepper motors. One of the largest disadvantages is that the torque
decreases as velocity is increased. Because most stepper motors operate open loop with no position sensing
devices, the motor can stall or lose position if the load torque exceeds the motor’s available torque. Open loop
stepper motor systems should not be used for high-performance or high-load applications, unless they are
significantly derated. Another drawback is that damping may be required when load inertia is very

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Technical Information

high to prevent motor shaft oscillation at resonance points. Finally, stepper motors may perform poorly in high-speed
applications. The maximum steps/sec rate of the motor and drive system should be carefully considered.

Servomotors are more robust than stepper motors, but pose a more difficult control problem. They are primarily
used in applications where speed, power, noise level as well as velocity and positional accuracy are important.
Servomotors are not functional without sensor feedback; they are designed and intended to be applied in
combination with resolvers, tachometers, or encoders (closed loop). There are several types of servomotors,
and three of the more common types are described as follows.

The DC brush type are most commonly found in low-end to mid-range CNC machinery. The “brush” refers to
brushes that pass electric current to the rotor of the rotating core of the motor. The construction consists of a
magnet stator outside and a coil rotor inside. A brush DC motor has more than one coil. Each coil is angularly
displaced from one another so when the torque from one coil has dropped off, current is automatically switched to
another coil which is properly located to produce maximum torque. The switching is accomplished mechanically
by the brushes and a commutator as shown below.
Heat
Brush

Coils Commutator
Brush Brushed DC Motor
There are distinct advantages to using DC brush servomotors. They are very inexpensive to apply. The motor
commutates itself with the brushes and it appears as a simple, two-terminal device that is easily controlled.
Among the disadvantages is the fact that they are thermally inefficient, because the heat must dissipate through
the external magnets. This condition reduces the torque to volume ratio, and the motor performance may suffer
inefficiencies. Also, the brushed motor will require maintenance, as the brushes will wear and need replacement.
Brushed servomotors are usually operated under 5000 rpm.

The DC brushless type offers a higher level of performance. They are often referred to as “inside out” DC motors
because of their design. The windings of a brushless motor are located in the outer portion of the motor (stator),
and the rotor is constructed from permanent magnets as shown below. DC brushless motors are typically applied
to high-end CNC machinery, but the future may see midrange machinery use brushless technology due to the
narrowing cost gap.
Heat
Armature
(Stator)

Permanent Magnets Brushless Motor


(Rotor)

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Technical Information

Many advantages are realized with brushless DC servomotors. The inside out construction allows for excellent
heat dissipation. This results in a higher continuous torque and a higher output rating than found in a comparably
sized brushed motor. Also, speeds up to 60000 rpm are not uncommon. Speed torque ripple and cogging torque
are both reduced, because there are no mechanical brushes, eliminating the brushed contact. These motors
also tend to be maintenance-free. Disadvantages are primarily increased cost, increased control complexity,
and increased weight.

AC servomotors are another variety that offers high-end performance. Their physical construction is similar to
that of the brushless DC motor; however, there are no magnets in the AC motor. Instead, both the rotor and stator
are constructed from coils. Again, there are no brushes or contacts anywhere in the motor which means they
are maintenance-free. They are capable of delivering very high torque at very high speeds; they are very light
and there is no possibility of demagnetization. However, due to the electronic commutation, they are extremely
complex and expensive to control.

Perhaps the largest advantage of using servomotors is that they are used in closed loop form, which allows
for very accurate position information and also allows for high output torque to be realized at high speeds. The
motor will draw the required current to maintain the desired path, velocity, or torque, and is controlled according
to the requirements of the application rather than by the limitations of the motor. Servomotors put out enormous
peak torque at or near stall conditions. They provide smooth, quiet operation, and depending upon the resolution
of the feedback mechanism, can have very small resolutions.

Among the disadvantages of servomotors are the increased cost, the added feedback component, and
the increased control complexity. The closed loop feature can be a disadvantage for the case when there is a
physical obstacle blocking the path of motion. Rather than stalling, the servomotor will continue to draw current
to overcome the obstacle. As a result, the system hardware, control electronics, signal amplifier and motor may
become damaged unless safety precautions are taken.

Rotary Optical Encoders are the popular choice to supply signal feedback. They are mounted directly on the
shaft of a servomotor. The basic principle of operation is as follows: A disc or plate containing opaque and
transparent segments passes between an LED and a detector to interrupt a light beam. All rotary encoders
consist of a light source, light detector, code wheel, and signal processor. There are two basic encoder styles:
absolute and incremental.
Photo Squaring
Grid Assembly
Light Source Disk Detector Circuitry

Sine Square

Absolute encoders use multiple detectors and up to 20 tracks of segment patterns. As the encoder disc turns, the
binary output changes one bit at a time. For each encoder position, there is a different binary output, therefore
shaft position is absolutely determined. The resolution of an absolute encoder is determined by the number of
concentric pattern tracks on the wheel. Absolute encoders may be necessary for accuracy critical applications,
military applications, or applications requiring accurate position information after power up or power failure, but
this level of position detection is not required for typical machining and positioning applications.

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Technical Information

Z Channel
“Marker”

Slots

Incremental Encoder Absolute Encoder


The Encoder Disk
Incremental encoders have only one track (or two) of segment patterns. The resolution of the encoder is equal
to the number of bands in the pattern segment. Absolute positioning information cannot be provided since all of
the signals are the same. All incremental encoders rely on a counter to determine position and a stable clock to
determine velocity. Most incremental encoders provide a single mark on the disc called the Z channel, or indexer.
The pulse from this channel provides a reference once per revolution to detect errors within a given revolution.
Closed Loop
If a second band of patterns and a second light source Quadrature Detect
were added to an incremental encoder, the result is a A Channel
quadrature encoder, which is very common in machining
and positioning applications. Channel B (second band and
light source) is spaced one half a slot width apart from the B Channel
Channel A light source and photo detection. Electrically,
Quadrature
the two signals are 90° out of phase from each other as
Detect
shown.
Quadrature Encoder
The quadrature multiplication results from the two square waves having four unique states at any given moment.
Notice that as the waves move in one direction (the disk rotates in one direction), the four states cycle in a specific
sequence. As the disk rotates in the opposite direction, the four states cycle in the reverse sequence. Thus,
the direction of rotation and the quad multiplying effect (which increases resolution fourfold) can be produced
by the second channel.

