Beverage Technology PDF

Course Introduction 1
Beverage
Technology Introduction to Fruit Beverage 2
Training Document
This Training Document is intended for
Training purposes only, and must not be
used for any other purpose.
Beverage Characteristics 3
The Training Document does not replace
any instructions or procedures (e.g. OM,
MM, TeM, IM, SPC) intended for specific
equipment, and must not be used as such.
Note!
For safe and proper procedures, refer to
the equipment specific documentation.
Parameters Affecting Beverage Quality 4
Name: Apple Juice Concentrate Production 5

................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
Orange Juice Concentrate Production 6
Production of Fruit Based Beverages 7
Processing Motives 8
Course Conclusion 9
Technical Training Centre

Lund, Sweden
WB-64-01 10
Issue 1/0507
Contents
1 Course Introduction
Safety regulations at the Technical Training Centre in Lund . . . . . TM-00001
2 Introduction to Fruit Beverage

Beverages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 617
Estimated worldwide consumption of beverages 1994 . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 618
Western Europe, Consumption trends 1976-1994. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 619
USA, Consumption trends 1976-1994. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 620
Products in Tetra Pak packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 621
Apple growing areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 622
Orange growing areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 623
Pineapple growing areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 624
Pineapple growing areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 625
Different standards for fruit juice/nectar concentrate . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 626
Requirements on fruit for juice production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 627
Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 628
Contaminations (Example) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 629
RSK Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 630
Methods of analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 631
Fruit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 632
Fruit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 633
Juice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 634
From fruit to beverages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 635
Nectars and fruit drinks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 636
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TM-00008
3 Beverage Characteristics
Beverage characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 637
Beverage characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 638
Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 639
Degree Brix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 640
Degree Brix measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 641
Working principles of refractometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .OH 642:1
Working principles of refractometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .OH 642:2
Acidity and pH. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 643
pH is measured with a ph-electrode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 644
Brix/acid ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 645
Suspended solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 646
Methods for analysing amount of solid matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 647
Colour analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 648
Beverage Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TM-00005
Technical Training Centre 1/9610 I

4 Parameters Affecting Beverage Quality
Factors affecting beverage quality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 649
Raw material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 650
Microbiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 651
Bacteria-Yeast-Moulds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 652
Bacterial growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 653
Microorganisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 654
Microorganisms - Growth factors, pH. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 655
pH of various fruit juices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 656
Microorganisms - Growth factors, Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 657
Water activity = aw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 658
Microorganisms - Growth factors, Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 659
Microorganisms - Growth factors, Oxygen. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 660
Microorganisms - Growth factors, Nutrients. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 661
Sources of microorganisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 662
High acid food-MiBi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 663
Enzymes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 664
The function of Enzymes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 665
Enzymes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 666
Microbiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TM-00007
Enzymes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TM-00006
5 Apple Juice Concentrate Production

Apple processing line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .OH 668:1
Apple processing line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .OH 668:2
Apple processing line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TM-00012
Clarification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 689
Aim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 690
Enzymatic treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 691
Enzymatic pectin degradation with pectolytic enzymes . . . . . . . . . . . OH 692
Enzymatic starch degradation amylase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 693
Fining. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 694
Fining adsorbing substances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 695
Clarifying substances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 696
Isolectric point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 697
Apple Juice Concentrate Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TM-00018
6 Orange Juice Concentrate Production

Orange Juice Concentrate Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TM-00004
Technical Training Centre 1/9610 II

7 Production of Fruit Based Beverages
From fruit to beverages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 635
Beverages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 617
A still drink processing line. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 669
Ingredients for fruit based beverages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 670
Ingredients fot pure juice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 671
Tetra Albrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 672
Still drink blending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 673
Blending. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 674
Product stabilising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 675
Pasteurisation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .OH 676:1
Pasteurisation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .OH 676:2
What is sufficient heat load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 677
Variations in microbiological load and ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 678
Tetra Therm Aseptic Drink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .OH 679:1
Tetra Therm Aseptic Drink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .OH 679:2
Deaeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .OH 680:1
Deaeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .OH 680:2
Tetra Therm Aseptic Drink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 681
Homogenisation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .OH 682:1
Filling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 683
Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OH 684
Basic still drink line, sugar dissolving. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TPPE-SD-0001
8 Processing Motives
This section intentionally left empty.
9 Course Conclusion
This section intentionally left empty.
Technical Training Centre 1/9610 III

1
Course
Introduction

Information regarding
Safety Regulations at the
Technical Training Centre in Lund
This list summarizes a number of items which may concern you, as a
participant in this training course. Read the list, and if anything re-
mains less than clear, or if you have any questions, feel free to contact
your instructor.
1. Study and follow the sections on Safety in the course literature, for
instance the OM, MM and EM.
2. You are entitled to ask persons who have no business to be near the
machine, to stay at distance, for safety reasons.
3. Never touch any other machines than those used in your own training
course.
4. There may be cables which are still electrically live, although they
have been disconnected from their terminals.
5. In some machines, safety switches may be bridged or disconnected,
for training reasons.
6. Find out exactly where the emergency stop switches for the machine
as well as the conveyor are located.
7. When starting a machine, the person doing the starting must make
absolutely sure that this does not expose anyone else to danger.
8. Certain chemicals, used in your training course, may be hazardous to
your health and constitute a danger of fire or explosion. Make sure
you know how such chemicals are marked and how to handle them.
9. It is strictly prohibited to wear rings, watch, or necktie when working
with the machine. This prohibition also applies to loose-fitting
clothes or anything else that might get caught in the machinery.
10. A first aid kit and stretcher are kept in the machine hall.
11. Study the information on what to do in case of fire and which escape
routes to follow. A diagram of escape and evacuation routes is posted
in every classroom.
12. If you observe or discover anything that might jeopardize safety,
immediately tell your instructor.
Technical Training Centre 1/9701 TM-00001

2
Introduction to Fruit
Beverage

Beverages
Lund, Sweden
Alcoholic Coffee Soft drinks Packaged
beverages Tea water
Machine type
Processing
Beer Wine Spirits
Still drinks Carbonated
soft drinks
Issue
1/9610
Fruit juice Nectars Other
still drinks
OH 617
Estimated worldwide consumption
230
of beverages 1994
Lund, Sweden
bio litres 210 Total 940 bio litres

200
Machine type
150 140
115
Processing
100
100
65
Issue
55
50
1/9610
20
5
0
OH 618
Tea Liquid Carb. Beer Coffee Bottled Juice/ Wine Spirits
milk soft water nectar/
prod. drinks still drinks
Source: Canadean, The Economist Intelligence Unit, "World Drink Trends 1994", AMS 1994, TLMS estimates
Western Europe
Consumption trends 1976 - 1994
Lund, Sweden
Litres/capita/year

120
Beer
100 Tea
Machine type
White milk
80 Carbonates
Processing
Coffee
60 Juices & Juice drinks
Wine
Issue
40 Packaged water
1/9610
20
OH 619
1976 1994
Source: AMS 1994
USA
Consumption trends 1976 - 1994
Lund, Sweden
Litres/capita/year

200
Beer
Machine type
Tea
150 White milk
Carbonates
Processing
Coffee
100
Juices & Juice drinks
Issue
Wine
Packaged water
1/9610
50
OH 620
1976 1994
Source: AMS 1994
Products in Tetra Pak packages
Lund, Sweden
Pasteurised

UHT milk
milk 26% 44%
Machine type
Processing
Issue
1/9610
Juice/drinks
25% Wine 3%
Others 2%
OH 621
1995
Based on volume 44 755 mio litres
Apple growing areas
Technical Training Centre Machine type Issue

Lund, Sweden Processing 1/9610 OH 622
Orange growing areas

Pineapple growing areas

Pineapple growing areas

Different standards for fruit
Lund, Sweden
juice/nectar/concentrate

1. FAO/WHO food standard programme
codex alimentarius commission (Rome)
Machine type
2. FDA Food and Drug Administration (USA)
Processing
3. EC fruit juice directive (Brussels)
4. AIJN-Code of practice (Association of the

industry of juice and nectars from fruits and vegetables
Issue
of the European Economic Community)
1/9610
5. German order concerning fruit juice
(Berlin, 11 july 1990)
6. Gost-Norms (Moscow USSR)
OH 626
Requirements on fruit for juice production

Germany
Lund, Sweden
Fresh, or preserved by chilling, sound,

suited for consumption and of a suitable
degree of ripeness containing
Machine type
all essential constituents needed
for the production of fruit juices
Processing
Issue
1/9610
OH 628
Contaminants (Examples)
Lund, Sweden
Max PPM Max G/L
Arsenic (AS) 0.1 Ethanol 3.0
Machine type
Lead (Pb) 0.2 Lactic acid 0.5
Cupper (Cu) 5.0 Volatile acid
Zink (Zn) 5.0 AS acetic 0.4
Processing
Iron (Fe) 5.0 Patulin mg/l 50
Tin (Sn) 1.0 Sulphurous acid mg/l 10
Mercury (Hg) 0.01 Sodium mg/l 30
Issue
Cadmium (Cd) 0.02 Nitrate mg/l 10
Cesium (Cs) n.d.
1/9610
OH 629
RSK Values
Lund, Sweden
Richtwerte und Schwankungsbreiten
Machine type
bestimmter Kennzahlen...
Processing
Guide values and ranges
Issue
of specific reference numbers...
1/9610
OH 630
Methods of analysis
Lund, Sweden
IFFJP international federation
Machine type
of fruit juice producers
Processing
For legal purposes
Issue
For commercial purposes
1/9610
For production control etc.
For scientific purposes
OH 631
Pomace
Raw juice/Must
Crushing/Milling
Pressing
Mash
Fruit

Fruit
Lund, Sweden
Crushing/Milling

Mash
Machine type
First Pressing 1.st Juice
Processing
Dejuiced mash Extraction of water
Issue
1/9610
Second Pressing 2.nd Juice
diluted
OH 633
Pomace
Juice
Lund, Sweden
Aroma stripping Aroma water
Product condensate
Machine type
Dearomatised juice
Processing
(Preconcentrated juice)
Issue
Evaporation Product condensate
1/9610
OH 634
Juice concentrate
From fruit to beverage
Lund, Sweden
Fruit Ingredients
Machine type
Fruit handling Ingredient handling
Juice winning Ingredient blending
St
T
o
Processing
ra
an
g
Heat treatment Pasteurisation
s
e
po
rt
Juice clarification Deaeration
Issue
Juice concentration Filling
1/9610
Aroma recovery Beverage
Fruit juice concentrate
OH 635
Storage
Distribution
Nectars and fruit drinks
Lund, Sweden
Raw materials Processing & packaging

