Class 24 Learning Goals

Determinants and Organogenesis

(case study: Drosophila)
•  After this class, you should be able to:
•  Identify cases of cellular differentiation and explain the evidence
that supports this conclusion
•  Develop a narrative to explain the molecular mechanisms of
differentiation in a particular cell or small group of cells
•  Evaluate the likelihood of molecular and cellular events in different
parts of organogenesis
 Peer Instruction
Differentiation Role determined
All fates possible
No structures built Mitosis, signaling, construction, etc 1 fate possible
Specific structures
1) Where are the cells that are most differentiated?

2) Which cells have the

most possible fates?

3) Do these cells
have the same DNA?

4) How are differentiated

cells different?
 Peer Instruction
A zygote
Does this cell have all possible DNA?
Are all possible genes being expressed?
Is this cell playing a final functional role or fate?
Stage 1

An adult

Does this cell have all possible DNA?

Are all possible genes being expressed?
Is this cell playing a final functional role or fate?
Arrows indicate directional mitosis. Peer Instruction
Letters are example genes turned on in this cell.

gib2 gib2
gib2 gib2 gib2 gib2 gib2
tgg3 tgg3

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3

zzk1 plub8
tgg3 tgg3 ipl6 ipl6 thh4 thh4
gib2 gib2 hr9
ipl6 ipl6 hr9 ipl6 ipl6 gib2 gib2

Stage 4 Stage 5 Stage 6

s2cc zzk1
zzk1 zzk1
plub8

thh4 thh4
thh4 thh4
hr9 hr9 hr9 hr9

Stage 7 Stage 8 Stage 9

 Peer Instruction
These two Hox genes specify instructions
A gene for digestive structure
for different adult structures.
A gene for
Important: hindbrain structures
•  A group of homeotic
genes called the ‘Hox’
genes determine
organogenesis in flies
•  Hox genes determine
body patterning
Head Thorax Abdomen

Less important, but intriguing…

1)•  Do these this
Amazingly, two is cells have the same DNA?
2) Howcolinear withtheir
will their genes
lineages go on to different fates?
on the DNA
•  Even more amazing, this
is incredibly well
3)conserved
A final indigestive
animals structure
is extremely complicated.
Does the Ubx gene code for all structural elements, or
does it simply turn on a group of needed genes?
 Homeotic genes

Antennae

Haltere
 Peer Instruction
There are many Hox genes that act
as transcription factors for
particular organs.

FRUIT FLY

Is it unusual to see great

similarity in protein sequence Head Thorax Abdomen
between similar Hox genes
in different species?

Is it surprising to see Hox

genes lined up in spatial order
on a single chromosome? MOUSE
Chick hox rib expression (coordinate
expression)

Pattern of gene expression in tetrapods with forelimbs.

In the area where Hoxc6 In the areas where
is expressed by itself, Hoxc6 and Hoxc8 are
the forelimb forms expressed together,
ribs form

Chick Hoxc8
embryo Forelimb Hoxc6
 Concept Questions

•  In this video, identify three specific cells (or groups of cells) that are
undergoing differentiation.
•  How do you know?
•  What other evidence would be needed to prove this?

•  Propose or hypothesize three examples of specific molecular changes

occuring in the cells as they develop into differentiated eye cells.
•  What is a change in gene expression that may be occuring?
•  What is a change in cell signaling that may be occuring?
•  What is a change in enzyme function that may be occuring?

•  In the diagram of meiosis in spermatogenesis, which cells are full

differentiated? Which instead have multiple possible fates?
•  What about for oogenesis: Which are differentiated, and which still have multiple fates?
February 17th, 2016 Class 25 Learning Goals

Cellular Signaling

•  After this class, you should be able to:

•  Propose an appropriate method of cell signaling for use by a
given organism and situation
•  Describe the protein-protein interactions needed within a
signaling system and predict the effects of stronger or weaker
binding based on system details
•  Predict the source of and reason for a maternal determinant
 Peer Instruction
1) Explain how lipid soluble signals work.
Steroid
hormone

Plasma
membrane

2) Why is this Receptor

in cytosol
‘the easy way’?