Sizing Stepper Motors

Before the correct Stepper Motor can be chosen for a particular application, the following information must be
determined:

a. operating speed in steps/sec e. time to accelerate in milliseconds


b. torque in ounce • inches f. time to decelerate in milliseconds
c. load inertia in lb • in2 g. type of drive system to be used
d. required step angle h. size and weight considerations

Once this information is known, the best motor/drive combination can be determined using torque vs. speed
curves and the formulas given on this and the following pages.

Torque, T (oz • in)


T = Fr
where
F = Force (in ounces) required to drive the load
r = Radius (in inches)

Moment of Inertia, I (lb • in2)


Wr 2
I = –––– for a disc
2

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Technical Information

W
I = ––– (r 12 + r22) for a cylinder
2
where
W = Weight in pounds
r = Radius in inches

Equivalent Inertia
A motor must be able to:
a. overcome any frictional load in the system
b. start and stop all inertial loads including that of its own rotor

The basic rotary relationship is:



T = –––
24
where:
T = torque (oz • in)
I = moment of inertia (lb • in2)
α = angular acceleration, in radians per square second (rad/sec2)

Angular acceleration (α) is a function of the change in velocity (ω) and the time required for the change.
ω2 – ω1
α = –––––––
t
or, if starting from zero,
ω
α = ––
t
where:
ω = angular velocity (rad/sec)
t = time (sec)
steps per second
since ω = ––––––––––––––––– x 2π,
steps per revolution

angular velocity and angular acceleration can also be expressed in steps per second (ω') and steps per square
second (α'), respectively.

Sample Calculations

A. Calculating torque required to rotationally accelerate an inertia load:


ω' πθ 1
T = 2 x IO –– x ––– x –––
t 180 24
where: Motor
T = torque required (oz • in)
IO = inertial load (lb • in2)
π = 3.1416
θ = step angle (degrees)
ω' = step rate (steps/sec)

Example: Inertial Load


Assume the following conditions:
Inertia = 9.2 lb • in2
Step Angle = 1.8°
Acceleration = from 0 to 1000 steps per second in 0.5 seconds

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Technical Information

1000 1.8 π 1
T = 2 x 9.2 x ––––– x –––––– x ––
0.5 180 24
T = 48.2 oz • in to accelerate inertia Motor

B. Calculating torque required to accelerate and raise a r


weight using a drum and string. The total torque which
the motor must supply includes the torque required to:

a. accelerate the weight


b. accelerate the drum
c. accelerate the motor rotor
d. lift the weight

The rotational equivalent of the weight and the radius of


the drum is: W

I(eq) = wr 2

where:
I(eq) = equivalent inertia (lb • in2)
w = weight (lb)
r = radius of drum (in)

Example:
Assume the following conditions:
Weight = 5 lbs (80 oz)
Drum = 3" O.D., 1.5" radius
Velocity = 15 ft per second
Time to Reach Velocity = 0.5 seconds
Motor Rotor Inertia = 2.5 lb • in2
Drum Inertia = 4.5 lb • in2 (for a 3" dia x 2" long steel drum)

I(eq) = 5 x (1.5)2 = 11.25 lb • in2


I(drum) = 4.5 lb • in2
I(rotor) = 2.5 lb • in2
–––––––––––––––––––––––––
I = 18.25 lb in
(total)
• 2

since the velocity is 15 ft/sec using a 3" drum, the velocity in rev/sec can be calculated:
15 x 12
speed = ––––––– = 19.1 rev/sec

The motor step angle is 1.8°, or 200 steps per revolution. Therefore:

ω' = 19.1 x 200 = 3820 steps per second


ω πθ 1
T = 2 x IO x –– x –––– x –––
t 180 24
3820 3.1416 x 1.8 1
T = 2 x 18.25 x –––––– x –––––––––– x –––
0.5 180 24
T = 364 oz • in = torque required to accelerate the system. Torque required to lift weight equals:

T = wr = 80 x 1.5 = 120 oz • in

30 Techno Linear Motion Catalog www.technoautomation.com


Technical Information

Total torque required is, therefore:

364 oz • in (accelerating torque)


120 oz • in (lifting torque)
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
484 oz • in (total torque)

C. Calculating the torque required to accelerate


a mass moving horizontally and driven by a rack
and pinion or similar device. The total torque w
which the motor must provide includes the torque
required to: r
Motor

a. accelerate the weight, including that of


the rack
b. accelerate the gear
c. accelerate the motor rotor
d. overcome frictional forces

to calculate the rotational equivalent of the


weight:

I(eq) = w r 2

where:
w = weight (lb)
r = radius (in)

Example:
Assume that:
Weight = 5 lb
Gear Pitch Diameter = 3 in
Gear Radius = 1.5 in
Velocity = 15 ft per second
Time to Reach Velocity = 0.5 seconds
Pinion Inertia = 4.5 lb • in2 (assumed)
Motor Rotor Inertia = 2.5 lb • in2

I(eq) = wr 2 = 5 x (1.5) 2 = 11.25 lb • in2


I(pinion) = 4.5 lb • in2
I(rotor) = 2.5 lb • in2

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

I
(total)
= 18.25 lb in
• 2

Velocity is 15 ft per second with a 3" pitch diameter gear. Therefore:


15 x 12
speed = –––––––– = 19.1 revolutions per second

The motor step angle is 1.8° (200 steps per revolution). Therefore, the velocity in steps per second is:

ω' = 19.1 x 200 = 3820 steps per second

Techno Linear Motion Catalog www.technoautomation.com 31


Technical Information

To calculate torque to accelerate system:


ω πθ 1
T = 2 x IO x ––– x ––––– x –––
t 180 24
3820 3.1416 x 1.8 1
T = 2 x 18.25 x ––––– x –––––––––––– x –––
0.5 180 24
T = 364 oz • in

To calculate torque needed to slide the weight, assume a frictional force of 6 oz:

T(friction) = 6 x 1.5 = 9 oz • in

Total torque required:

364 oz • in
+ 9 oz • in
––––––––––––––––––––
= 373 oz • in

Lead Screw Formulas and Sample Calculations

Linear Speed (ipm)


steps / second 1
Linear Speed = –––––––––––––– x 60 x –––
steps / revolution p
where:
p = lead screw pitch in threads per inch

Axial Force (lb)



Force = –––– x T x p x eff.
16
where:
T = torque (oz • in)
p = lead screw pitch in threads per inch
eff. = efficiency expressed as a decimal: 90% = 0.90

Note: Ball screws are generally 85% to 95% efficient. Acme lead screw efficiency is generally 35% to 45%, but
can be as high as 85%.