Machine type
Fruit juice concentrate Blending
Water Homogenisation
Processing
Sugar Deaeration
Issue
Aroma concentrate Pasteurisaton
1/9610
Other ingredients Filling
(Acids, vitamines etc)
OH 636
Glossary
Alcoholic beverages. Beverages containing alcohol.
Aroma. Means a combined impression left by odoriferous and taste
components in the sense organs, nose and tongue.
Aroma water. Product condensate from the juice first evaporated and
which contain the volatile fruit aroma components.
Beverages. Liquid consumed by human as a source to quench thirst, as
a source of nutrition, as a source of pleasure or a combination of the
above. Normally the definition is restricted to commercially available
beverages which exclude tap water or other home made beverages.
Carbonated drink. Carbonated beverage.
Clear juice. Juice free from particles, normally filtered.
Cloudy juice. A juice which has been processed to stay cloudy. Not fil-
tered.
Concentrate/Concentrated fruit and vegetable juice. Juice concen-
trated by removal of water. Unfermented product, which is capable of
fermentation after reconstitution, obtained from the mature fresh fruit or
vegetable. The product must be preserved exclusively by physical
means and may be clear or turbid.
Condensate. Steam or vapour condensed to water.
Cut back. Concentrate blended with single strength juice in order to ob-
tain the taste of fresh juice. The concentrate of 65 Brix is “cut back” to
45 Brix by diluting with single strength juice.
Deaeration. Deaeration reduces the amount of free oxygen available in
the product for destruction of vitamin C and other oxidation reactions.
Dearomatisated juice. Juice liberated from aroma normally by evapo-
ration.
Dejuiced mash. Mash after a first extraction step intended for further
extraction.
Extraction/Pressing/Juice winning. Separation of the liquid phase of
fruits or vegetables from the peel and cellular tissue constituents of the
fruit.
Floaters. Fruit particles (cells and/or fibres), which float up to the liquid
surface.
Fold. Number of volume reduction, especially used for aroma concen-
tration.
Fruit and vegetable juice. Unfermented but fermentable liquid ob-
tained from the mature fresh fruit or vegetable. The liquid is preserved
exclusively by physical means and has normally nothing added or sub-
tracted. The liquid may be turbid or clear.
Fruit aroma. Describes the total aroma of all volatile substances im-
parting i typical character to a fruit or fruit juice. Every fruit aroma is a
mixture of different aroma components.
Technical Training Centre 1/9610 TM-00008 Training Document. For training purpose only. 1
Fruit drink. Product in which the fruit juice content is less than 100%.
Sugar may be added, but no artificial ingredients.
Fruit purée (pulp). Whole fruit extract excluding skin, peel and seeds.
Functional drinks. Beverage containing certain functional foods, such
as diet fibres, ginseng etc.
Isotonic drinks. Beverages having similar osmotic pressure and similar
mineral content as human blood.
Juice winning/Extraction/Pressing. Separation of the liquid phase of
fruit.
Mash. Crushed or milled fruit.
Mixed condensate. Condensate originating from vapours and steam
being a mixture of them both.
Must. Liquid coming from the press or the extractor intended for fur-
ther treatments, see also Raw juice.
Nectar pulp. Also called nectar base. The basic juice obtained when
processing nectar fruit. It contains all the juice and pulp from the fruit.
Typical fruits used for nectars are stone fruits, for example peach, apri-
cot, plum, mango, guava and cherry but also apples and pears.
New age beverages. Recently designed beverages generally made from
carbonated (mineral) waters, slightly flawored with fruit aroma.
Pomace. Solid residue after extraction of juice from a mash.
Preconcentrated juice. Juice concentrated to certain degree but intend-
ed for further concentration.
Pressing/Extraction/Juice winning. Separation of the liquid phase of
fruit.
Product condensate. Condensate from vapour originating only from
the product (juice).
Product vapour. Vapour originating only from boiling product.
Pulp content. Unsoluble fruit particles normally hold in suspension.
Normally expressed as suspended solids by volume.
Raw juice. Juice comming direct from the extractor intended for further
processing. See also Must.
Reconstituted juice. Juice made out from concentrate by readdition of
the same amount of water as removed during concentration. The juice
has the same sensoric and analytical characteristics as juice obtained
from fruit of the same kind.
Single strength juice. Juice of its original strength. Often made from a
concentrate rediluted to correspond to a freshly pressed juice.
Soft drink. Non-alcoholic beverage.
Sport drink. Beverage specially designed for consumption after sport
activity, containing monosaccarides, vitamines and minerals.
Steam condensate. Condensate from steam originally from a steam
boiler.
Steam, live steam. A heating media in vapour form, produced from wa-
ter in a boiler.
Still drink. Non-carbonated beverage.
Vapour. When boiling juice or product, vapour is produced.
3
Beverage
Characteristics

What characterises a beverage?
Beverage characteristics

Beverage characteristics

Lund, Sweden
Water > 85%

Soluble solids –mostly sugars
(sucrose, glucose,fructose)
Machine type
–acids
–minerals (salts)
Processing
–other dissolved
material
Issue
Suspended solids –particles of solid
material
1/9610
OH 639
Lund, Sweden
Degree Brix

Definition: weight % sucrose
Machine type
in water solution at 20° C
Processing
≈ weight % sugars at 20° C
(if acid corrected)
Issue
≈ weight % soluble solids
1/9610
OH 640
Degree Brix measurements
Lund, Sweden
0
10

Density: 20
– hydrometer
30
40
50 (aerometer)
60
Machine type
70
80
90 – pyknometer
100
110
Processing
120
130 Light refraction:
– refractometer
30
Issue
3
20 2
1
0–+
10 1
2
3
1/9610
0
50 ml
OH 641
Working principles of refractometers
Optimal image
Process medium

Lund, Sweden Processing 1/9610 OH 642:1
Working principles of refractometers

Lund, Sweden
Acidity and pH

pH < 7
Machine type
Acid + H2O Acid- + H3O+
Processing
Base + H2O Base+ + OH- pH > 7
Neutral solution [H3O+] = [OH-] pH = 7
Issue
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Lund, Sweden
pH is measured with a pH-electrode

Acidity is measured by titration with NaOH
Machine type
❑ expressed as gram acid/l
e.g. tartaric acid or citric acid
Processing
❑ expressed as milli-equivalents/l
Issue
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Lund, Sweden
Brix/acid ratio

Machine type
– balance of sweet and sour
– maturity of fruit
Processing
° Brix (corrected)
Issue
weight % citric acid
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Lund, Sweden
Suspended solids

Machine type
❑ solid matter that scatters light, resulting
in a cloudy appearance
Processing
❑ should not sediment during
Issue
processing and storage
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Methods for analysing amount
Lund, Sweden
of solid matter

Machine type
❑ centrifugation
Processing
❑ sieving methods
❑ turbidimeter
Issue
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❑ spectrophotometer
OH 647
Lund, Sweden
Colour analysis

❑ comparison of sample to colour standards
Machine type
eg. USDA-tubes for orange juice
Processing
❑ measurement of Lab colour scale
with Hunter or Minolta colorimeter
Issue
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❑ measurement of light absorbance
at certain wavelength, eg. 420 nm
for browning of orange juice
OH 648
Beverage
Characteristics
The absolute largest component of a beverage is water in which other com-
pounds are dissolved or suspended. The compounds that are dissolved are of-
ten called soluble solids, while suspended (dispersed) material is often called
suspended solids. Since suspended solids are not dissolved, but are still solid
particles they scatter light which results in a cloudy or opaque appearance of
the beverage.
The properties of a beverage such as taste, aroma, mouthfeel and colour are all
related to the soluble and suspended solids. Soluble solids such as sugars and
acids are important for taste, while other soluble compounds, though present
in very low concentrations, are responsible for aroma and colour. Suspended
primarily affect appearance and mouthfeel, but also colour.
Degree Brix and soluble solids

The compounds that are dissolved in the water of a beverage are mostly sugars,
acids and minerals, of which sugars are the largest part. The sugars are mostly
sucrose, glucose and fructose.
The beverage industry uses the degree Brix scale as a measure of concentra-
tion. The degree Brix scale was developed in the sugar industry and related the
concentration of sucrose solutions to solution density. The scale used today is
still based on sucrose solutions at 20 °C, and if the degree Brix is measured at
other temperatures the sucrose concentration should be corrected for the tem-
perature difference.
In a beverage other dissolved materials than sugars will affect the Brix meas-
urements. The acids that are the second most abundant dissolved material are
therefore often measured and corrected for, when the sugar concentration is
measured. In the beverage industry the term degree Brix is often used inter-
changeably as the weight-% sucrose and the weight-% soluble solids of a juice
or beverage when accuracy is not of great importance. In situations were ac-
curacy is necessary the degree Brix should be corrected for the acid content.
Usually the acid corrections are small for single strength juices.
Degree Brix ( °Brix, °Bx) ≈ % soluble solids (w/w)

Degree Brix ( °Brix, °Bx), corrected ≈ % sugar (w/w)
Measuring degree Brix
Brix can be measured either by density measurements or by measurements of
the refractive index of the beverage. Both are then related to a 100% sucrose
solution.
Brix measured by density

Hydrometer (Aerometer) The buoyancy of a hydrometer is directly proportional to the density of the so-
lution and therefore a scale on the neck of the hydrometer can be calibrated to
a Brix scale, see figure.
0
10 Dissolved gases will affect the buoyancy, therefore the juice should be deaer-
20
30
ated before Brix measurements. Temperature also affects the density of the so-
40 lution and many Brix hydrometers have a built-in thermometer and
50
temperature correction scale. In the absence of a temperature correction scale
60
70
there are tables that can be used. Hydrometers are mostly used for single-
80 strength juices. In single-strength juice corrections for acids are small and
90
100
therefore generally not used with hydrometers.
110
120
This method is the most economical commercial method, but requires up to
130 200 ml of sample and is not a very fast method.
30
3
20 2
1
0–+
10 1
2
3
0
Pyknometer The pyknometer is a glass vial in which an exact volume can be measured, see
figure below
The pyknometer (clean and dry) is weighed. The sample is filled into the py-
knometer, but not all the way up to the marking. After filling it with sample,
the pyknometer is temperated at 20 °C and then carefully filled up to the mark-
ing. The pyknometer, now containing an exact volume of the sample, is
weighed again. The balance used should be accurate and show 4 decimal
points. Using a pyknometer the density of a liquid can be measured very accu-
rately. The method, though, is very time consuming.
50 ml
Brix measured by light refraction
Refractometer Light travels at different speed in different media, i.e. the speed of light is dif-
ferent in air, water or a sugar solution. When light passes from one medium to
another it is refracted, i.e. it changes direction slightly. This property of a me-
dium can be quantified as its refractive index. The refractive index of a sugar
solution depends on the sugar concentration. Therefore, the degree Brix (or
density) can be determined by measuring the refraction of light.
There are analog, see figure above, and digital hand refractometers. A refrac-
tometer is more expensive than a hydrometer, but is the most frequently used.
A refractometer requires very little sample, 2-3 ml, which does not need to be
deaerated. Also, a refractometer reading is performed much quicker. The
standard error for Brix readings is ± 0.1 °Brix, i.e. Brix values should be ex-
pressed only to the nearest tenth of a Brix.
Beverages often contain particles that scatter light and because of this the
boundary between light and dark, were the Brix value should be read, will be
fuzzy instead of a sharp line. In these cases the Brix should be read in the mid-
dle of the “shadow”.
Often modern refractometers compensate for temperature, but correction for
acids can be necessary, especially for concentrates. See table on page .
Acidity and pH
Acidity of solutions
When an acid (e.g. citric acid) is mixed with water it releases hydrogen ions
(protons) with a positive charge (H+). These quickly attach themselves to wa-
ter molecules, forming hydronium (H3O+) ions.
When a base (e.g. metal oxide or hydroxide) is added to water, it forms a basic
or alkaline solution. When the base dissolves it releases hydroxide (OH-) ions.
• A solution that contains equal numbers of hydroxide and hydronium ions is
neutral.
• A solution that contains more hydroxide ions than hydronium ions is alka-
line.
• A solution that contains more hydronium ions than hydroxide ions is acid.
Neutralization
When an acid is mixed with an alkali the hydronium and hydroxide ions react
with each other and form water. If the acid and alkali are mixed in certain pro-
portions, the resulting mixture will be neutral, with no excess of either hydro-
nium ions or hydroxide ions and with a pH of 7. This operation is called
neutralization and the chemical formula H3O+ + OH- results in H2O + H2O.
pH
The acidity of a solution is determined as the concentration of hydronium ions.
However, this varies a great deal from one solution to another. The pH is a
measure of the hydronium ion concentration. (Mathematically pH = -log[H+],
the hydronium ion concentration is expressed in molarity).
This results in the following scale at 25 °C:
• pH>7 alkaline solution
• pH=7 neutral solution
• pH<7 acid solution
Acidity and pH of beverages

A beverage usually contains acids which release hydronium ions. Therefore a
beverage is an acid solution and will have a low pH (below 7, usually between
2.5-4.0). The acidity or pH of a beverage is important for taste and microbiol-
ogy. The acidity or amount of total acids is measured as a characteristic of a
beverage and is very important for taste. pH is a property of the solution and
is used when looking at the microbiological stability of a beverage.
Measuring acidity (total acids)

When measuring the acidity a neutralization reaction is used. Since the bever-
age is acidic, a base (which releases hydroxide ions, e.g. sodium hydroxide,
NaOH) of known concentration is added until the solution becomes neutral.
Knowing the concentration of the base and the amount of base added when the
solution becomes neutral, it is possible to calculate the acidity of the beverage.
This measurement procedure is called titration. The point at which a solution
becomes neutral can be observed using a pH sensitive colour indicator, or with
the help of a pH electrode. The acidity, or total acids, is expressed as milli
equivalents of acid or as grams fruit acid per litre. Often the acidity is ex-
pressed as citric acid or tartaric acid.
Measuring pH
pH is measured using a pH electrode. The electrode should be calibrated, usu-
ally at pH 4.0 and at pH 7.0. The pH electrode is delicate and it is important
that it is handled as described in the manual. The measuring part of the elec-
trode is a thin membrane that should not be left to dry out, therefore the elec-
trode should always be immersed in a electrolyte solution. It should be
thoroughly rinsed with distiled water before and after use. Despite the need for
careful handling of the electrode, pH measurement is very easy and efficient.
Brix / Acid ratio
The brix/acid ratio is very important for taste as it is a measure of the balance
between sweet and sour. Especially when blending citrus juices the brix/acid
ratio is used to optimise the taste of blends. The brix/acid ratio is also impor-
tant when deciding the maturity of fruit before harvest.
Degree Brix (corrected)

Ratio =
% w/w citric acid
The degree Brix should be corrected for the acid content, especially concen-
trates, and the acid content is usually expressed as weight % of anhydrous cit-
ric acid.
Cloud and Clarity

