6/8/2013

Dr. Md. Ziaur Rahman Khan

Professor
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology
Dhaka‐1000, Bangladesh

The two terminal MOS Structure: flat‐band voltage, inversion,

properties of the regions of inversion and small signal
p
capacitance. The four terminal MOSO structure: charge‐sheet
g
model, strong inversion, moderate inversion and weak
inversion. Threshold voltage‐effects of ion implantation, short
channel and narrow width. The MOS transistor in dynamic
operation, small signal model for low medium and high
frequencies, Charge Coupled devices (CCD).

Book::
Book
Operation and Modeling of the MOS Transistor
Yannis Tsividis

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2.1  Introduction
Two‐Terminal MOS Structure

The acronym MOS– metal oxide 
semiconductor 

The reasons are historical: in the early days, gates were invariably
made of metal,
metal the insulator was invariably silicon dioxide.
dioxide and
semiconductor unambiguously referred to the body.
Such usage continues today. even though polysilicon became a
widely used gale material and silicon dioxide is not the only material
used for the insulator.

2.2 The Flatband
2.2 The  Flatband Voltage
The gate is made of the same
crystalline material as the body
with the same doping
concentration. Somehow the
same material is used to connect
the gate to the body, in it sense
making one all extension of the
other.
No charges are shown in the silicon, since to each positively charged
hole of the p type
yp material there corresponds
p a negatively
g y charged
g
acceptor atom, from which the hole has originated, and there is no
reason for the holes to pile up in any particular region. The charges.
therefore, cancel and the material is shown as electrically neutral
everywhere.

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2.2 The Flatband
2.2 The  Flatband Voltage
The gate is made out of a certain material.
not necessarily the same as the substrate
material. A metal is used to contact the
gate terminal G to the body terminal B.
Consider going from the gate material
through the external connection t0 the
body. In doing so we encounter several
contact potentials.

The existence of a nonzero potential between the gate material and

the bulk causes net charges to appear on both sides of the oxide. If
e.g. this potential is negative the polarity of the charges will be as
shown in Figure.

2.2 The Flatband
2.2 The  Flatband Voltage
Can an external voltage be applied in such a way that the net charges
disappear?
To make the total potential from
the ggate material throughg the
external connection to the bulk
equal 10 zero, the voltage of the
external source must precisely
cancel the sum of the contact
potentials.
The effect of contact potentials is not the only one that can cause a
net concentration of charges in the body in the absence of external
bias. Another cause is a "parasitic" charge that exists within the
oxide as well as at the oxide‐semicondutor interface.

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2.2 The Flatband
2.2 The  Flatband Voltage
Charges associated with the SiO2/Si system
Interface-trapped charges (Qit)
Metal
Due to some type of incompletely
+
Na
Mobile ionic oxidized silicon atom with
charge (Qm)
Oxide trapped unsatisfied or dangling bonds
K+
charge (Qot) Fixed oxide
SiO2 located in the oxide, but very
charge (Qf)
close to the interface

These charges depend on the

Interface trapped SiO2–Si interface properties and
Charge (Qit) Si related to the chemical
composition of the surface.

Interface trap can be donor or acceptor

Fixed oxide charge (Qf)
Positive charge located within approximately 3nm of the Si-SiO2 interface
Due to incompletely oxidized Si atoms that have a net positive charge. Qf
is called the fixed oxide charge because its charge state does not change
during normal device operation.

2.2 The Flatband
2.2 The  Flatband Voltage
Charges associated with the SiO2/Si system
Oxide trapped charge (Qot)
May be located anywhere in the oxide
Related with defects in the SiO2. These are positive or negative charges
due to holes or electrons trapped in the oxide. Trapping may result from
X-ray radiation,
d avalanche
l h injection, Fowler-Nordheim
l dh tunneling,
l or other
h
mechanisms.
Increased importance in recent years because of the high electric fields
present in scaled devices. These higher fields result in more energetic or
"hot" carriers that can achieve energies high enough to be injected into
the gate oxides of modem MOS devices. If oxide traps are present, or if
they are created by the energetic carriers themselves, charge trapping
can occur. This results in device threshold shifts with time
Mobile ionic/oxide charge (Qm)
These mobile charges are caused primarily by ionic impurities such as
Na+, Li+, K+, and possibly H+. Negative ions and heavy metals may also
contribute to this charge. In semiconductor devices operated under high-
bias and high-temperature conditions, the mobile charge can move back
and forth through the oxide layer and can shift the C-V curve along the
voltage axis. These charges may cause stability problems in such devices