A. Calculating the torque required to accelerate a mass


moving horizontally and driven by a ball bearing lead screw
and nut. The total torque the motor must provide includes
the torque required to:

a. accelerate the weight


b. accelerate the lead screw w Motor
c. accelerate the motor rotor
d. overcome the frictional force

To calculate the rotational equivalent of weight w :






1
I(eq) = w x ––––
p2
1 2
x –––

( )

32 Techno Linear Motion Catalog www.technoautomation.com


Technical Information

where:
w = weight (lb)
p = pitch (threads per inch)
I(eq) = equivalent polar inertia (lb • in2)

to calculate lead screw inertia (steel screw)

I(screw) = D 4 x length x .028

Example:
Weight = 1000 lbs
Velocity = 0.15 feet per second
Time to Reach Velocity = 0.1 seconds
Ball Screw Diameter = 1.5"
Ball Screw Length = 48"
Ball Screw Pitch = 5 threads per inch
Motor Rotor Inertia = 2.5 lb • in2
Friction Force to Slide Weight = 6 oz

I = w x –– 1 x .025 = 1000 x –––1 x .025 = 1.0 lb • in2
(eq) p2 25
+ I(screw) = D 4 x length x .028 = 5.06 x 48 x .028 = 6.8 lb • in2
+ I(rotor) = 2.5 lb • in2
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––
=I = 10.3 lb in
(total)
• 2

Velocity is 0.15 feet per second, which is equal to 1800 steps per second (motor steps in 1.8° increments).

Torque to accelerate system:



ω' π x 1.8 1 1800 3.1416 x 1.8 1
T = 2 x IO x ––– x ––––––– x ––– = 2 x 10.3 x ––––– x –––––––––––– x ––– = 484 oz • in
t 180 24 0.1 180 24
Torque to overcome friction:

F = .393 x T x p x eff.
6

F 16
T = ––––––––––––– = ––––––––––––– = 0.22 oz • in
.393 x p x eff. .393 x 5 x 0.90
where:
F = frictional force (lb)
T = torque (oz • in)
p = lead screw pitch (threads per inch)

Total torque required = 0.22 oz • in + 484.00 oz • in = 484.22 oz • in

After determining the required motor size, it is recommended to add a 20% factor of safety so that unexpected
dynamic loads are easily handled by the motor.

Sizing Servomotors: Two separate torque figures are needed when selecting a DC motor — a peak torque,
being the sum of acceleration and friction torques, and a continuous torque, which is the friction component only.
The torque produced by the motor is given by:

T = Kτ I

Techno Linear Motion Catalog www.technoautomation.com 33


Technical Information

where Kτ is the motor torque constant (e.g., Nm/amp) and I is the drive current (amp). The choice of motor and
drive must satisfy the following conditions:
1. The product of Kτ and peak drive current must give the required peak torque.
2. The product of Kτ and continuous drive current must produce sufficient continuous torque.
3. The maximum allowable motor current must be greater than the peak drive current.
4. At maximum speed and peak current, the voltage developed across the motor must be less than
80% of the drive supply voltage.

The voltage across the motor is given by:

E = KE ω + R I

where KE is the motor voltage constant, ω the speed, R the winding resistance (ohms) and I the peak current
(amperes). The speed units should be the same in each case; i.e., if the voltage constant is in volts per radian
per second, then ω should also be in radians per second.

To make the most efficient use of the drive, the chosen solution should utilize most of the peak drive current and
most of the available voltage. Motor manufacturers usually offer alternative windings, and care should be taken
to select the most appropriate.

Example:
Leadscrew Length: 80 in L
Leadscrew Diameter: 1.5 in D
Leadscrew Pitch: 2.54 in P
Table Weight: 1000 lb W
Linear Table Speed Required: 472 inches / min
Acceleration Time: 120 ms
D4 L
Inertia of Leadscrew: J = –––––– = 11.25 lb • in2
36
W
Inertia of Table: J = –––––– = 3.88 lb • in2 Linear Table Driven by DC Motor
40 p2
Total inertia = 15.13 lb • in2

Maximum Speed = 472" / min = 1200 rpm (equivalent to 4000 full steps / sec)

Acceleration Torque:

T = –––––– = 660 oz • in (4.65 N • m)
764t
This takes no account of motor inertia, so a suitable motor will be capable of producing around 1000 oz • in
torque.

Again, as with stepper selection, it is recommended to add a 20% factor of safety so that unexpected dynamic
loads are easily handled by the motor.

Note about back driving screws: Due to their efficiency, most ball screws can be back driven. Acme screws,
which have a diameter of at least 3 times the lead are good candidates for preventing a screw from
being back driven.

34 Techno Linear Motion Catalog www.technoautomation.com


Technical Information

7) Control and Electronics

Control and electronics are the brains to any linear motion system. In general, a motor controller performs three
main functions. First, it routes current to the motor windings according to rotor position. It also transforms input
supply voltage into a controllable voltage and current supply for the motor speed and torque control. Finally, in
the case of servo control, it handles all speed and torque feedback loops to meet prescribed static and dynamic
requirements. There are many types of control, and each type has many different components. This section will
discuss some of the more common types and introduce the major components associated with each.

Input and Output Devices are the interface between the controller and the
controlled system and, in effect, tie the controller to the outside world. Input
devices convert physical quantities to electric signals, while output devices
Machine
Controller allow the controller to act on the system. The electronic brain of a control
system depends upon the network of input/output devices (I/O). In the case
of closed-loop servo control, the inputs are critical to operation.
Motor Outputs
Drive Inputs include transducers, sensors and switches. Sensors and transducers
Current convert physical data such as speed, position, temperature, acceleration and
Inputs pressure into electrical signals that are recognized by the controller. Switches
allow the operator to supply information that supplements or overrides input
Machine data. Outputs include power semiconductors and IC’s, relays, and circuit
breakers. By providing control over electric power subsystems that drive
motors and solenoids, they allow the controller to initiate, halt, or modify action
in the controlled system, including turning pneumatic, hydraulic, and electric
devices on and off.