In cloudy beverages there is solid matter that does not dissolve in water. These
particles scatter light which results in the cloudy, opaque appearance. It is im-
portant for a cloudy beverage that sedimentation does not occur during stor-
age. The particles are kept in suspension during storage if they are small
enough, the density difference between particles and liquid is not too large and
the viscosity of the liquid is not too low.
Clear beverages on the other hand should be totally clear with no haze or par-
ticles.
The cloud or clarity of beverages are analysed in many different ways in the
industry and there are no standard procedures. Therefore, it is often impossible
to compare cloud or clarity values from different sources.
Some of the most common methods are briefly mentioned here.
Centrifugation
The beverage sample is centrifuged in graduated tubes under a given time and
speed (orange juice often 10 minutes at 370 g). Variations in beverage temper-
ature will affect the result. The amount of solid material above a certain parti-
cle size will sediment in the tubes and the result is expressed as volume %. Not
only the time/speed combinations vary greatly, the analysis can also have
many different names, such as: suspended solids, suspended pulp, centrifuga-
ble pulp.
Turbidimeter (light dispersion)

A turbidimeter measures the amount of light scattered by a sample when it is
illuminated. Therefore the light detector of a turbidimeter will be placed at a
90° angle from the light source. In a totally clear juice no light will be scattered
and the light beam will pass straight through the sample. The larger the number
of particles in the beverage the more light will be scattered. (Some turbidime-
ters have more than one detector placed at other angles to minimise effect of
sample colour). There are several ways of expressing the turbidity, but NTU,
nephelometric turbidity units, is the latest. Turbidity is used for clear as well
as cloudy beverages and is also very widely used in water quality analysis.
Spectrophotometer (light transmittance)
A spectrophotometer can measure the amount of light, at a given wave length,
that passes through a sample, expressed as % transmittance, %T. This method
is also used for measuring cloud or clarity. It is important to choose a wave-
length that is not absorbed by the colour of the beverage.
Sieving methods
In some juices and beverages larger pieces of solid material are added. An ex-
ample is juice sacs from orange fruit, that are added to orange juice to give an
appearance that reminds of fresh orange juice.
To determine the amount of solid material larger than a certain size there are
different sieving methods. The sample is usually sieved through one or several
sieves of certain mesh sizes, rinsed with water and weighed. The result is e.g.
expressed as grams per litre.
Colour
Colour is very important for the appearance of a beverage, but as taste it is sub-
jective and therefore difficult to measure.
There are a two common ways of measuring colour. The first is to, subjective-
ly, compare the beverage to fixed colour standards. One example of this is the
set of USDA colour tubes, which are used when quality grading orange juice.
The other method for measuring colour is by using a colourimeter (Hunter,
Minolta or other) which uses a flash from a pulsed xenon arc lamp to illumi-
nate the sample and the detects the reflected light. The colour can then be ex-
pressed according to the L, a, b scale. This way of measuring is not subjective,
but is not easily interpreted without fairly long experience.
Another aspect of beverage colour is the browning that occurs in certain prod-
ucts after long storage or at elevated temperatures. The browning can be meas-
ured with the help of a spectrophotometer. All cloud material of the beverage
is removed and the light absorbed by the sample at 420 nm (blue light) is meas-
ured. 420 nm is chosen because The more red (brown) the sample is, the more
blue light will be absorbed.
Acid correction of refractometer readings
The table shows the acid correction that has to be done for obtaining correct
°Brix from refractometer reading.
The values are based on citric acid content of citrus juices or other acidcon-
taining sugar solutions. Correction to be added to the refractometer reading.
% Acid Corr. % Acid Corr. % Acid Corr. % Acid Corr.
0.0 0.00 8.0 1.54 16.0 3.00 24.0 4.41

0.2 0.04 8.2 1.58 16.2 3.03 24.2 4.44
0.4 0.08 8.4 1.62 16.4 3.06 24.4 4.48
0.6 0.12 8.6 1.66 16.6 3.09 24.6 4.51
0.8 0.16 8.8 1.69 16.8 3.13 24.8 4.54
1.0 0.20 9.0 1.72 17.0 3.17 25.0 4.58

1.2 0.24 9.2 1.76 17.2 3.21 25.2 4.62
1.4 0.28 9.4 1.80 17.4 3.24 25.4 4.66
1.6 0.32 9.6 1.83 17.6 3.27 25.6 4.69
1.8 0.36 9.8 1.87 17.8 3.31 25.8 4.73
2.0 0.39 10.0 1.91 18.0 3.35 26.0 4.76

2.2 0.43 10.2 1.95 18.2 3.38 26.2 4.79
2.4 0.47 10.4 1.99 18.4 3.42 26.4 4.83
2.6 0.51 10.6 2.03 18.6 3.46 26.6 4.86
2.8 0.54 10.8 2.06 18.8 3.49 26.8 4.90
3.0 0.58 11.0 2.10 19.0 3.53 27.0 4.94

3.2 0.62 11.2 2.14 19.2 3.56 27.2 4.97
3.4 0.66 11.4 2.18 19.4 3.59 27.4 5.00
3.6 0.70 11.6 2.21 19.6 3.63 27.6 5.03
3.8 0.72 11.8 2.24 19.8 3.68 27.8 5.06
4.0 0.78 12.0 2.27 20.0 3.70 28.0 5.10

4.2 0.81 12.2 2.31 20.2 3.73 28.2 5.14
4.4 0.85 12.4 2.35 20.4 3.77 28.4 5.18
4.6 0.89 12.6 2.39 20.6 3.80 28.6 5.22
4.8 0.93 12.8 2.42 20.8 3.84 28.8 5.25
5.0 0.97 13.0 2.46 21.0 3.88 29.0 5.28

5.2 1.01 13.2 2.50 21.2 3.91 29.2 5.31
5.4 1.04 13.4 2.54 21.4 3.95 29.4 5.35
5.6 1.07 13.6 2.57 21.6 3.99 29.6 5.39
5.8 1.11 13.8 2.61 21.8 4.02 29.8 5.42
6.0 1.15 14.0 2.64 22.0 4.05 30.0 5.46

6.2 1.19 14.2 2.69 22.2 4.09 30.2 5.49
6.4 1.23 14.4 2.72 22.4 4.13
6.6 1.27 14.6 2.75 22.6 4.17
6.8 1.30 14.8 2.78 22.8 4.20
7.0 1.34 15.0 2.81 23.0 4.24

7.2 1.38 15.2 2.85 23.2 4.27
7.4 1.42 15.4 2.89 23.4 4.30
7.6 1.46 15.6 2.93 23.6 4.34
7.8 1.50 15.8 2.97 23.8 4.38
4
Parameters Affecting
Beverage Quality

Lund, Sweden
Factors affecting beverage quality

Microorganisms
Raw material
Machine type
• ••••••
•
•••••••••••••
•
• • ••• •
• • ••••••
•
•••••••••••••
• • ••• • •
• ••
•
••••••••••••••
•• •• ••
•• • •
• ••
Processing
•
••••••••••••••
•
•• •• •• •
•
•• •
•
•
• ••••••
• • ••• •
•••••• •••••••
• ••••••
• • ••• •
•••••• •••••••
Issue
Oxygen
Enzymes
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O2 O2
Temperature
OH 649
Raw material
❑ Ripeness
Climate
❑ Variety
❑ Sound
Fresh
Soil

Lund, Sweden
Microbiology

Micro = Small Bios = Life Logos = Study
Groups of Microorganisms
Machine type
❑ Bacteria
Processing
Yeast
❑ Fungi
Issue
Moulds
1/9610
– Algae
– Protozoa
– Viruses
OH 651
Lund, Sweden
z zz
Machine type
Processing
Single cell organisms Single cell organisms Multicellular
Size 0,5-5 µm Size 10-100 µm organisms
(0,0005-0,005 mm) (0,01-01 mm) Grow into long
Issue
Multiply by division Multiply by budding or filaments (hyphae)
Generation time ascospores
1/9610
Mycelium
Some forms spores Some form resistant Reproduction by
- very resistant ascospores spores
(not as resistant as
OH 652
bacterial endospores)
1
Bacterial growth
Lund, Sweden
2
Bacteria grow by division

4
Machine type
8
Log number of cells Exponetial growth
Processing
Lag Log Stationary Death
Phase Phase Phase Phase
Issue
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OH 653
Time
Important growth factors
Microorganisms

Microorganisms – Growth factors
Lund, Sweden
pH

High-acid foods 4.6 Low-acid foods
pH 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5
Machine type
Pathogenic bacteria
Processing
Lactic acid bacteria
Issue
Mould
1/9610
Yeast
OH 655
pH of various fruit juices
Lund, Sweden
High-acid foods Low-acid foods
4.6
pH 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5
Machine type
Mango
Apple
Pear
Processing
Plum
Cherry
Peach
Apricot
Strawberry
Issue
Raspberry
Grape
1/9610
Orange (sweet)
Lemon
Lime
Grapefruit
Pineapple
Passionfruit
OH 656
Tomato
Vegetables
Lund, Sweden
Water
Machine type
The need of available water decreases
Processing
in the following order
Issue
1/9610
OH 657
Water activity = aw
Lund, Sweden
Water activity can be explained as the amount of available
water for microbial growth and chemical reactions
Machine type
p = actual water vapor pressure
po = pure water vapor pressure
Processing
aw Sucrose Glucose NaCl
Issue
(w/w%) (w/w%) (w/w%)
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0.99 15 9 2
0.94 48 38 9
0.90 58 49 14
0.86 66 58 18
0.80 – – 23
OH 658
0.75 – – 27
Lund, Sweden
Temperature
Bacteria
Machine type
Thermophiles
Mesophiles
Processing
Psychrophiles
Issue
–10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 °C
1/9610
Yeast
Moulds
OH 659
Lund, Sweden
Oxygen
Machine type
Bacteria
1. Need atmospheric oxygen to grow (Aerobes)
Processing
2. Grow only in absence of atmospheric oxygen (Anaerobes)
3. Grow both in presence and absence of atmospheric oxygen
(Facultative anaerobes)
Issue
Grow both in presence and absence of atmospheric oxygen
1/9610
Needs as a rule atmospheric oxygen to grow
OH 660
Lund, Sweden
Nutrients
Machine type
Sugar
• ••••••
•
•••••••••••••
•
• • ••• •
Protein • • ••••••
•
•••••••••••••
• • ••• • •
Waste
• ••
•
••••••••••••••
•• •• ••
•• • •
Processing
• ••
•
••••••••••••••
products
•
•• •• ••
•
•• • •
•
•
• ••••••
• • ••• •
•••••• •••••••
• ••••••
• • ••• •
•••••• •••••••
Lipid
Minerals
Issue
Microbial growth can cause changes in food products
1/9610
❑ Carbon dioxide and alcohol
❑ Unpleasant odour
❑ Bitter taste
OH 661
❑ Rancide taste
Sources of microorganisms

High acid food – MiBi
Lund, Sweden
At pH 4,6 or below
Machine type
❑ Bacterial spores do not grow or germinate
Processing
❑ Disease-causing (pathogenic)
microorganisms do not grow
Issue
❑ As the pH drops the efficiency of heat
1/9610
treatment increases
❑ Lactic acid bacteria, yeasts, moulds
OH 663
Lund, Sweden
❑ Group of proteins
Machine type
❑ Biological catalysts
Processing
❑ Increase reaction rates (by 10 6 times)
Issue
❑ Specific – distinguish them from
1/9610
nonbiological catalysts
OH 664
The function of Enzymes
Molecule chain
Enzyme