2) What is a downside Nuclear

membrane
of using a signal that
can enter any cell? Nucleus

Target gene DNA

 Peer Instruction

Intercellular
signal Outside of cell
1) How do membrane
Receptor protein
signal receptors work? in membrane

Inside of cell

Second messengers
2) What is signal
amplification?
Intracellular
signals
 Peer
Peer
Instruction
Instruction
1) Does a single cell
have just one type
of receptor?

2) What do all signal

pathways share in
common?
 Peer Instruction
Tubule of ER passing through
“plasmodesmata”
How else can plant
cells pass signals?

Smooth
endoplasmic
reticulum

Gap
junctions Membrane proteins
from adjacent cells
line up to form
a channel
 Peer Instruction
Why is it advantageous for sea
urchin eggs to release a signal
for sperm to follow?

Is this signal molecule likely to

be a small or large molecule?
Egg

What happens at the sperm

when a ligand is received?
 Peer Instruction
What happens to the sperm after it binds
to the outer jelly coat layer of the oocyte?

Y
Y
Peer Instruction
 Maternal determinants:
Pre-loaded developmental material

•  Follicle cells allow the mother

to load materials into the egg
–  Nutrients
–  Directions!
•  Information-containing molecules
that help the young egg develop
•  Could be proteins, RNAs, etc
•  Spatial localization is crucial
 Concept Questions
•  What type of signaling would be most appropriate for a bloodhound’s
nose cell in which a very small number of signal molecules must create a
response?
•  What type of signaling would be most appropriate for a flexible response
to high temperature in which every cell in the body must respond to the
same signal?
•  Why are plasmodesmata unlikely to be useful for human cells?
•  What would happen to the signal response if the binding between a
second messenger and an intracellular signal was made much stronger?
What about if the binding between the receptor and the signal molecular
was made much stronger?
•  Draw a complete diagram of the sperm and egg after the start of the
acrosomal process but before binding of bindin to fertilizin.
•  Why are paternal determinants rarer than maternal determinants?
•  What cells in a human are most likely to provide maternal determinants?
•  Which molecule(s) are most likely provided maternally to a cell?
•  An adult-acting gene for size determination
•  A gene active in developing the initial lateral-medial axis
•  A nutrient that is crucial for developing in adolescence
•  A protein precursor useful for any rapidly growing cell
 Class 26 Learning Goals
Proliferation (case study: cleavage)
Apoptosis (case study: caspase)
Migration (case study: gastrulation)

•  After this class, you should be able to:

•  Propose several potential uses for cell proliferation,
apoptosis or cellular migration in a developing organism

•  Predict a likely cleavage pattern based on adult body plan

•  Connect logical reasons for apoptosis to potential chemical

cues by a cellular signaling pathway

•  Describe a gastrulating embryo in terms of movements of

large numbers of cells
 Peer Instruction
In a few words:
What is happening
in this organism?

Why is this early stage called ‘cleavage’?

Besides development, where might

we expect to find cell proliferation?
Explain the mechanism of cleavage in each example. Peer Instruction

Radial cleavage: Example:

Spiral cleavage: Example:

Discoidal cleavage: Example:

Yolk

Superficial cleavage: Example:

Cells

Yolk
 Peer Instruction
Why would an adult multicellular organism
intentionally destroy a few of its own cells?

How does apoptosis help to develop

the structure of this paw?
 Peer Instruction
Frog Gastrulation
Ectoderm Mesoderm Endoderm

Blastocoel

Dorsal lip
Cross section

Blastopore

Pre-Gastrulation Initial Gastrulation

Whole embryo
Blastopore

Explain these cell movements.

Frog Gastrulation
Ectoderm Mesoderm Endoderm

Presumptive gut

Cross
section

Whole
embryo

What is happening here?

Proliferation

Apoptosis

Migration

Differentiation

Signaling
 Concept Questions
•  Classify each of the following as needing either apoptosis, migration or proliferation for
optimum development:
–  Growing back an amputated limb
–  Developing a hole in a sheet of cells
–  Connecting two regions of tissue after a wound
–  Preventing widespread viral infection
–  Infecting a host

•  What is the likely cleavage pattern of a sea anemone? A monotreme? A shark species
in which the first-born eats the other siblings? A spirochete (this is a trick question)?

•  Diagram the progression of molecular information between a death signal from a T-cell
and the eventual logical death of the cell.
–  Why is this a good idea?
–  What proteins, if mutated, might disable the ability to undergo apoptosis?

•  Describe two different kinds of cellular migration in this video.