Sensors are used in combination with I/O for a variety of tasks. The most common task is to provide the controller
with a defined work envelope, defining the physical capabilities of the hardware. Typical linear motion machinery
will incorporate switches at both ends of the physical motion limit of each axis to provide the controller with “out of
bounds” information. The switch towards the motor is generally referred to as the home switch while the switch
at the far end is called the limit switch. Upon activating one of these switches, program execution is usually
terminated. The most common types of switches are the mechanical switch which is activated by physical contact,
and the hall effect switch which is activated by magnetic properties. Inductive proximity switches and optical
sensors are also found on systems. Proximity switches have no moving parts and can be extremely repeatable
and reliable if used correctly. Optical switches also have no moving parts, but they can suffer performance
degradation due to dust.

Feedback Sensors are used to perform checks on the static and dynamic state of a system, and are generally
used with servo systems. Encoders and resolvers are used to sense position information, and are further
discussed in the servomotor section of this introduction. Tachometers are used to sense velocity information,
and accelerometers are used to detect acceleration. Each type of sensor performs different tasks, and requires
different types of interfacing to the control.

Proximity switches are commonly seen in process automation applications. A proximity switch is an electronic
switch that acts when it is in the proximity of an object. Inductive proximity switches can detect any metal object
based on local change of inductance, and are highly insensitive to harsh, dirty environments. Capacitive proximity
switches are capable of sensing fluids and nonmetallic objects based on local changes in capacitance. Both
should be applied with care as they can be sensitive when detecting objects that present small targets such as
corners and edges.

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Technical Information

Power Supplies have the task of converting supply AC voltage into usable form. The most common type of
power supply is the regulated type which uses transformers or switching transistors and a rectifying stage.
Accurate power requirements will use different filtering techniques to eliminate AC supply line ripple. Motor
voltage supplies can usually be simple or even unregulated DC supplies. Care should be taken with over voltage
protection. Since a motor is basically a generator run in “reverse”, it generates a braking current when being
stopped. This current either has to be dissipated through resistors or regenerated back into the voltage supply
capacitors. Rapid or frequent braking could overcharge the capacitors, so a mechanism for “dumping” excess
current must be used to protect the power supply.

Stepper Motor Drivers are supplied with the required step sequence from the stepper control card and, in
turn, supplies stepper motors with current and voltage. The function of a stepper motor driver is to drive current
through the appropriate phase windings of the motor to produce a stepped motion.
V+
V+

1A 1B 2A 2B

1 2

2-phase stepper driver in unipolar mode 2-phase stepper driver in Bipolar mode

Note that only half of each phase or coil is en- Note that the entire phase is energized,
ergized at any time. The electronics are less providing greater power. Also note that the
expensive to manufacture but the performance drive electronics have twice as many power
is degraded. components as in the unipolar mode.

A unipolar driver is only able to supply current through a winding in one direction, and the voltage cannot
reverse polarity. This means that the windings are split and only half of the winding is used at a time. A benefit
to this approach is that the electrical time constant is reduced and the motor will have a faster response time;
however, there are significant limitations. To change rotational direction of the motor, current must be channeled
to the other half of the winding in reverse polarity. This creates mutual inductance in the unused portion of the
winding, which reduces motor accuracy. Also, there is a significant loss of torque at low speeds and the motor
becomes very inefficient.

A bipolar driver utilizes all of the windings simultaneously. When reversing direction, the current can be driven
out which reduces current decay and enhances motor performance. In a bipolar drive, phase voltage switches
from positive to negative — i.e., current is actively forced into and out of the windings. Best performance is
usually attained with a four or eight lead motor wired for bipolar parallel drive due to the torque-speed curves
associated with this type of arrangement.

Servomotor Amplifiers perform a very similar task to the stepper driver; however, motion is not actuated
in steps. Servos have smooth continuous motion capabilities, and the amplifiers are designed to provide the
required voltage and current to the motor winding. Since servomotors have only two leads, the motor is reversed
by reversing the polarity of the voltage across the leads. Servo amplifiers are supplied with the current and
voltage requirements, from the servo controller card, which is updated in real time via feedback. Typically, the
controller supplies a 10V analog signal and the amplifier produces a current proportional to this signal. Some of
the newer amplifier/controller systems produce digital signals and skip the analog conversion. This arangement
simplifies the circuitry.

36 Techno Linear Motion Catalog www.technoautomation.com


Technical Information

Stepper Control (open loop): Stepper motor controllers typically operate in one of three modes. Full step mode
provides the coarsest resolution, half step mode is next, and microstep mode offers the smallest resolution. Most
positioning and machining applications are well-served by half step mode, but microstepping may be necessary.
Microstepping is when the control electronics divide each full motor step into many smaller steps by manipulating
the current levels in the windings. If a servo system is not desired, applications involving very low speeds and
much higher resolutions can utilize the advantages of microstepping.

Full Half Micro

Full stepping is a 4-point approximation of the sine/cosine waves. Half step is just an 8-point ap-
proximation of the sine/cosine waves. If more points are used to approximate the sine/cosine waves,
this is called mini- or microstepping.

There are several key points to consider when analyzing A


Torque
a stepper motor control unit. Circular interpolation is
when two stepper motors are controlled simultaneously to
achieve circular motion. Due to the digital nature of stepper B
motors, all arcs have to be approximated by a series
Figure 1 Velocity
of very small line segments. The deviation from a true Velocity
circular path is determined by the size of the line segment Velocity
approximations. Techno stepper motor controllers
execute circular interpolation true to within 1 step at
all points along the arc.
A B t A B t
Since stepper motors have decreased torque output
at increased speeds (see Figure 1), it is important to
understand how control electronics handle acceleration and Acceleration Acceleration
deceleration. Machining and positioning applications often
involve direction and velocity changes. The graphs indicate
a velocity change, over time, from point A to point B. Two
common types of velocity profiles, parabolic and trapezoidal,
are illustrated. Since stepper motors can stall under t t
dynamic shock, it is important to have a smooth velocity
profile (see Figure 2). The most effective way to achieve
a smooth profile is to use parabolic ramping functions
Figure 2 Figure 3
Parabolic Trapezoidal

Techno Linear Motion Catalog www.technoautomation.com 37


Technical Information
at all velocity changes. Parabolic changes in velocity take advantage of the torque versus speed characteristics
of stepper motors. Acceleration during a velocity increase is highest at the beginning of the change, when the
torque output of the motor is at its peak (see Figure 2). Since acceleration is proportional to torque, this situation
is optimal. Trapezoidal profiles require high accelerations at all points, even when the torque output of the stepper
motor is at a minimum (see Figure 3), and thus should be avoided. Parabolic changes provide a smooth transition
from one point to the next, holding dynamic shock or change of acceleration, to a minimum. Trapezoidal profiles,
in contrast, introduce large changes in acceleration, i.e. shock, two times at points in the velocity profile where
torque is relatively low, making the motor susceptible to stalling (see Figure 3). Parabolic velocity control is
especially effective when producing arc sections because arcs require constantly changing acceleration. Techno
stepper motor controllers have been designed to minimize the possibility of dynamic shock during
program execution by incorporating parabolic ramping functions into the control electronics.