– Pectin methyl esterase
– Polyphenol oxidase
Pectic enzymes
Oxidases

Microbiology
The term microbiology is formed from the Greek words, micro = small, bios
= life and logos = study. Microbiology is the study of living organisms that are
too small to be seen without the aid of microscope. The unit of measurement
used for microorganisms is the micrometer (µm). 1 µm = 0.001 millimetre.
Microorganisms are found everywhere, where life is possible. Of all living or-
ganisms, none are more versatile than the microorganisms. There are no envi-
ronment where higher organisms are present and microorganisms are absent,
and in many environments only microorganisms exist and even flourish.
As they are very small they are easily spread by air, water, humans, etc. Even
if some microorganisms are pathogenic (disease causing) most of them are
harmless to humans. Many of them are necessary in the food industry such as
bakery, brewery, dairy and some also play an important role in the cycles of
matter in the nature. In fact without microbes higher organisms would quickly
disappear from the earth.
Groups of microorganisms Average size
Bacteria 5 - 5 µm
Fungi (yeast and moulds) 10 - 100 µm
Algae 10 - 100 µm
Protozoa 10 - 100 µm
Viruses 0.02 - 0.4 µm
In relation to food, bacteria and fungi are the most important spoilage organ-
isms. Algae and protozoa are very rare and viruses can not be a spoilage or-
ganism.
Algae derive their energy from the sunlight, i.e. they are photosynthetic organ-
isms. They occur most frequently as unicellular organisms. Protozoa are uni-
cellular animals capable to ingest solid food particles contrary to all other
microorganisms that derive their nutrients in solution. Viruses are no organ-
isms, as they do not have the ability to synthesize their own constituents, nu-
cleic acid, proteins and sometimes also lipids. For reproduction virus uses a
host cell, to which it has very high specificity. This host cell could be of hu-
man, animal, plant or bacterial origin. As a consequence, viruses will not grow
in food that is free from living cells.
Microbiology
Bacteria
Bacteria are single cell organisms. They are to small to be viewed with the eye,
but in a microscope which enlarge 1000 times bacteria can be studied. There
is a great variety in bacterial shape, but the most common shapes are the
spheres (cocci), the straight rods and the curved (or spiral) rods. Each individ-
ual cell is an organism, but sometimes several cells cling together in rows,
clusters or cubes. On a solid substrate they may form visible colonies of many
millions of organisms.
Bacteria multiply by division. Each individual cell grows and after reaching a
critical size it divides into two identical cells. The time it takes to complete a
cell division is called generation time and under favourable growth conditions
it can be as low as 12 minutes. With a generation time of 20 minutes one single
bacterium increases to the astonishing number of a total of 2 097 152 individ-
ual cells within 7 hours.
Two genera of bacteria, Bacillus and Clostridium, have the ability to form en-
dospores. These spores are resting cells and can not multiply. Bacteria forms
endospores to increase the chances for survival when the environment is
changing in an unfavourable way. Bacterial spores are therefore very resistant
to adverse conditions like high temperatures, disinfectants, drying and lack of
nutrients. When the environment are changed back to be suitable for growth,
the spores germinate and convert back to a vegetative cell. Vegetative bacte-
rial cells represents the growing multiplying state.
Yeast
Yeast are single cell organisms. The shape of yeast varies from spherical to
ovoid, and they can be up to 10 times bigger than bacteria.
In general yeast reproduce by budding and not by cell division as bacteria. A
“daughter cell” is formed as a bud on the parent cell. The bud enlarges until it
is equal in size to the parent, then a cross wall is formed followed by a separa-
tion. Yeast may also multiply by forming spores (ascospores) within a mother
cell. Yeast that forms spores are more heat resistant than those that do not.
However, yeast spores are much less heat resistant than are bacterial spores.
Moulds
Moulds are multicellular organisms. They normally form elongated cells
which grow into long filaments (hyphae) with branches in all directions. Sev-
eral hyphae may form a visible growth of mould (mycelium).
The reproduction of moulds is by means of spores of various types. The spores
are easily spread by air, water, insects and on a suitable substrate they can start
to grow and form a new mycelium.
Growth factors
Water
Water is necessary for growth, but several microorganisms survive extensive
drying. The microorganisms can remain viable for long times at these condi-
tions ready to start to grow as soon as the available amount of water increases.
High concentrations of sugar or salt can also acts as a preservative, preventing
growth but not kill the microorganisms present. Sugar, salt etc. compete with
the microbial cells for the available free water (water activity aw).
Bacteria are the microorganisms that need highest water activity to grow fol-
lowed by yeast and moulds. So called osmophilic yeasts can grow in such
“dry” products as chocolate and honey.
Energy
Commonly, some carbohydrates, such as sugar or starch, serve as a source of
energy for microorganisms, but different genera have different demands. Pro-
tein, fat, even inorganic material may be utilized and this explains the wide-
spread presence of microorganisms which can be found everywhere in the nat-
ural environment.
Nutrition
Nitrogen from air is utilized by a few bacteria which are of great importance
for maintaining life on earth. Normally, ammonia, amino acids or proteins,
synthesized by animals and plants serve as a source of nitrogen for microor-
ganisms. The same situation prevails as far as other nutrients are concerned
which are necessary for growth. Basically, all living organisms need C, O , H2,
2
N, S, P, K, Ca, Mg, and Fe, and in addition several elements in trace amounts.
Oxygen
Oxygen may kill some microorganisms, i.e. those which are obligate anaero-
bic. Others are strictly aerobic and cannot grow without access to air (oxygen).
These are not killed in the absence of oxygen but merely cease to grow or mul-
tiply. Moulds are, as a rule, aerobic whereas yeasts may grow aerobic or anaer-
obic. Bacteria may be aerobic, anaerobic or as most yeasts, facultative, i.e.
they can grow with or without the presence of air.
pH
Very few organisms grow at alkaline pH even if some may survive in cleaning
solutions (caustic, pH above 12). Bacteria in general and pathogenic bacteria
specifically do not grow at pH-values of 4.6 to 4.5 or lower. Fungi, i.e. yeast
and moulds, may grow and multiply very well at low pH-values (i.e. below
4.5).
Temperature
Temperature has a pronounced influence on the generation time of microor-
ganisms. Between 20 ×°C and 40 °C most organisms will grow, but a few
(psychrophilic) have a maximum temperature below 20 °C and others, (ther-
mophilic), have a minimum temperature above 40 °C. This difference in tem-
perature requirements for growth may be used in the laboratory as a means of
selection and an aid for differentiation and identification of different microor-
ganisms. Optimum temperature (shortest generation time) is normally very
close to maximum temperature of growth for individual strains of organisms.
Yeast and moulds have an optimal temperature between 20 °C and 30 °C. The
maximum temperature is most commonly below 50 °C.
Sources of microorganisms
All growing plants and animals carry a typical flora of microorganisms on
their surface. The inner, healthy tissue of plants and animals, however, have
been reported to contain few living organisms or none. Since microorganisms
do not arise by spontaneous generation they must contaminate the food at
some stage of production, harvesting, handling, processing, storage, distribu-
tion or preparation for consumption.
It is important to know about the sources of contamination so that we can con-
trol it and keep the microbial load on or in the food as low as possible. By
keeping the contamination low, we can more easily control or eliminate the
microorganisms with food preservative methods.
The potential sources of contamination are; soil, water, air, humans, process
equipment, ingredients and product to product.
Soil
The soil contains the greatest variety of organisms of any source of contami-
nation. A very large total number of microorganisms are found in fertile soils,
ready to contaminate the surface of plants growing on them or in them and the
surfaces of animals roaming over the land. Soil dust are whipped up by air cur-
rents, and soil particles are carried by running water. Bacteria outnumbers oth-
er microorganisms and soil is an important source of heat-resistant bacterial
spores. In the soil of vineyards and orchards yeasts are common.
Water
Surface water vary considerable in their microbial content, from thousands per
millilitre after a rainstorm to the comparatively low number that results from
self purification of lakes or by running water.
Ground water from springs and wells have been filtered through layers of rock
and soil; hence most of the bacteria, as well as the greatest part of other sus-
pended materials have been removed.
Most common organisms in water are bacteria. From a public health point of
view the water used about food should be absolutely safe to drink, i.e. free
from pathogens. However, although considered safe for drinking, municipal
water supplies are not always acceptable for food processing. This is because
of the presence of food spoilage microorganisms as well as chemicals that may
produce objectionable odours and flavours in foods.
Air
Food is subjected to air borne contamination until it is sealed in a package.
There is no natural or normal microflora of air, however air is contaminated
from various sources. Usually the microorganisms are suspended on solid ma-
terials or in moisture droplets. Generally mould spores are more prevalent than
are other microorganisms, the main source for mould spores are declining
plants near the ground surface. Other sources are droplets of moisture from
coughing, sneezing or talking.
Humans
Humans are a source for airborne microorganisms as well as an important
source of contamination through handling of food.
Equipment
Metal processing equipment do not support the growth of microorganisms. It
has no natural or normal microbial flora. Yet, processing equipment is one of
the major sources of contamination of foods. Even on washed, visible clean
surfaces the survival and growth of microorganisms are possible. The potential
for microbial buildup on equipment is enhanced when equipment is improper-
ly cleaned and sanitised.
Stainless steel is preferred when designing food processing equipment since it
is easier to remove soil and microorganisms from stainless steel than from for
example rubber or plastics.
Ingredients
The quality of a processed food is influenced by the quality of the ingredients.
Although ingredients my constitute a small part of the total food, they may add
a substantial number of microorganisms. Hence, specifications including ac-
ceptable microbiological levels, are needed for the purchase or production of
ingredients.
Examples on ingredients that can contain high levels of microorganisms are
spices, starch, flour, sugar and fruits.
Product to product
There is an old saying that one bad apple can spoil the whole barrel of apples.
This is very true, because the spoilage microorganisms from the bad apple can
contaminate and cause spoilage of surrounding apples until all of the apples in
the barrel are spoiled. Although the transfer of microorganisms from one food
to another can occur directly if the food are in contact with each other, more
often microorganisms are transferred via wash water, equipment or handling.
Contamination can also occur from raw foods to already processed food (cross
contamination), the microorganisms can be transferred by equipment or peo-
ple handling both raw and cooked food.
High acid liquid food

High acid food products have a pH-value of less than or equal to 4.6. This dis-
tinction is mainly based on the following reasons:
1. Bacterial spores which are resistant against the action of physical (heat,
irradiation, etc.) and chemical (disinfectants) sterilization processes, do
not grow or germinate at pH-values of 4.6 or below. Consequently, they
cannot be regarded as spoilage organisms for this kind of products.
2. Disease-causing (pathogenic) microorganisms do not grow in products
having a pH-value of 4.6 or less. High acid products do not represent a
public health risk.
3. As the pH drops, the killing efficiency of heat sterilization processes
increases. High acid food products require less heat for sterilization than
low acid foods, and much milder heat sterilization procedures can be
applied when processing high acid food products.
However, extended shelf-life of fruit juices becomes possible only if the prod-
uct is stabilized from the microbiological and from biochemical/chemical
point of view.
Microbiology
Microorganisms enter the processing plant on the surface of fruit, originating
from soil, untreated surface water, dusty air, insects, and decomposed fruit.
The degree of contamination varies, depending upon a.o. how the fruit was
handled from the field to the processing plant. Proper grading, washing, and
sanitizing of the fruit contribute materially to good product quality. In the cit-
rus industry, sound fruit entering the extractors is relatively free of microor-
ganisms, while unsound fruit is heavily contaminated.
The low pH of juices and concentrates limits the organisms that can survive
and grow. For example, the pH range of lemon or lime juice is 2.2 to 2.6, and
none of the spoilage bacteria survive: in orange juice pH 3.4 to 4.0, Lactoba-
cillus and Leuconostoc can survive and grow. These bacteria frequently cause
abnormal flavours and odours, sometimes similar to butter milk. However,
they fall to grow in concentrates at 45 °Brix or higher, or below 40 °F (5 °C).
Leuconostoc mensenteroides and Lactobacillus brevis are two organisms
known to produce off-flavours.
Coliform bacteria and related types (e.g. Erwinia) are frequently present on or-
anges before they are harvested. Coliform organisms sometimes are present in
orange juice in spite of washing and sanitizing the fruit before extraction.
Acetic acid bacteria yeasts and moulds may also be present. Generally they
will not grow rapidly enough to build up large populations under conditions
normally prevailing during concentration of the juice. Yeasts on the other hand
may grow in citrus concentrates when held in the pH and temperature range
for the growth of these organisms. Yeast are primarily responsible for spoilage
of chilled juice that is not sterile.
Enzymes
Enzymes-biologic catalysators
Enzymes are a group of proteins produced by living organisms. They have the
ability to trigger chemical reactions and to affect the course and speed of such
reactions. Enzymes do this without being consumed. They are therefore some-
times called biocatalysts. The function of an enzyme is explained below.
1 A given en-
zyme will only
split certain
molecules, and
only at certain
bonds.
2 The enzyme fits into a particular spot

in the molecule chain, where it
weakens the bond.
3 The molecule
splits. The en-
zyme is free to
attack and split
another mole-
cule in the same
way.
The action of enzymes is specific; each type of enzyme catalyses only one type
of reaction.
Two factors which strongly influence enzymatic action are temperature and
pH. As a rule enzymes are most active in an optimum temperature range be-
tween 25 °C and 50 °×C. Their activity drops if the temperature is increased
beyond optimum, ceasing altogether somewhere between 50 °C and 120 °C.
At these temperatures the enzymes are more or less completely denaturated
(inactivated). The temperature of inactivation varies from one type of enzyme
to another - a fact which has been widely utilised for the purpose of determin-
ing the degree of pasteurisation. Enzymes also have their optimum pH ranges;
some function best in acid solutions, others in an alkaline environment.
Enzymes originated from fruits
The enzymes in healthy and undamaged fruits regulates all anabolism process-
es until the optimal degree of ripeness has been achieved. If the integrity of the
cells are destroyed, enzymes will be released causing degradation of organic
substances. That is why in fruit juice production, enzymes should be thermally
inactivated as soon as possible after juice extraction. However in production
of clear fruit juices (e.g. clear apple juice) the native enzyme activity is utilised
in the process.
There are two enzyme groups of major interested in fruit processing, oxidases
and pectic enzymes. The first group oxidases catalyses the reaction between
oxygen and phenols and the second group pectic enzymes catalyses degrada-
tion reactions of pectin. The two most important enzymes in fruit juices pro-
duction and how they affect the juices are described below.
Pectinmetylesteras (Pectinesteras, PME or PE)