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2.2 The Flatband
2.2 The  Flatband Voltage
we will assume that all parasitic charge is located at the oxide‐
semiconductor interface and that its value. denoted by Q0 is fixed.
This charge is almost always
positive for both p‐ and n‐type
substrates In modern devices.
substrates. devices
the effective interface ion
density is about 1010 to 1011
ions/cm2 corresponding to an
effective interface charge density
of 0.032 to 1.6 fC/cm2
A battery of value ΦMS is used in this figure to cancel the effect of the
contact potentials discussed previously. so that we can study the
effect of Q0 by itself. The charge Q0 will cause a total charge –Q0 to
appear in the system as demanded by charge neutrality.
Part of that charge will appear on the gate and part in the body

2.2 The Flatband
2.2 The  Flatband Voltage
If all the required balancing charge – Q0 were provided on the gate.
no charge would be induced in the semiconductor.
To provide a charge – Q0 on the
gate, a battery can be connected
in series with the external
circuit. with the (‐) terminal
with the gate.
where

ε0 the permitivity of free space (8.854 x 10‐14 F/cm) and kOX is the
di l t i constant
dielectric t t off the
th insulator:
i l t for
f Si0
Si 2 kOX = 3.9.
In modern technologies. other insulator materials are used as well.
In such cases. This equation is still used. With tOX understood t0 be
the "equivalent oxide thickness" (EOT) defined as the thickness of a
SiO2 insulator that would be needed in that equation to give the
correct value for the capacitance per unit area.

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2.2 The Flatband
2.2 The  Flatband Voltage
An External voltage can be used between the gate and substrate
terminals to keep the semiconductor everywhere neutral by
canceling the effects of the contact potentials and Q0.
This voltage is called the flat band voltage and is denoted by VFB.
The reason for this name is that with the gate‐to‐body
gate to body voltage VGB
equal t0 VFB the energy bands in the body, if plotted versus depth,
are flat as expected of a neutral body

2.3 Potential Balance and Charge Balance

Four kinds of potential drops are encountered in the loop
1. The voltage of the external source VGB
2. The potential drop across the oxide ψOX
3. The surface potential ψS
4. Several contact potentials.

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2.3 Potential Balance and Charge Balance

If the gate, the body. contact. and the wires were all made of the
same material (e.g .. aluminum), the only contact potential involved
would be between the body and its metal contact.
Note that in the equation ΦMS is a known constant: therefore any
changes in VGB must be balanced by changes in ψOX, and ψS
Lets consider the charge 
I. The charge on the gate QG
2. The effective interface charge QO
3. The charge in the semiconductor under the oxide Q
h h h d d h d C
These charges must balance one another for overall charge
neutrality in the system:

2.4 Effect of Gate‐Body Voltage on Surface 
2.4 Effect of Gate‐
Condition
Depending on whether VGB is equal to, less than or greater than the
flatband voltalge VFB three cases are distinguished.

2.4.1 Flatband Condition

2.4.2 Accumulation

Holes will accumulate at the surface to provide a net positive charge.

The negative change in VGB causes negative changes in ψOX, and ψS

The positive change in VGB
2.4.3 Depletion and Inversion causes positive changes in 
ψOX, and ψS

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2.4 Effect of Gate‐Body Voltage on Surface 
2.4 Effect of Gate‐
Condition
Depending on whether VGB is equal to, less than or greater than the
flatband voltalge VFB three cases are distinguished.

2.4.1 Flatband Condition

2.4.2 Accumulation
Holes will accumulate at the surface to provide a net positive charge.
The negative change in VGB causes negative changes in ψOX, and ψS

2.4 Effect of Gate‐Body Voltage on Surface 
2.4 Effect of Gate‐
Condition
The positive change in VGB
2.4.3 Depletion and Inversion causes positive changes in 
ψOX, and ψS
The charge QC is due t0 the
uncovered acceptor atoms.
each of which contributes a
charge – q and we can assume
the presence of a '"depletion
region"" as in the p side of the
region
pn j unction
As VGB is increased further more acceptor atoms arc uncovered and
ψS becomes sufficiently positive to attract a significant number of
free electrons to the surface: each of these electrons will also
contribute a charge ‐ q to QC

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2.4 Effect of Gate‐Body Voltage on Surface 
2.4 Effect of Gate‐
Condition Carrier 
Concentration
The oxide is assumed
g to
to be thick enough
block the flow of
current and thus
equilibrium is
maintained in the
substrate. Deep in the
neutral bulk outside
the depletion region.
the values of the hole
and electron
concentrations will be
p0 and n0.