Servo Control (closed-loop): The presence of a feedback mechanism is what provides the signal checking,
creating a closed control loop. Feedback is most often found in the form or position feedback, supplied from a
rotary optical encoder. Even with the presence of a comparison routine, several methods must be employed to
overcome system errors.

Proportional gain is a technique that supplies a correction force proportional to the magnitude of the detected
position error. This adjustment puts the system back to close to the desired state, but is incapable by itself of fully
correcting deviations. Integral gain is used to measure and cumulate position errors (steady state errors) so that
a restoring force proportional to the cumulative position error can be applied to the system. A larger cumulative
error results in a larger restoring force, and the system becomes more accurately corrected. Differential gain
is a method that utilizes the time rate of change of the position feedback information and compares it to the
desired velocity. A restoring force proportional to the difference of velocities will act to minimize deviations from
actual and desired velocity rates. These concepts are designed into a PID (Proportional, Integral, Differential)
chip on the controller card. The Techno Servo Controller Card utilizes all three types of system correcting
techniques, providing PID control.
-100%
A second factor to be aware of when
choosing a servo controller is the degree
to which the system is damped. There are
three different scenarios to consider with Underdamped
respect to damping, as shown below.

An underdamped system will overshoot


its destination, then oscillate back and 0 56 112 168 224 280 336 392 MSEC
forth about its desired state. This causes -100%
large inaccuracies and vibrations, which
should be avoided.

A critically damped system is provided Critically


with enough motion damping to overshoot Damped
the target one time, then asymptotically
approach the steady state. This is
preferred in theory, but it is a difficult state 0 56 112 168 224 280 336 392 MSEC
to maintain in reality. -100%

An overdamped system will take a very


long time to reach the desired position,
asymptotically reaching the desired state Overdamped
without position overshoot. This will tend
to put a higher burden on the driving
motors.
0 56 112 168 224 280 336 392 MSEC

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Technical Information
Changes in speeds and loads which are common in machining and positioning applications, contribute to changes
in the tuning of the system. Although most of the dynamic impact of changes are absorbed in the mechanical
reduction unit (ball screw, gear train), there is enough transmitted to the motor to create a slight disturbance. This
causes an “untuning” of the system. Lighter than normal loads can cause a system to approach an underdamped
state, while heavier loads can cause a system to approach an overdamped state. To account for this, the Techno
Servo Controller PID chip has been designed to provide critical to slightly overdamped tuning, so that
an underdamped system is avoided.

PLC’s are another common control type in industry. They are advancing very rapidly, and are becoming smaller,
less expensive, and easier to use. The primary function is to logically link and control I/O. This can be very
useful for repetitive operations that can be actuated by solenoids or other digital devices, as found in pneumatic
applications. However, only more advanced and expensive PLC’s have developed to the point where they can
effectively control complex motor functions. If an application requires extensive logical operations in conjunction
with motor automation, then a motor controller can be operated in conjunction with a PLC by means of the
proper handshaking and data exchange. If an application requires moderate logical operations along with motor
automation, then a Techno controller with I/O capabilities may well serve the entire application.

8) Wiring

Once the task has been reduced to a wiring stage, there is still a lot to consider. In fact, a well-chosen system can
perform poorly or not at all if mistakes are made in the system wiring. Resulting inaccuracies may be experienced,
or worse yet, system failure and hardware damage may follow.

Current carrying capacity of conductors is defined as the amperage a conductor may carry before melting either
the conductor or the insulation. The mechanism of failure for an overloaded wire is excessive heat caused by
electric current flow. There are many factors which limit the amount of current that can be passed through a wire.
The major factors are conductor size, insulation temperature rating, ambient temperature, number of conductors
bundled or twisted together, and installation conditions (heat dissipation is lessened by installation into conduits,
races, and trays). The following table acts as a guide to wire size selection.

Amperes
Polyethylene
Neoprene
Insulation Polyurethane
Materials Polyvinylchloride
Derating Factors for Bundled
(Semi-Rigid)
Conductors
Copper Temp. 80°C
Derating Factor
Bundle # 26 AWG 4
(X Amps)
24 AWG 6
2— 5 0.8 22 AWG 8
6 — 15 0.7 20 AWG 10
16 — 30 0.5 18 AWG 15
16 AWG 19
14 AWG 27
12 AWG 36
10 AWG 47
8 AWG 65

Twisted Pair Wire

Techno Linear Motion Catalog www.technoautomation.com 39


Technical Information

Electronic Noise is a term used to describe unwanted disturbances as a result of electrical equipment. There
are two sides to electric noise: the generation (or emission) of noise and the susceptibility of the equipment to
noise.

Susceptibility to noise can be dealt with at the design level by taking several precautions. Encoders with TTL
outputs should be avoided, and line driver encoders should be used. Similarly, differential input should be used
when possible rather than single-ended analog inputs. Finally, digital I/O should be electrically isolated. One
further precaution is to use an isolation AC power transformer, even if not required.

Electrical Noise Generation can be handled in a number of ways, and the following precautions should be observed
to minimize the possibility of system disturbance:

- avoid creating ground loops in an electronic design


- keep the low level logic wires (encoder wires) separated from the power wires (motor
cables). If they need to cross each other, do so at 90 degrees to minimize the effects
of magnetic fields
- use twisted pairs whenever possible
- use shields when possible and necessary, and connect one end of any shield to ground
- put surge suppression components on all electric coils (RC filters, diodes, MOV’s)
- filter the power line using common RC filters

Having taken these precautions, electric noise should be kept below the system disturbance level.