Pectinmetylesteras causes degradation of the pectin substances in juice. Pectin
substances are complex organic compounds that together with cellulose partly
giving the firmness of the fruit. In single strength orange juice they are one of
the main constituents of the cloud which contribute to the viscosity and mouth-
feel.
The degradation of pectin by pectinmetylesteras in orange juice causes gel-
like lumps in concentrate that makes it impossible to produce a single strength
juice with good mouthfeel. In single strength orange juice degraded pectin
substances forms insoluble precipitates that settle in the bottom of the package
and consequently cause clarification and loss of viscosity in the juice (cloud
loss).
These reaction can only be avoid by heat inactivation of the enzyme, this is ob-
tained if the juice is heated to 95-98 °C for 10-20 seconds.
Polyphenol oxidase (PPO, phenolas, phenol oxidase, cate-

chol or tyrosinas)
Polyphenol oxidase causes browning in fruit products. For many fruit products
this is an undesirable reaction since the colour change affects the visual qual-
ity. Polyphenol oxidase catalyses a number of complicated reactions contain-
ing phenols and oxygen that lead to the formation of brown pigments
(browning).
Since the reactions need oxygen the formation of brown pigments can be avoid
either by decreasing the availability of oxygen or by heat inactivation of the
enzyme.
Enzymes originated from bacteria,

yeast and moulds
Enzymes originated from bacteria can be of two kinds, unwanted enzymes
synthesised by bacteria infecting the juice and wanted enzymes added to the
juice to affect the process. The latter type, so called technical enzyme prepa-
rations are often a combination of a number of different enzymes. They can be
bought as concentrated liquids or as powder.
5
Apple Juice Concentrate
Production

Secondary
juice
Water/enzymes
Pomace
Apple processing line
Premium
juice

Aroma concentrate
Water/enzymes
Pomace
concentrate
Juice

Reception
Milling Extraction
Water/
enzymes
Technical Training Centre 1/9610

Pomace
Juice preheating Final evaporation Pre-evaporation Aroma recovery
TM-00012
Concentrate
handling Depectination
UF clarification Aroma
concentrate
Training Document. For training purpose only.

Storage
Concentrate
cooling STOR
COLD STO
E
RE
Reception
Milling Extraction
Water/
enzymes

Pomace
TM-00013
Depectination
Aroma
UF clarification concentrate

Concentrate Storage
Aseptic filling
Tetra Pak
pasteurisation ERUSSE
MAETS
RP LIO
WOLF SA
h/l000
C° 3.27
G %7.7
5
61
lortno
YDAER
cttas
5F 4F 3F 2F 1F
7F 6F
C 9 8 7
9F -/+ 6
8F 5 4
E
N 3 2
T 1
11F 01F E
R 3 0 TFIHS
STOR E
RE
COLD STO
xxxx xxxx
xxxx xxxx
Reception
Milling Extraction
Water/
enzymes

Pomace
TM-00014
Concentrate
concentrate

Storage
Concentrate
cooling STOR
COLD STO
E
RE
Reception
Milling Extraction
Water/
enzymes

Pomace
TM-00015
Depectination
concentrate

Concentrate Storage
Aseptic filling
Tetra Pak
MAETS
RP LIO
WOLF SA
h/l000
C° 3.27
G %7.7
5
61
lortno
YDAER
cttas
5F 4F 3F 2F 1F
7F 6F
C 9 8 7
9F -/+ 6
8F 5 4
E
N 3 2
T 1
11F 01F E
R 3 0 TFIHS
STOR E
RE
COLD STO
xxxx xxxx
xxxx xxxx
Reception Water/enzymes
Milling Extraction

Pomace
TM-00016
Concentrate
concentrate

Storage
Concentrate
cooling STOR
COLD STO
E
RE
Reception Water/enzymes
Extraction
Milling

Pomace
TM-00017
Depectination
Aroma
UF clarification concentrate

Concentrate Storage
Aseptic filling
Tetra Pak
MAETS
RP LIO
WOLF SA
h/l000
C° 3.27
G %7.7
5
61
lortno
YDAER
cttas
5F 4F 3F 2F 1F
7F 6F
C 9 8 7
9F -/+ 6
8F 5 4
E
N 3 2
T 1
11F 01F E
R 3 0 TFIHS
STOR E
RE
COLD STO
xxxx xxxx
xxxx xxxx
Enzymatic treatment
Sedimentation
Centrifugation
Filtration
Fining
❑

Lund, Sweden
❑ To remove suspended solids and get a
clear liquid
Machine type
❑ To stabilize the liquid:
Processing
remove soluble solids that may later
result in haze formation
Issue
❑ To improve sensoric qualities; by removal
1/9610
of substances having negative sensoric
influences
OH 690
Lund, Sweden
Pectin and starch degradation

Machine type
Processing
Linear chains of 200 – 1 000 galacturonic
acid units linked together by α - 1.4 glucosidic
Issue
bonds. Responsible for firm structure of fruit.
1/9610
Help keep suspended solids in suspension,
responsible for high viscosity.
OH 691
Enzymatic pectin degradation with
55 °C
pectolytic enzymes
HW
HW R

Enzymatic starch degradation
55 °C
with amylase
85 °C
HW
HW R

Lund, Sweden
Machine type
Floculation and sedimentation by introducing
fining agents that reacts with juice
Processing
components and/or with each other, and
thereafter sink to the bottom of a vessel or
Issue
are removed by other means
1/9610
OH 694
Lund, Sweden
Machine type
❑ Bentonite Proteins
❑ Active carbon Taste/smell
Processing
❑ PVPP Polyphenols
Issue
Polyvinylpolypyrrolidon
1/9610
OH 695
++ +
+
+ +
+ +
+ +
+
+
+ +
+
+

Apple Juice
Concentrate
Production
Apple (Pirus Malus)
The original home of the
apple is not known, but it is
thought to be indigenous to
the region south of the
Caucasus, from the Persian
province of Ghilan on the
Caspian Sea to Trebizond on
the Black Sea.
Apples are among the most widely grown and widely consumed of fruit crops,
taking the fourth place after tomato, banana and grapes. The annual world ap-
ple crop is of the order of 40 million tonnes, of which at least 5 million tonnes
are processed. Fresh extracted apple juice is a unstable product, both chemi-
cally and microbiologically. Consequently, processing involves preservation
technologies aiming in interrupting these activities.
Raw apple must is a pale cloudy liquid, smelling of fresh apples. Within sec-
onds of its expression from the fruit, however, it undergoes a sequence of
chemical and enzymatic changes to produce the colour and the aroma with
which we are familiar. These changes starts already at the moment when the
fruit is milled to a mash. The greatest volume of apple juice is processed into
70-72 °Brix apple juice concentrate, in which form it can be stored and
shipped as a relatively stable product occupying approximately one-seventh of
its original volume.
The aroma removed during concentration is often recovered and concentrated
to an essence which can be stored and transported separated from the juice
concentrate and returned to the concentrate at the moment of redilution.
Growth and development

The world apple market is dominated by less than 20 dessert and cooking va-
rieties of apples, of which perhaps the most widely distributed are Bramley’s
Seedlings, Cortland, Cox’s Orange Pippin, Delicious, Golden Delicious,
Granny Smith, Jonathan, McIntosh, Newtown Pippin and Winesap.
The most important countries growing apples are Russia, the United States,
China, France, Italy, Turkey, Germany, India, Hungary, Poland and Iran. Rus-
sia, the United States and China are the largest producers of apples, growing
two to three times as many as the next largest producers.
Chemical composition
Average composition of apple
The composition of apple juice necessarily reflects the composition of the fruit
from which it is extracted. Hence varietal, climate, place of orchard and culti-
vation practices influences the composition of the juice. A further source of
variation in apple juice is the processing technologies itself. Even while fruit
is stored prior to juice winning, its content of sugars, acids, starch etc. slowly
changes due to normal fruit methabolism. On milling, however, fruit enzymes
and fruit constituents are brought into contact to each other and rapid changes
can occur in certain juice components, of which the most susceptile are pectin,
polyphenols and flavour compounds. Some aspects of apple juice, such as col-
our, are to some extent a consequence of selected processing technology.
Typical analyse of apple juice (per litre):
Water 780-850 g
Sugars 70-170 g
Acids 5-15 g
Proteins 1-3 g
Fat traces
Sodium 10-30 mg
Potassium 700-2000 mg
Calcium 40-120 mg
Iron 1-4 mg
Copper 1-3 mg
Vitamin C 0-120 mg
Vitamin A 280-700 µg
Carbohydrates
Sugars are the major soluble constituents of apples, comprising from 7 to 14%
of the fruit on a fresh weight basis. The specific gravity or Brix of apple juice
is therefore very closely related to the sugar content. The most important sug-
ars found in apples are glucose (1.3-2.0%), fructose (4.4-8.2%) and sucrose
(1.7-4.2%). The sucrose content depends on the degree of ripeness and can
make up one third of the total sugar content, but is usually lower. The fructose
content is about 2-3 times that of glucose. Fructose and sucrose concentrations
increase markedly during ripening, while glucose tends to fall.
Apples, especially harvested early in the season, contain starch which can be
made soluble during processing. Starch if not removed during processing may
result in haze in the concentrate or when the concentrate is reconstituted. This
could also occur in the juice during storage of the consumer container. Up to
95% of this starch can be eliminated by centrifugation as starch is rather heavy
in the granule form. Starch can be dissolved by heat and subsequently broken
down in the clarification tank by the process of enzymation at ambient temper-
ature, or better at a temperature of 50 °C. Amylases is used for this purpose.
Starch does not appear in solution in fresh-pressed apple juice, but takes the
form of insoluble granules about 1-16 µm in diameter which derive from stor-
age vacuoles in the fruit and can constitute as much as 3% of the fruit on a fresh
weight basis. When juice is heated above 60 °C, the granules are dissolved and
may cause haze upon storage unless they are fully degraded by addition of
amylase. Starch breakdown is checked by an iodine test; iodine turns blue in
the presence of starch.
Organic acids
The total acid content in apple juices depends mainly on the amount of malic
acid, which is named from the fruit itself (Latin malus). It is typically present
at levels of 0.5%, with a range from 0.2 to 1.4% depending upon variety, place
of cultivate, ripeness, climate and harvesting techniques, and generally consti-
tutes at least 80% of the total acid in the juice. The balance is largely accounted
for by quinic acid at levels between 0.04% and 0.46%. Other acids that have
been detected in traces are citramalic and shikimic acid. Lactic acid is may be
present only as a result of bacterial activity. Tartaric and oxalic acids do not
occur in apple juice. The content of citric acid should not exceed 200 mg/l;
higher values indicate addition of citric acid or other fruit juices, for instance
pear juice.
Proteins and amino acids