Effect of Gate‐
Effect of Gate‐Body Voltage on Surface Condition
2.4.3 Depletion and Inversion
At ψS=ΦF becomes equal to the
intrinsic concentration, nsurface =psurface∙
The total band bending in this case is
qΦF. i.e. Ei bends just enough to touch
Ef. This is defined as the boundary
between the depletion and inversion
regions. nsurface will be nonzero even
in depletion but will be much smaller
than ni even for ψS , smaller than ΦF
by only a few Φt. With increasing ψS
above ΦF , nsurface increases drastically.
and at ψS=2ΦF we have nsurface= NA

If the body is made of n‐type material the inversion layer in this case will
consist of holes, which will be attracted to the surface if VGB is sufficiently
negative.

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Effect of Gate‐
Effect of Gate‐Body Voltage on Surface Condition
2.4.4 General Analysis
The electron and hole concentrations as a function of potential , are given by the following 
relations
At surface, x=0 

The potential as a function of distance can be

obtained by using the one dimensional Poisson
equation where  ρ(x) is the total 
space‐charge
At bulk, ψ(∞) = 0, ρ(x) = 0 and 
g g
Integrating from the surface toward the bulk

Effect of Gate‐
Effect of Gate‐Body Voltage on Surface Condition
2.4.4 General Analysis
From this surface field, we can deduce the total space charge per unit area by applying
Gauss' law:

The charge per unit area above the oxide
g p
At this point. we have four equations that completely
characterize the MOS structure under our assumptions.
These equations are:

Let us assume that VGB is given. and we need to determine QC and ψS

QC  (QG  Q0 ) QC  COX OX  MS  VFB COX 
QC  COX  OX  MS  VFB 

body effect 
coefficient

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Effect of Gate‐
Effect of Gate‐Body Voltage on Surface Condition
2.4.4 General Analysis

Accumulation and Depletion
In accumulation and depletion the contribution of electrons can be
g
neglected.

This equation can be used as long as ψS<ΦF
In Deep Accumulation (ψS, below zero by several Φt).
In Deep Depletion (ψS, above zero by several Φt and less than ΦF

2.5 Inversion
2.5.1 General Relations for Inversion
In Accumulation ,ψS above zero greater than ΦF  
The total charge (per unit area) below the oxide is the sum of the charge
y QI’ and the charge
due to the electrons in the inversion layer g due to the
ionized acceptor atoms in the depletion region QB’

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2.5 Inversion

Charge Sheet Approximation
inversion layer thickness is negligible. The potential drop across the
inversion layer, which is the urea of the corresponding part in the field plot
approaches zero . We can assume that all of the surface potential is
dropped across the depletion region .
field is the area under the volume charge 
density, qNAdB divided by the permittivity 

2.5 Inversion

Three regions are marked weak

moderate and strong inversion
LO  F MO  2 F HO  2F  Z 0

QB ' ( S )  QI ' ( S )
VGB  VFB   S 
COX
 S  2 F 
t
VGB  VFB   S    S  t e

VL 0  VFB  F   F VM 0  VFB  2F   F

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2.5 Inversion
QI '  QG 'Q0 'QB ' QI '  COX OX  Q0 'QB '

QI '  COX VGB  S  MS   Q0 'QB '

QI '  COX VGB  COX S  COX MS  Q0 'QB '

  Q'  
QI '   COX VGB  COX S  COX  MS  0   COX  S 
  COX  


QI '  COX VGB  S  VFB    S 
2.5.2 Strong Inversion
A very common assumption is that
in strong inversion ψS is practically
p
"pinned" to a constant value:

The quantity V TO is called the extrapolated threshold voltage of the MOS

two‐terminal structure.

2.5.3 Weak Inversion

QB ' ( S )  QI ' ( S ) QB ' ( S )

VGB  VFB   S  VGB  VFB  S 
COX COX
 S  2 F 
t
VGB  VFB  S    S  t e VGB  VFB  S    S

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2.5.4 Moderate Inversion
In moderate inversion, none of the
simplifications discussed previously is
valid

2.6 Small‐Signal Capacitance

The denominator of the last fraction, therefore,

can be interpreted as a small‐signal capacitance
corresponding to the semiconductor charge
region. It relates the changes of the potential
across that region to the corresponding changes
in its charge.

2.6 Small‐Signal Capacitance

Accumulation Deep in Depletion and in Inversion

depletion region incremental

capacitance per unit area
capacitance per unit area associated
with the inversion layer

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2.6 Small‐Signal Capacitance

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