Grounding of machinery is often done incorrectly. Some applications require that electrostatic discharge on
system hardware be kept to a minimum. The correct procedure is to connect a ground wire directly into the
ground at the back panel of the controller used. Any other grounding technique may produce a slight mismatch
of ground potentials and subsequent noise problems.

Shield

Load

Use single point ground for Use multipoint ground when The shield conductor should
frequencies less than 1 MHz frequencies are greater than be connected to the signal
1 MHz. Note that the ground reference ground. It should
leads must be kept short, or be connected at one point
even more noise could be only.
introduced into the system.

Motor Cable Gauge selection should be made in accordance with standardized wire gauge selection tables.
The gauge is determined based on power requirements. If a longer cable is preferred after selections have been
made, it is recommended as a rule of thumb to move to a wire of heavier gauge, even if the desired length can
handle the current. Quick calculations can be made as follows: Increasing a wire by 3 gauge sizes doubles the
amount of copper in the wire and reduces the resistance by half. For example, going from 22 gauge to 19 gauge
doubles the amount of copper and halves the resistance.

40 Techno Linear Motion Catalog www.technoautomation.com


Technical Information

Choosing Between Stepper and Servomotors


Cost Comparison
In general, stepper motor systems tend to be less expensive
than servomotor systems. Stepper and servo systems often
become comparable in price when the stepper system uses
motors larger than NEMA23 or when microstepping is used.
Servomotors in the NEMA23 frame size tend to be 10% to
30% more expensive than similar stepper systems. Brushless
servomotor systems tend to be 50% to 100% more.

Stepper Technology Servo Technology


Reliability and Maintenance
Stepper motors are brushless. They experience little or no Brush-type servomotors require a change of brushes, typically,
wear, and are virtually maintenance-free. every 5,000 hours. Like steppers, brushless servomotors have
virtually no servicing requirements.
Resolution and Accuracy
For a given screw pitch, typical four phase stepper motors Servomotor resolution depends upon the encoder used.
can produce 200 full steps, 400 half steps, and up to 25,000 Typical encoders produce 2,000 to 4,000 pulses per revolution,
microsteps per revolution. It is significant to note that since and encoders with up to 10,000 pulses per revolution are
the stepper motor is open loop, it does not necessarily achieve available. Since servos, which are closed-loop, can and do
the desired location, especially under load. Particularly poor achieve the available resolution, they are able to maintain
positional accuracy can result when using microstepping, which positional accuracy.
is primarily useful for smoothness of motion.
Speed and Power
Steppers have very poor torque characteristics at Servos can produce speeds and powers two
higher speeds. This condition is improved to four times that of similarily sized steppers.
somewhat by microstepping, however, This improvement is a direct result of
unless the stepper is used in a closed- the closed-loop (i.e., constant
loop mode, it does not usually position feedback), which
perform as well as a servo. allows for higher speed and
greater reliability. The closed-
loop nature of the servo also
allows such a system to better
utilize peak torque capabilities.
Closed Loop vs. Open Loop
Stepper motors are almost always used in an open-loop By nature, servomotors have constant positional feedback.
configuration. If used in a closed-loop, they typically become The positional feedback is used to correct any discrepancy
as, if not more, expensive than servomotor systems. The between a desired and an actual position. This constant
open-loop nature of stepper motors is their principal drawback. corrective action results in faster speeds (up to three times
Commands are issued to move prescribed amounts, and barring the throughput), and increased power (up to three times the
unforeseen circumstances, the motor moves the amounts torque) at high speeds. The closed-loop nature of the servo
prescribed. In rare cases, resonances or unexpected forces also ensures that stalling cannot occur unless there is an
can cause a stepper motor to lose steps or stall out. Although immovable object in the path.
rare, this is an ever present possibility.
Choosing a System
In general, we recommend stepper systems for cost-sensitive applications requiring low-to-moderate volume production
capabilities. Servo systems are recommended for high-speed, high-volume, high-reliability applications. A typical Techno
servo gantry system sells for about $2,700 more than a stepper system. Servos can perform high-speed continuous motion
reliably, making them particularly superior in three-dimensional contouring applications. We have found time reductions of up
to 80% on some applications. The continuous motion also results in better finish quality without the fine faceting that is found
with stepper systems. In addition, the servo’s reliable high-speed continuous motion can reduce the possibility of scorching and
melting when working with woods and plastics.

Techno Linear Motion Catalog www.technoautomation.com 41


Technical Information

Selecting a Ball Screw Slide


First, you must determine...

Travel Distance
Load
Orientation of Load
Cycle Time
Max rpm of Screw
Max Speed
Max Acceleration
Required Torque to Drive Load

With this information, you can start to


determine which ball screw slide is suitable
for your application.

Loading Capacity and Life Expectancy


Nominal Life Expectancy
Fundamental Principle
The nominal life expectancy is achieved, or
The specification of a linear guide is based on the
exceeded 90% of the time before the first
loading capacity of the individual element. The load-
indication of fatigue appears.
ing capacity is described by:
p
L= ( C ) x 1 x 105 m (1)
- the dynamic load data C P
- the static load data C0 p
Lh = 833 x(C) (2)
- the static moments Mx, My, Mz Hxn P
p
Lh = 1666 C
x ( ) (3)
The basis of the dynamic load data, according to DIN V P
standards, is a nominal life expectancy of 100,000 m
L [m] nominal life expectancy in meters
travel. For a nominal life expectancy of 50,000 m, the
load data is 20% higher than those values supplied in
Lh [h] nominal life expectancy in operating hours
this catalog.
C [N] dynamic load
Dynamic Loading Capacity
P [N] dynamic equivalent load
The fatigue behavior of the materials determines
the dynamic loading capacity. The life expectancy is
p Life expectancy index:
dependent on:
ball bearing linear guides: p = 3
- the load on the linear guide roller bearing linear guides: p = 10/3

- the travel speed of the linear guide

- the statistical contingency of the first defect taking


place

42 Techno Linear Motion Catalog www.technoautomation.com


Technical Information

H [m] single stroke length When the loading direction of an element does not
coincide with one of the loading directions, this is the
n [min] number of complete strokes per minute way the equivalent load is calculated as follows:

v [m/min] average travel speed P = F 1 + F2 (5)

Usable Life for a force F and a moment M at the same time, the
The actual life expectancy achieved by a linear guide dynamic equivalent load is:
is known as usable life. The usable life can deviate C0
from the calculated life expectancy. P= F + M x (6)
M0