Pectin, which is released from the middle lamella of apple cell walls by the
mechanical action of milling and pressing, is present in raw apple juices to a
varying extent.
Pectin The pectin level in juice from late harvested fruit, or fruit from cold storage,
may rise as high as 1-2.5%. Apple pectin consists very largely of polymerised
galacturonic acid chains which are methoxylated up to a level of 95%. In mod-
ern juice plants the pectin is largely broken down by the action of added en-
zymes, yielding shorter galacturonic acid residues which are partly
demethoxylated. Pectin has generally been regarded as a nuisance from the
technological standpoint. However, it contributes to a major part of the texture
and mouthfeel of cloudy juices, and also represents a “non-dietary fibre” ele-
ment in the juice, which may lead to some re-evaluation of its role.
Pectin and pectin-like compounds have a influence on the body or viscosity of
the juice.
Protein The true soluble protein level in apple juices, even when unclarified, is ex-
tremely small and generally does not exceed 100 ppm (parts per million). Even
this small amount, however, can be sufficient to play a major part in the for-
mation of the so called “Post Bottling Haze” PBH and is precipitated when
complexed with polyphenols. In cloudy juices, the combination of protein
with pectin and polyphenols is largely responsible for the desirable cloud,
which constitutes between 120 and 500 ppm of the juice. 89% of the total sol-
uble nitrogen in apple juice is attributable to free amino acids, asparagine
alone accounting for 79%.
Pigments
The partly colour of apple juice is due to the enzymic oxidation products gen-
erated from phloridzin (25%), epicatechin (25%) and procyanidins (50%). The
first two classes are chemically well-defined as orange-yellow pigments with
maximum absorbance at 420 nm in the visible spectrum. The procyanidin ox-
idation products are poorly defined, with no definite absorbance maximum in
the visible region.
The final colour of a juice is however determined by a large number of factors.
If juice is allowed to oxidise in the presence of pulp, the coloured compounds
will be adsorbed, and successively pressed juices will become lighter after an
initial peak of soluble colour.
If raw juice is oxidised with the minimum of suspended solids, colour will in-
crease progressively until the enzyme is inactivated by phenolic oxidation
products after about 12 hours, or inactivated by heat.
Nitrogenous compounds
The nitrate content is normally lower than 5 mg/l. Higher content indicates
contamination with water containing nitrates.
Volatile compounds
Several hundred components have been identified in flavour extracts of apples
and apple juices. Four major classes of compounds found in apple juice can be
distinguished, viz. esters, aldehydes, alcohols and process volatiles. The aro-
ma of fresh apples is usually dominated by esters, which slowly increase dur-
ing ripening and sometimes during storage. When the fruit is disintegrated by
milling, a series of very rapid enzymic changes leads to generation of C6-al-
dehydes and alcohols (both saturated and unsaturated) by lipoxygenase action
on unsaturated fatty acid precursors such as linoleic and linolenic acid.
These volatiles generally reach a maximum within 10-30 minutes of crushing.
Simultaneously, esterases split some of the original fruit esters to their parent
alcohols and acids. The effect of pasteurisation and other thermal processes
then creates an additional range of “process” volatiles. The final aroma of ap-
ple juice is therefore exceedingly complex, and not necessarily characteristic
of the fresh intact fruit.
The constituents of apple flavour are as follows:
• Alcohols (92%) - methyl, ethyl, propyl, 2-propanol, butyl, isobutyl, d-2-
metyl-1-butanol and hexyl.
• Carbonyl compounds (6%) - acetaldehyde, acetone, caproaldehyde and 2-
hexenal.
• Esters (2%) - ethyl butyrate and ethyl caproate.
These compounds are present in the original fruit at a total concentration of ap-
proximately 50 ppm. Being volatile, they are lost to some extent during the
processing, especially where heating and boiling takes place. The extent to
which these compounds are flashed off during processing markedly influences
the flavour of the finished juice.
Tannins Tannins are also present in small amounts in apple juice; these compounds
have a marked effect on the flavour of juice because of their astringency. Tan-
nins are also partially responsible for the rapid darkening of macerated apple
tissue and apple juice when they are exposed to air.
Vitamins
The greatest difference between orange juice and apple juice is in the amount
of vitamins A and C. In orange juice there are 6 times more vitamin A and 3
to 350 (average 21) times more vitamin C than in apple juice.
Inorganic constituents
Typical minerals found in apple juice are potassium, calcium and magnesium.
Enzymatic and other reactions in juice
Raw apple juice pectin is highly methoxylated and forms a relatively stable
colloidal suspension. The action of a pectin methyl esterase (PME) will partly
demethoxylate the pectin, giving some free galacturonic acid groups which are
negatively charged. These may combine with weak cations such as proteins to
form a stable hydrated floc which initially remains suspended in the viscous
juice. The relatively stable cloud in cloudy and opalescent juices is of this type,
and is not primarily due to cellular debris as is often believed. The action of
the fruit own PME in the apple is sufficient to produce a pectin cloud with na-
tive apple protein, which is then heat-set by the pasteurisation step. If polyga-
lacturonase (PG) activity is also present in the system, however, long pectin
chains will be broken down and the viscosity of the system will diminish
markedly.
A very useful additional activity in enzymes for apple juice is that of an amy-
lase which helps to break down the starch often found as granules in early har-
vested fruit. If these granules cannot be removed by filtration or centrifugation
beforehand, it is important that they are fully dissolved by heating to 85 °C be-
fore enzyme treatment, because commercial amylases cannot degrade granu-
lar starch.
Enzyme action is not instantaneous, so it is necessary to provide a holding tank
for the juice after the press and before filtration, with facilities for maintaining
temperatures between 15 and 50 °C. Typical treatment times for juice depec-
tinisation are 1 hour at 15-20 °C or 15 minutes at 45-50 °C. Intermediate tem-
peratures are not recommended, because yeast growth is at a maximum
between 20 and 40 °C.
Browning
Two enzyme systems - polyphenol oxidase and peroxidase - are responsible
for the oxidative browning of apple tissue and raw apple juice. Polyphenol ox-
idase is responsible for the greater part of the coloration, as it oxidises the cat-
echol and pyragallol of the tannins in raw apple juice. Peroxidase is
responsible for only a small part of the darkening. Polyphenol oxidation is a
major source of browning and a contributory cause of flocculation.
The oxidative changes in raw apple juice due to enzymatic and non-enzymatic
browning are well known. The “tannins” of juices form the substrates that are
mainly involved in enzymatic reactions, chlorogenic acid and leucoanthhocy-
anins being of major importance. Amino acids, sugars and organic acids par-
ticipate in non-enzymatic browning reactions. The intense browning reactions
that occur immediately after milling and during pressing are almost exclusive-
ly enzymatic ones.
The formation of the brown colour is accompanied by a change in flavour. The
typical fruit flavour decreases, and the juice takes on the flavour of old-fash-
ioned cider. Measurements of oxygen uptake in apple juices have shown that
oxidation occurs more rapidly than in orange or lemon juices. Since these ox-
idation processes continue at an undiminished rate in the absence of air, it is,
if fresh fruit aroma profiles are desired, necessary to inactivate the oxidases as
quickly as possible. Unfortunately the most current used pressing operation
creates almost ideal conditions for intense aeration of the juices. Heating the
juice to 95 °C for 30 seconds is normally sufficient to inactivate the oxidising
enzymes.
Processing
Apples used for processing
Approximately 30% of all apples are processed into juice and concentrates; the
rest is consumed as fresh fruit. Varieties used for processing include Cox’s Or-
ange, Golden Delicious, Gravenstein, James Grieve, Belle de Boskoop, Ben
Davis, Jonathan and McIntosh. All successful manufacturers now stress prop-
er maturity and specify a definite quality of apples. To make a top-ranking
product, care must be taken to make certain that no decayed or partially de-
cayed apples are ground for pressing.
Unripe apples produce an unsatisfactory juice, lacking in apple flavour and
having a “starchy” or “green-apple” taste. The juice tends to be acid and as-
trigent in character and lacking in sweetness and body. These characteristics
are partly due to the high percentage of starch in unripe apples. As the fruit ma-
tures this starch changes into sugars, with a resulting improvement in the sugar
content of the apple juice.
Overripe apples give a low yield of poor quality juice, lacking in flavour.
Overripe fruit may also cause difficulties in pressing and clarifying because it
is too soft, mealy or rotten. Most of the varieties of apples grown in Europe
and North America can be used for making a saleable apple juice. Some vari-
eties do not make a satisfactory juice when used singly, but are excellent when
blended with other varieties. In any given area a good general blending rule is
to make apple juice from a combination of not less than three varieties that are
approximately ripe for eating.
Dessert apples such as Discovery or Worcester (early), Cox’s (mid-season or
cold-stored) and Golden Delicious (late-season or cold-stored) are blended
with the acid cooking apple Bramley (available from September to May, in the
northern hemisphere, from cold store) to achieve a balanced sugar/acid ratio.
This allows production of cloudy juice for as much as nine months of the year.
Fruit quality for processing