These conditions can lead to early defects: P [N] dynamic equivalent load

- alignment error between guide rails or guide elements F [N] applied force = √ F12 + F22
- insufficient lubrication
- oscillatory motion with very small strokes (rippling) F1 [N] vertical components, see sketch (4)
- vibration during standstill (rippling)
F2 [N] horizontal components, see sketch (4)
Due to the variation in installations and operating
conditions, it is not possible to determine the exact C0 [N] static load in the direction of the
usable life of a linear guide in advance. The safest applied force
method to obtain a correct assessment of the usable
life is to compare cases with similar installations. M [N • m] applied moment

Combined Loading Capacity M0 [N • m] static moment in the direction of the


F2 applied moment

According to DIN standards, the dynamic equivalent


F1 (4) load should not exceed the value P = 0.5 x C.
F

NOTE: For multi bearing slides, determine individual load on each


bearing block. Then use highest load in above formulas. Equa-
tions for multi bearing slides can be found on page 22.

We must next determine if the ball screw is being turned too quickly
or over loaded. Please see charts on page 16.

Techno Linear Motion Catalog www.technoautomation.com 43


Technical Information

Fr (a) F1
Mz
a
F2
Mx
My F2
F1
F2
Fr (a) = cos a
F1
Fr (a) = sin a

Drive Dimensioning and Calculation of Drive Torque


The nominal drive torque consists mainly of ‘load torque’, ‘acceleration torque’ and ‘no-load torque’.

Definitions
MA [N • m] required drive torque FE [N] external force

MLast [N • m] resulting load torque p [mm] screw lead

MNLT [N • m] no load torque* m[kg] total mass to be moved

Mrot [N • m] rotary acceleration torque a [m/s2] acceleration

Mtrans [N • m] acceleration torque P [kW] driving power

FX [N] feed force nmax [1/min] max. speed

Fa [N] acceleration force µ friction factor = 0.05

g [m/s2] gravity = 9.81 ME [N • m] external load torque

Vmax [m/s] max feedrate Jsyn [Kgm2/m] = 0.0000325

L screw length (mm)

m = mass of load + mass of carriage(s)


*relevant data are given on the following data sheets for the Ball Screw Slides

Acceleration Force Fa Feed Force Fx External Torque ME Resulting Torque MLast


Fa = m x a Fx = m x g x µ FE x d0 Fx x p
ME = MLast =
2 x 1000 2 π x 1000
with vertical loads, the acceleration to
gravity g must be added to the mass
acceleration (g=9.81 m/s2)

Driving Power P Acceleration Torque Mtrans Rotary Acceleration Torque Mrot

MA x nmax x 2 π Fa x p Jsyn x L x nmax x a x 2 π


P= Mtrans = Mrot =
60 x 1000 2 π x 1000 Vmax x 60 x 1000

Drive Torque Formula: MA = MLast + Mtrans + Mrot + MNLT + ME

44 Techno Linear Motion Catalog www.technoautomation.com


Selecting a Ball Screw Slide

No-Load Torque Charts

Standard-Duty Slides
No-Load Torque (N • m)
No-Load Speed (rpm) Screw Pitch

5 10 20
500 0.18 0.2 0.21
1500 0.22 0.24 0.25
3000 0.26 0.29 0.3

Heavy-Duty 2 Slides
No-Load Torque (N • m)
No-Load Speed (rpm) Screw Pitch
2.5 5 10 20
500 0.18 0.2 0.21 0.22
1500 0.24 0.24 0.25 0.26
3000 0.26 0.29 0.3 0.32

Narrow Profile 2 Slides


No-Load Torque (N • m)
No-Load Speed (rpm) Screw Pitch
2.5 5 10 20
500 0.15 0.16 0.17 0.18
1500 0.19 0.19 0.2 0.21
3000 0.23 0.24 0.25 0.26

Techno Linear Motion Catalog www.technoautomation.com 45


Technical Information

Selecting a Belt Slide

First, you must determine...

Travel Distance
Load
Orientation of Load
Cycle Time
Max Speed
Max Acceleration
Required Torque to Drive Load

With this information, you can start to determine which belt slide is suitable
for your application.

Loading Capacity and Life Expectancy

Fundamental Principle Nominal Life Expectancy


The specification of a linear guide is based on the The nominal life expectancy is achieved, or
loading capacity of the individual element. The load- exceeded 90% of the time before the first indication
ing capacity is described by: of fatigue appears.
p
- the dynamic load data C L= ( C ) x 1 x 105 m (1)
P
- the static load data C0 p
- the static moments Mx, My, Mz Lh = 833 x( C ) (2)
Hxn P
C
p
The basis of the dynamic load data, according to DIN Lh = 1666 x( ) (3)
standards, is a nominal life expectancy of 100,000 m V P
travel. For a nominal life expectancy of 50,000 m, the L [m] nominal life expectancy in meters
load data is 20% higher than those values supplied in
this catalog. Lh [h] nominal life expectancy in operating hours

C [N] dynamic load


Dynamic Loading Capacity
P [N] dynamic equivalent load
The fatigue behavior of the materials determines
the dynamic loading capacity. The life expectancy is
p Life expectancy index:
dependent on:
ball bearing linear guides: p = 3
- the load on the linear guide roller bearing linear guides: p = 10/3

- the travel speed of the linear guide

- the statistical contingency of the first defect taking


place

46 Techno Linear Motion Catalog www.technoautomation.com


Technical Information

H [m] single stroke length When the loading direction of an element does not
coincide with one of the loading directions, this is the
n [min] number of complete strokes per minute way the equivalent load is calculated as follows:

v [m / min] average travel speed P = F 1 + F2 (5)

for a force F and a moment M at the same time, the


Usable Life dynamic equivalent load is:
The actual life expectancy achieved by a linear guide
C0
is known as usable life. The usable life can deviate P= F + M x (6)
from the calculated life expectancy. M0
P [N] dynamic equivalent load
These conditions can lead to early defects:
F [N] applied force = √ F12 + F22
- alignment error between guide rails or guide elements
- insufficient lubrication
F1 [N] vertical components, see sketch (4)
- oscillatory motion with very small strokes (rippling)
- vibration during standstill (rippling)
F2 [N] horizontal components, see sketch (4)
Due to the variation in installations and operating
C0 [N] static load in the direction of the
conditions, it is not possible to determine the exact
applied force
usable life of a linear guide in advance. The safest
method to obtain a correct assessment of the usable
M [Nm] applied moment
life is to compare cases with similar installations.
M0 [Nm] static moment in the direction of the
Combined Loading Capacity applied moment
F2
According to DIN standards, the dynamic equivalent
load should not exceed the value P = 0.5 x C.
F1 (4)
F NOTE: For multi bearing slides, determine individual load on each
bearing block. Then use highest load in above formulas. Equa-
tions for multi bearing slides can be found on page 22.