The quality of fruit has a direct influence on process performance. Good qual-
ity fruit gives a high yield, as well as fewer processing problems. There is a
series of tests that are helpful in predicting the quality of the processed apple
product from raw fruit evaluation. Those which seem to be the most useful are
% soluble solids, % titratable acidity, firmness, volatility level, and ethylene
concentration in the fruit. Sugar/acid ratio and ascorbic acid analysis can be
particularly helpful for juice analyses or for pinpointing the optimum harvest
time for processing.
The apple juice line
Reception
Milling Extraction
Water/
enzymes
Pomace
Concentrate
concentrate
Storage
Concentrate
cooling STOR
COLD STO
E
RE
Fruit handling
Reception The harvested fruit is collected in trucks from the orchards and transported to
the factory in. Apples are received truckloads of 25-30 tonnes or in bins. A
plant can run up to 15 different varieties of apples over the course of a process-
ing season, and different varieties may be blended each day to meet the quality
requirements of the plant. The trucks are weighed on arrival and then directed
to an offloading bay.
Apples are unloaded into storage silos. A chute in the bottom of each silo
opens to discharge apples into a water channel running alongside the outlets of
the silos. Water is circulated through the silo in operation by pumps, flushing
the apples along the channel. Stones and other heavy particles conveyed along
with the apples are collected in a trap built into the bottom of the channel.
The amount of apples forwarded is controlled by a fruit distributor with adjust-
able capacity. The apples and water then pass a grate slide where the water,
leaves and twigs are drained into a basin, while the apples are forwarded to the
inlet hopper of a screw elevator. The water is pumped out of the basin through
strainer where the leaves and twigs are retained.
Washing Before apples are used for juice they should be washed to remove all adhering
dirt. A leaf-eliminator section in a conveyor ahead of the storage bins, or at
least prior to washing and sorting, prevents accumulation of leaves and grass
in the plant. A high proportion of leaves or grass ground up with the apples
would cause an off-flavour in the juice.
Inspection Sorting the apples to remove all unsuitable fruit or foreign matter is possibly
the most important operation in the production of first quality apple juice. It
should be noted that even a few partially decayed apples can impart a charac-
teristic “rotten” flavour to a large volume of aroma concentrate.
Juice extraction
Washed and inspected apples enter the extraction unit by an inclined screw
conveyor which transports them to an intermediate silo that provides a buffer
for the subsequent extraction operation.
In the mill the apples are disintegrated into small pieces to form a mash, which
is collected in a balance tank.
Two types of equipment are most commonly used for mashing: one type grates
the apples to a pulp, the other type is a hammer mill.
In many juice plants, juice winning is made in two steps with the aim to reach
to highest yield values. In a first extraction step most of the juice is recovered.
Water is added to the residue of the dejuiced mash, and the mixture is pumped
to a tank from which it is pumped to the second extraction step.
In the second extraction step diluted (with water) juice is obtained. This dilut-
ed juice is either mixed with the juice from the first extraction step or proc-
essed and concentrated separately.
The pomace from the last extraction step, amounting to 10-20% of the raw ma-
terial fed to the plant, is removed by a conveyor for possible further processing
and utilisation. The percentage of residual pomace depends mainly on the type
of extraction technology used.
Extraction in belt presses The mash drops from the mill into the inlet hopper of a pump which forwards
it to the inlet hopper of a belt press. Here the mash is spread out in a layer by
a distributor device. The layer is distributed between two “permeable” belts
which move slowly over a number of rollers with varying diameters. As the
belts pass the different rollers, the juice is expressed from the mash and col-
lected on trays under the rollers, from which it is discharged to a balance tank
under the press. The pomace is collected in a screw conveyor at the top of the
press.
After pressing and removal of pomace, the belts are cleaned by high-pressure
water jets. The water and pomace residues rinsed off the belts are collected and
recycled.
The rinsing water is fed to the spray nozzles by a high-pressure pump. The
used rinsing water is then collected in a tank at the bottom of the press, from
which it is forwarded by a centrifugal pump to a rotating strainer.
The pomace residues are removed here, after which the water is returned to the
press by a centrifugal pump and added to the mash in the extraction zone. The
water is absorbed by the mash and extracts soluble solids from it.
In the press zone the mash is further pressed and the juice recovered on trays
from which it is discharged to a tank at the bottom of the press.
Screening Apple juice, as it comes from the press, contains more or less finely mixed par-
ticles. To remove these particles the juice is usually screened. The screen may
be a cylinder of stainless steel of approximately 100 to 150 mesh which re-
volves on a system of rollers. Another type is a fixed cylinder which is contin-
uously brushed on the inside. Yet another type is a vibrating flat screen.
The juice flows in from a pipe at one end and passes through the screen into a
tank below while the particles are retained by the screen. The screened juice is
pumped to the buffer tanks for further treatment.
Clarification
Heat treatment / Before clarification, fining and enzymatic treatment takes place, is the juice to
pre-evaporation be heat treated. This can be made as a pasteurisation step as such or it can be
combined with an pre-evaporation in a evaporator.
The reason for the heat treatment is to deactivate all microorganisms and to
solubilize the starch so that it can be degradated by the enzyme Amylase. For
this a temperature of 86 °C is required. Fruit enzymes does not need to be de-
activated if clear juice is to be produced so there is no need to go to the 95 °C
needed for enzyme deactivation.
Enzymatic treatment Fining and depectinisation are usually done in one operation. Enzymatic treat-
ment is by preference made at the elevated temperature of 55 °C.
The purpose of breaking down pectin with enzymes is threefold:
1. To reduce the viscosity of the juice.
2. To reduce the amount of undissolved pectin, so that gel formations in the
evaporator is prevented.
3. To increase the filtrability of the juice.
Enzymes are added in a battery of tanks connected in series to provide a con-
tinuous output of depectinised juice. The juice is fed into one of the depectini-
sation tanks at 50 °C. While the juice is being fed to the tank an enzyme
solution containing pectolytic and amylatic enzymes is metered into it by a
proportioning pump. Enzyme solution can also be added, in one go, to the tank
at beginning of its filling.
It takes about an hour to fill a tank. The agitator in the tank runs throughout the
filling sequence. When the tank is full, agitation is allowed to continue for an-
other 10-20 minutes until all pectins are degraded.
There are a number of enzyme preparations recommended for depectinisation
of apple juice. The action of all these enzymes depends on their ability to hy-
drolyse pectin, thereby reducing the viscosity of the juice and making it easier
to filter.
Depectinisation is verified by an alcohol test. One part of filtered juice is
mixed with 1.5-2.0 parts of 96% alcohol to which 1% concentrated hydrochlo-
ric acid has been added. If flocculation has not occurred within 1 to 2 minutes,
no pectin is present. Should flocculation occur, then the pectin breakdown is
insufficient and enzymation must be prolonged, or the juice must be subjected
to further enzymation. On no account should the juice be allowed to go on to
further treatment before the alcohol test has shown a negative result.
Fining / sedimentation Bentonite fining. The freshly pressed, screened apple juice is heat treated at
85 °C and immediately cooled to 50 °C. After that the pectin and starch test
are negative, bentonite suspension is added. Bentonite adsorbs proteines and
prevent post clouding caused by proteines. The quantity used is normally 500
to 600 g of bentonite soaked in water per 1000 litres of juice.
Gelatin fining. The traditional fining agent for apple juice is gelatin, a protein
which carries a positive charge at the pH of apple juice (approx. 3.5). When
added in water solution it forms an insoluble floc by electrostatic neutralisa-
tion of other juice debris, which mostly carries a negative charge. The floc
slowly settles, leaving the juice clarified.
Typical levels of gelatin addition are 50-500 g per 1,000 litres. However, it is
very unwise to rely on the standard addition of a fixed amount of gelatin to all
juices, because excess residual gelatin may remain in solution and cause fur-
ther precipitation as post bottling haze (PBH) when denatured after pasteuri-
sation. Worse still, the addition of excess gelatin during fining can lead to
“charge-reversal” which stabilises the gelatin-tannin complex as a positively
charged colloid which will never flocculate. It is therefore important to carry
out a small-scale fining test on every batch of new juice to establish the mini-
mum level of gelatin required for clarification. Gelatins must be brought into
solution slowly and metered carefully into the juice.
The action of gelatin in clarifying apple juice is slow, and it can take many
hours for the floc to form fully. Test fining is therefore advisable. The quality
of gelatin used for clarification is of high importance. It is best to use an edible
gelatin in powder form which is dissolved in water prior to use. Gelatine also
adsorbs polyphenolcomplexis, specially them which are oxidated. This results
in a lighter colour and a reduction in bitter taste.
Silica sol, reduces the risk of overfining by precipitating excess gelatin. Silica
sol is required if the fining is made at elevated temperature (50 °C).
Filtration Conventional filtration. Traditionally depectinized and fined apple juice has
been filtered using diatomaceous earth, also called simply “earth filtration”.
Usually the apple juice in the fining tanks are allowed to sediment for several
hours. A tank bottom of 10-30% of the tank content is produced containing the
suspended solids together with all the fining substances. A nearly clear top
fraction of 90-70% can be filtered in a earth filter. The bottom sediment must
then be prefiltered in a vacuum filter before it is filtered together with the top
fraction.
Ultrafiltration (UF) offers many advantages to the apple juice processor,
since it would appear to combine both fining and filtration steps in one opera-
tion.
The juice must be depectinised and free from starch before UF to ensure rea-
sonable flux rates and to prevent rapid clogging of membranes. Even so, oper-
ation at 50-55 °C is necessary to reduce the viscosity of the juice.
Turbulent or aearated flow of the feedstock juice must be avoided, because this
induces polyphenol oxidation which contributes to membrane fouling and lat-
er to haze formation in the permeate.
Evaporation
The juice from the buffer tank is fed by a centrifugal pump to a balance tank
in front of a plate heat exchanger, in which the juice is first regeneratively pre-
heated by outgoing concentrate and condensates. It then proceeds to a final
heating section where it is heated to evaporation temperature with circulating
hot water.
The heated juice passes in succession through the first and second evaporator
effects, where it is preconcentrated to about half its original volume.
Aroma recovery At least 10% of the product, including volatile aroma substances, is vaporised
in the evaporator, then distilled in a distillation column to yield an aroma con-
centrate that is added to the finished juice before it is packaged. The juice leav-
ing the evaporator is cooled, first regeneratively and then with water in a third
section of the heat exchanger.
This juice is now heat treated as the first stage of the evaporator usually oper-
ates at 86 °C or higher. The pre-concentrated juice may now be cooled to
55 °C and be delivered to the clarification block of the plant. From there it is
returned back to the evaporator after filtration.
The preconcentrated juice is fed via an intermediate tank to the main evapora-
tor, where it is concentrated in a short time to its full strength of 68-72 °Brix.
The concentrate is then cooled to 10 °C in the plate heat exchanger before go-
ing into storage.
Cooling of 72 °Brix and Juice concentrate is pumped from the buffer tanks after the evaporator via a
60 °Brix concentrate plate heat exchanger to tank storage. The concentrate is normally cooled to
about +15 °C before it is filled in tanks.
Concentrate handling Although clear apple juice concentrate is a relatively stable commodity and
can be kept almost indefinitely without deterioration, it can nevertheless suffer
a marked loss of quality if it is badly stored and handled. A further considera-
tion is that of storage temperature. At 15 °C or less, concentrates and aroma
essences will remain essentially unchanged for at least 6 months and probably
longer. At 20 or 30 °C, however, there is a noticeable effect on the quality of
the redilluted juice, the effects being proportional to storage time and temper-
ature; 2 weeks at 30 °C can produce detectable changes. Caramelised flavours
develop and browning is increased because of the Maillard reaction between
reducing sugars and amino acids at high concentration.
Clear apple juice concentrate can be handled and stored in an inert atmosphere
to prevent mould which could otherwise occur.
Products
Cloudy apple juice As its name suggests, this is a turbid light-coloured juice in which solids do
not sediment. This gives the product a stable cloudiness with pale colour. Its
taste is very close to that of freshly apples. Cloudy apple juice can be a
45 °Brix concentrate that reconstitutes to a product containing less than 0.5%
solids. The Japanese prefer this cloudy product, which they regard as closer to
nature.
Efficient production of cloudy apple juice involves a number of critical proc-
ess steps. To maintain the freshness of the juice, residence time and exposure
to air during processing must be minimised. Sufficient removal of suspended
solids is required to obtain an end product of stable cloudiness.
6
Orange Juice Concentrate
Production

Orange Juice
Concentrate
Production
Orange juice processing
- An introduction
The fruit itself
There are four principal groups of oranges of commercial importance in the
manufacture of orange juice products;
• Citrus sinensis (sweet orange)
• Citrus reticulata (mandarin or tangerine oranges)
• Citrus aurantium (sour or bitter oranges)
• Hybrid oranges (tangors)
The far most important group is the Citrus sinensis (sweet orange). In several
markets only juice from Citrus Sinensis varieties may be labelled orange juice.
The figure below shows the main orange producing areas in the world.
The two largest regions of citrus juice production (~80% of the world produc-
tion) are Florida and Brazil.
Italy Turkey
Spain
California Morocco
Florida Cyprus
China
Mexico Israel
Central America
Brazil
Argentina South Africa

Australia
Florida
Approximately 95% of the orange crop harvested in Florida is processed into
juice or juice products. A combination of climatic conditions, variety (type) of
trees and soil conditions result in fruit that has a low appeal in the fresh fruit
market, but produces a very high quality of juice.
The outside appearance of the fruit is unappealing to the consumer. The skin
is not uniform in colour, and is often quite green or yellow. The peel is quite
difficult to remove from the edible part of the fruit, which further contributes
to the unattractiveness of the Florida fruit to the fresh market.
However, the peel is normally quite thin and the Florida oranges are round in
shape which makes them ideal for mechanical dejuicing systems.
In Florida, the main varieties for sweet oranges are:
Early season (light in colour, and low in oil content):
• Hamlin (October to January)
• Parson Brown (October to January)
Midseason:
• Pineapple (December to March)
Late Season (stronger in colour, but have a higher oil content - especially to-
wards the end of the season when the fruit is mature):
• Valencia (February to July)
Florida also processes some mandarin and hybrid fruit:
• Dancy tangerine (December to March)
• Murcott (December to April)
• Temple (December to April)
• Tangelo (December to April)
Consequently, the Florida orange juice processing season is between late Oc-
tober and late May/early June. Variations occur from year to year, depending
upon the prevailing climatic conditions. In recent years, some processors have
been forced to start up processing early (using immature fruit) and even extend
the season beyond early June (with very mature fruit) to produce NFC (Not
From Concentrate) juice.
In order to limit the effects of seasonal variation on juice quality, they will then
store that product to blend with juice from another part of the season. This is
further explained in the chapter on NFC production.
Brazil
In Brazil, sweet oranges comprise the bulk of the crop:
• Pera Rio (June to mid July; mid August to mid December)
• Pera Natal (September to mid January)
• Valencia (mid July to September; mid October to January)
The Brazilian fruit tends to be smaller, less round, and to have a thicker peel.
The normal processing season for the Brazilian plants is from late June
through to early February.
The Brazilian oranges are also sold on the fresh fruit market. The quantity used
in Brazil for direct consumption has increased over the last few years.
The Brazilian processing industry, which developed rapidly during the 1970’s,
has prioritized its development on the production of concentrate.
The Florida industry is rapidly changing the emphasis of production to NFC
juices. Two factors influence these directions:
1. Consumer markets. Florida is geographically well placed to a major con-
sumer market which has a high interest in quality, and a relatively high
average disposable income. Not from concentrate products can easily gain
consumer acceptance. Brazil is presently a long distance from such con-
sumer markets. Shipping costs are significant.
2. Fruit maturity. Climatic conditions and grove management practices in
Brazil are also different to those of Florida. These two factors strongly in-
fluence the performance of the tree and the development of the fruit. In
Florida, the grove management is more intense. More attention is given to
the selection and development of the type of tree. The management of the
groves is more intense as regards pest and weed control. It is also the prac-
tice in Florida to irrigate the groves.
Climatic conditions also effect the bloom (the time when the tree flowers
or blossoms before the new crop of fruit is “set”). In Florida, the bloom oc-
curs uniformally and during a very short period, some two or three weeks.
In Brazil, however, the bloom period occurs over a very wide span of time.
The consequence of this is that at any given time, a tree in Brazil will have
fruit of differing maturity. Since fruit in a specific grove is gathered at one
picking, the crop from that grove will vary in maturity. This variation in
fruit maturity (therefore raw material quality) forces the processor to make
compromises in the juice extraction process, which will effect both quality
and yield of the production.
The Floridian processor therefore has the advantage of being able to select
the optimum processing conditions for the fruit harvested that day, since it
will be of uniform maturity. This is ideal for NFC production.
The Brazilian processor can, on the other hand, through the process of
evaporation, essence recovery and blending of the concentrate, overcome
the variations of quality to provide a consistent concentrated product.
Other varieties outside Florida and Brazil

There are many other varieties throughout the world, each having their special
flavour characteristic or peculiarity. The Navel being one example. The Navel
is often grown for fresh fruit, but some is processed.
One characteristic of the Navel is that after a day’s storage the juice gets a bit-
ter taste. Bitterness often comes from traces of limonin which develops on
processing of the juice. Navel oranges also tend to yield less juice than those
varieties listed above.
The structure of the orange
The peel consists of an outer flavedo layer and an inner albedo layer. The peel
protects the edible portion, endocarp, of the fruit. The colour portion caroten-
oids and the oil vesicles are contained within the flavedo.
Core
Core
Flavedo
Flavedo
Flavedo
Flavedo
Segments
Segments
Albedo
Albedo
OilOilsacs
sacs
Structure of a
halved orange
JuiceJuice
vesicles
vesicles
Seeds
Seeds
Within the albedo (the white spongy layer) flaveanones, limonin, pectin and
fiber are found.
The inner portion, or endocarp, of the fruit consists of segments, outer mem-
brane, segment wall, core and seeds. Within the segments are the juice vesicles
which are held together by a waxy substance. Droplets of juice oil and lipids
are present in these juice vesicles.
The citrus juice is a liquid expressed from the juice vesicles and contains
(among other things) vitamins, minerals, sugars, organic acids, amino acids,
phenolics, nucleotides, enzymes, limonoids, lipids, proteins, pectins and col-
our.
The objective of the extraction process is to separate out the juice portion of
the fruit while avoiding the incorporation of the peel or the fibrous portions of
the endocarp. The enzymes and any microbial infections must then be deacti-
vated with minimal damage to the vitamins, acids and flavour components.
The profitable operation of a citrus processing plant will achieve the above,
and reclaim salable components from the peel and residual parts of the endo-
carp.
Orange fruit products