We must next determine if the ball screw is being turned too quickly
or over loaded. Please see charts on page 16.

Techno Linear Motion Catalog www.technoautomation.com 47


Technical Information

Fr (a) F1
Mz
a
F2
Mx
My F2
F1
F2
Fr (a) = cos a
F1
Fr (a) = sin a

Drive Dimensioning and Calculation of Drive Torque


The nominal drive torque consists mainly of ‘load torque’, ‘acceleration torque’ and ‘no-load torque’.

Definitions
MA [N • m] required drive torque m[kg] total mass to be moved

MLast [N • m] resulting load torque a [m/s2] acceleration

MNLT [N • m] no load torque* do [mm]* effective diameter of pulley

Mrot [N • m] rotary acceleration torque P [kW] driving power

Mtrans [N • m] acceleration torque Jsyn [Kgm2]* mass moment of inertia of the pulley

FX [N] feed force nmax[1/min] max. speed

Fa [N] acceleration force µ friction factor = 0.05

g [m/s2] gravity = 9.81 ρ [kg/m]* specific mass of belt

Vmax [m/s] max feedrate* i gear ratio

FE [N] external force ME [N • m] external load torque

mass of belt = ρ x 2 x length of feed profile/1000 m = transport mass + mass of slide + mass of belt
*relevant data are given on the following data sheets for the Belt Drive Slide

Acceleration Force Fa Feed Force Fx External Torque ME Resulting Torque MLast


Fa = m x a Fx = m x g x µ FE x d0 Fx x d0
ME = MLast =
2 x 1000 2 x 1000
with vertical loads, the acceleration to
gravity g must be added to the mass
acceleration (g=9.81 m/s2)

Driving Power P Acceleration Torque Mtrans Rotary Acceleration Torque Mrot

MA x nmax x 2 π Fa x p nmax x 2 π x a
P= Mtrans = Mrot = Jsyn x
60 x 1000 2 π x 1000 60 x Vmax

Drive Torque Formula: MA = MLast + Mtrans + Mrot + MNLT + ME

48 Techno Linear Motion Catalog www.technoautomation.com


Application Examples

BRIDGEgantry design • FORMAT#2


Suggested Applications:
• Adhesive Dispensing
• Inspection Equipment
• Light Machine Tools
gantry design • FORMAT#1

• Laser Measurement
2- or 3-AXES

Gantry FB2 • Page 64


3-AXES Bridge Mounted Slide • Page 70

Suggested Applications:
• Test Stands
• Medical Equipment
• Packaging Equipment
CANTILEVER • FORMAT#4
H-DESIGN • FORMAT#3
2-AXES

2-AXES

3 x Blueline 1 1 x Blueline 1
(2) 90° Carriage Mounts 1 x Blueline 3
(1) Transmission-shaft Bar (1) 90° Carriage Mount
(12) Mounting feet (3) Mounting feet
(1) Coupling set

Techno Linear Motion Catalog www.technoautomation.com 49


Application Examples

X/Y BASE UNITS


X/Z BASE UNITS
Y/Z BASE UNITS

COMPOUND TABLES
(2-AXES)

FORMAT #5 FORMAT #6 FORMAT #7

H-CONSTRUCTION
(2-AXES)

FORMAT #8 FORMAT #9 FORMAT #10

(3-AXES)

FORMAT #11 FORMAT #12 FORMAT #13

FORMAT #14 FORMAT #15 FORMAT #16

50 Techno Linear Motion Catalog www.technoautomation.com


Linear Motion
Application Worksheet

Name: _____________________________________________ Phone: _______________________________

Company Name: ______________________________________ Fax: _______________________________

Address 1: ________________________________________________________________________________

Address 2: ________________________________________________________________________________

City: ________________________________________ State: _________________ Zip: ________________

E-mail: ______________________________________ Please use this area for any notes or diagrams:

Max Load: __________________________________

Max Speed: _________________________________

Max Accel: __________________________________

Travel: _____________________________________

Complete Cycle Time: _________________________

Dwell Time: _________________________________

Accuracy Needed: ____________________________

Repeatability Needed: _________________________

Controls Needed: (Yes / No) ____________________

Software Needed: (Yes / No) ___________________

Orientation of Load: ___________________________


(Formats 1 thru 16)
See previous pages

Techno Linear Motion Catalog www.technoautomation.com 51


Quality and Affordability
by Design
Standard-Duty Slide
Patented anti-backlash ball screw
––
Large convenient mounting surface ––
––
with drilled and tapped holes ––––– ––
––
––––
–––– E
––E

Built-in ––––
–––––
home sensor –––––

E
E –––

–– Patented recirculating
––
bearing blocks
–E
E
–– –
–––– ––
Thick aluminum base plate for
E


strength, rigidity and lightness
–––––

––––

Double rail with two 12 mm precision steel


–––––

shafts provides accuracy and rigidity.


Choice of Double rail is supported along entire length for
stepper or servomotor strength and virtually no flexing.

Protective aluminum cover Blueline 1 Belt Slides


keeps dirt and debris out.
––

Ground steel rails T-slotted carriage


––

provide strength plate for easy mounting.


–E

and accuracy.
––––
–––––––––

–E

HTD® Profile Belt


virtually eliminates
–E backlash.
––E

– ––

Aluminum
––––

extrusion adds
–––––E

–E

stiffness to slide
–––––E

–E
–––––E

Optional foot mounts ––––

Patented bearing carriage


with recirculating ball bearings.
Integral Limit
Switch

All our machines, from slides to gantry systems, are built using innovative designs
to maximize performance and minimize manufacturing costs.
Our products, used in many production systems including 24-hour systems,
are affordable by everyone from schools to large corporations.

52 Techno Linear Motion Catalog www.technoautomation.com

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