• Juice. This product can be either as a single strength “not from concentrate”
product in frozen, pasteurised or aseptic form (called Not From Concentrate
or NFC); or as a concentrate normally as a frozen product (called Frozen
Concentrated Orange Juice or FCOJ).
• Pulp wash. This is a product reclaimed from the washing of the pulp of the
fruit. Pulp wash contains soluble fruit solids (≈ the sugars) and is often used
in the fruit drinks formulation as a source of fruit sugars and, due to the pec-
tin content, as a clouding agent to provide body and mouth-feel.
• Pulp. Unwashed (and sometimes even washed) pulp cells can be added back
to juice and juice drinks to provide mouth feel and give a natural appearance
to the product. Pulp is usually distributed frozen (20 kg boxes are most com-
mon) but aseptic bag-in-box pulp is beginning to become available.
• Citrus peel oil. The oil extracted from the peel is sold to flavour manufac-
turers for the production of various flavour compounds. It is sometimes used
by blending houses for blending into concentrate.
• Essences. These are the volatile components that are recovered during the
evaporation process. There is an aqueous phase and an oil phase products,
which are separated. The aqueous phase products (aroma) are sometimes
added back to the concentrate within the processing plant, but may be sold
separately to juice packers and blending houses. The oil phase (essence oil)
is different from peel oil and contains more of the fruit flavour. Essence oil
may also be added back to the concentrate. Both aroma and essence oil are
a raw material source to the special flavour processing companies for their
flavour product manufacturing.
• d-Limonene is a by-product recovered in the feed mill area from the produc-
tion of citrus molasses. d-Limonene is sold for use in the plastic industry, as
a source for the manufacture of synthetic resins and adhesives, and more
recently as a solvent in e.g. the electronics industry.
• Animal feed. The peel, rag, unrecovered pulp and seed residue is dried and
pelletized as a concentrated feed for dairy, beef cattle and sheep.
• Citrus molasses is the syrup produced from the concentration of liquor
pressed from the wet peel. It is used either as an additive to the animal feed
or as a feed stock in the fermentation production of citrus alcohol.
• Pectin. This is a less common by product of the fruit. Pectin can be extracted
from the peel for use in the jam, jelly and preserve manufacture. However,
this is not a common outlet for the peel.
Citrus processing plant overview
15 1 2 3 4
22
21
5
6
16
20 19 18 17 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7
Fruit reception
Fruit is received in trucks (20 000 kg loads). The trucks discharge their load
into pre-wash, de-stemming (removal of leaves and any stems that remain at-
tached to the fruit after picking) and pre-grade area (manual inspection to re-
move any damaged or obviously bad fruit). Damaged fruit that is eliminated
goes directly to feed mill.
Sampling of fruit is carried out to determine quality/colour/acid/brix for future
blending data input. Juice yield is measured and can be used as basis for pay-
ment to growers. Fruit is stored in special bins designed to minimize pressure
on fruit. From the storage bins, fruit goes to final washing and final grading
(another visual inspection of the fruit). Any culls (the rejected fruit) are sent
directly to feed mill.
Recycled wash water

Fruit Juice
reception extraction
Peel oil emulision
Pulpy
juice
Wet peel, pulp,seeds
Feed Clarification Pulp Peel oil

mill production recovery
Juice
Juice Juice Juice

Pulp
wash
NFC Concentrate
production production
Flow chart: Orange juice production
Extraction
From final grading, fruit is sized mechanically into different streams or lanes
so that each fruit is directed to the most suitable extractor. Extractors are set
up to handle fruit according to size to achieve optimum yield efficiency and
performance. If the fruit is too big, then it will be over squeezed and rag and
peel will get into the juice (with resulting bitterness). If the fruit is too small,
insufficient yield will result.
From the extraction and primary finishers, four streams will flow:
1. Wet peel together with pulp, rag and seeds will flow directly to the feed
mill.
2. Pulpy juice will go to juice production through clarification. Then to con-
centrate or NFC production.
3. Recovered pulp intended for sale as pulp (either premium or washed) goes
to pulp production.
4. Oil frit, an emulsion of oil and water, goes to peel oil recovery.
Juice production
The pulpy juice (approximately 55% of the fruit) passes to the primary finish-
ers to separate juice from pulp. (The “finishing” process is a separation process
by mechanical means, normally a rotating screen.) The pulp stream may then
go to pulp recovery.
The juice stream may be clarified to reduce the amount of sinking pulp. De-
sired content of sinking pulp is normally stated in the product specifications.
There are also legal standards on maximum levels of sinking pulp. Bottom
pulp (or sinking pulp) separated in the clarifier goes to pulp recovery.
Juice is buffer stored before further processing. At this stage it is possible to
blend the juice to even out some of the differences between loads of fruit. Juice
should be cooled to 4 °C to minimize microbial growth as early in the process-
ing chain as possible. (Either before the primary finisher or before the clarifier
but at least before storage vessels)
Recycled wash water

Fruit Juice
Peel oil emulision
Pulpy
juice

Juice
Juice Juice Juice

Pulp
wash
NFC Concentrate
Concentrate production
From the buffer/blend tanks, juice goes to the evaporator. Within the evapora-
tor circuit, the juice is first pre-heated to pasteurisation temperature, then it
passes through the evaporation stages of the process to be concentrated to
65 °Brix. During the evaporation process, volatile components will flash off
and can be recovered in an essence recovery unit.
The concentrate is cooled and blended with other production lots if needed. It
then goes to refrigerated tank storage (-10 °C) or drum storage. FCOJ is some-
times stored for several years.
Blending of concentrates also occurs before dispatch to achieve the required
profile. Product is dispatched in drums at -18 °C or in bulk tankers at -10 °C
to -25 °C.
Condensate from the evaporation process is re-cycled to the fruit reception
area and used as wash water.
NFC Production
Instead of going to concentrate production the juice may be processed at single
strength as an NFC product (Not From Concentrate). Juice is pasteurised (typ-
ically 95 °C for 15 seconds) before storage. De-oiling may be required to re-
duce oil levels in the juice. It is good practice to deaerate during pasteurisation
to remove oxygen.
Since product is consumed year round, but production is only seasonal, NFC
juice must be stored for at least a year. There are two principle alternatives
available for storage:
1. Bulk freezing after pasteurisation. The advantage for freezing is that the
chemical aging of juice is retarded at these temperatures. The negative is
that energy consumption is high for the freezing, storage and thawing
processes. After thawing the juice is normally blended with juice (and/or
pulp) from another region or part of season, then it must be re-pasteurised
before filling into the consumer package.
2. Aseptic storage after pasteurisation. Storage is carried out in large aseptic
tanks or in bulk bag-in-box. Product is kept refrigerated (-1 °C) to minimise
the chemical aging effects. Re-pasteurisation after storage is common prac-
tice.
Florida processors normally blend NFC juice from early and late varieties to
get a constant quality and keep costs down.
Recycled wash water

Fruit Juice
Peel oil emulision
Pulpy
juice

Juice
Juice Juice Juice

Pulp
wash
NFC Concentrate
Pulp production
The pulp stream represents some 3-5% (in finished form) of the total fruit
product stream.
Commercial Pulp. Pulp leaving the primary finisher has a concentration of
approx. 500 grams/litre. Heat treatment (stabilisation) at 95 - 110 °C for 15-30
seconds is applied to deactivate enzymes and to provide microbiological sta-
bility. Further finishing (“drier” or final finisher) increases the pulp content to
950 -1000 g/l. This pulp is still wet from liquid being absorbed to the fibrous
membranes. However, no more liquid can be removed by mechanical force.
Juice from the finishers typically goes to evaporation. Pulp is normally pack-
aged into 20 kg card board boxes (less often into 200 kg drums).It is stored and
shipped frozen. Potential exists for aseptic packaging into bulk bag-in-box.
Pulp wash. If pulp is not recoevered for commercial sales, pulp from the final
finishers and the clarifiers can be washed to remove juice solubles. These re-
covered juice solubles can then be returned to the juice stream prior to the
evaporator (if the law permits). This stream is called pulp wash. Alternatively,
the pulp wash stream can be separately concentrated (by evaporation) to make
base materials for juice drinks.
Washed pulp; Most of the resulting washed pulp goes to the feed mill to pro-
duce animal feed. It may also be stabilised (heat treated) and boxed (in a sim-
ilar manner to commercial pulp). Washed pulp is used as an ingredient in the
production of juice drinks but not normally added to pure orange juice (quality
and legal reasons).
Peel oil recovery
Recovered peel oil represents some 0.3% of the fruit intake.
The oil frit, an emulsion of oil and water coming from the extractor section, is
first centrifuged to obtain a concentrated oil phase. It is then further purified.
The oil contains dissolved waxes which can cause haze formation at low tem-
peratures. These waxes are removed by the “winterizing process”. In this proc-
ess the oil is normally stored in refrigerated conditions (1 °C) for several
months, causing dissolved waxes to crystallize and precipitate. Oil is decanted
off from tanks. Tank bottoms can be further centrifuged to reclaim any resid-
ual oil.
The reclaimed water from the centrifuges can be re-circulated to the extraction
process. The percentage of water recycled must be regulated to prevent the
build up of microbes, and of highly homogenized oil globules (which will in-
hibit the removal of oil from the peel).
Feed mill
For larger plants, it is economically feasible to include a feed mill operation.
Smaller plants will truck their solid waste to such larger facilities.
The raw material for the feed mill represent some 40 - 45% of the fruit intake.
The wet peel, rag, seeds, culls from the fruit receiving line, excess pulp are
waste streams sent to the feed mill. First, the incoming material is broken
down by hammer mills to smaller pieces. Lime is often added to the material
to aid the de-watering process. Large hydraulic presses (batch charged) or
screw presses squeeze the material to remove moisture.
The “press liquor” contains sugars which are concentrated (in the form of mo-
lasses) in the waste heat evaporator (so called since it uses exhausted moist air
from the peel drier). The molasses can be returned to the dried peel (to increase
the nutritive value of the peel), or used as a source for alcohol production by
fermentation. d-Limonene (an oil derivative) can be removed in the waste heat
evaporator. Condensate from the evaporator will be recycled to the washing
system at fruit reception.
The peel from the presses is dried in a rotary drier, then pelletized for sale as
animal fodder
Recycled wash water

Fruit Juice
Peel oil emulision
Pulpy
juice

Juice
Juice Juice Juice

Pulp
wash
NFC Concentrate
Final note
The operation of a by-products recovery line can be profitable for the citrus
processor provided that the volume of production is sufficient to sustain the
operation.
In order to maximise their opportunities, the processors in Florida design their
operations for flexibility, both in the production of primary products (juice or
concentrate) and in by-products.
If market forces dictate that the production of concentrate is more advanta-
geous one week over another, they can readily change the emphasis of their
production. In contrast, the Brazilian processor generally operates a more ded-
icated plant that is optimized for a specific product and by-product mix.
This influences the manner in which investment decisions are made. The Flor-
idian processor will look for a high degree of flexibility in an item of process
equipment. One unit may need to be able to operate under a range of condi-
tions. The Brazilian processor may accept a more dedicated process compo-
nent.
1000 Boxes of Total orange yield

Valencia Oranges
(40.8 tons)
41,4% 3% 55,3% 0,3%

Peel, rags & seeds Frozen pulp Juice, 11.8° Bx Cold pressed oil
17.0 tons 1.2 tons 22.7 tons 113 kg
65° Bx concentrate Natural orange aroma Orange essence oil

4.1 tons + 45.5 kg + 3.2 kg
Fruit reception line

Truck unloading
Fruit picked in the groves are loaded onto trucks (typically 20 000 kg size in
Florida) and taken to the processing plant. The trucks are unloaded on a spe-
cially designed tipping ramp. It lifts the front of the truck to allow the fruit to
roll out at the rear of the trailer directly onto a conveyor, which takes the fruit
to the pre-wash station. Alternatively, the truck may be reversed down a ramp
so that the fruit is unloaded again directly onto the conveyor.
Pre-washing, de-stemming and pre-grading

The fruit undergoes an initial washing to remove dust, dirt and residues of pes-
ticides. The roller conveyor of the de-stemming and pre-grading tables allow
any leaves or tree stems to fall from the fruit stream. Manual inspection, pre-
grading, at this stage removes visibly damaged or rotten/undesirable fruit. Re-
jected fruit can be sent to the feed mill. Water used for pre-washing can be con-
densate recovered from the evaporation process. There is a strong need to
reduce total water demands for the orange processing plants.
Truck Pre-wash De- Pre-grade

unloading stemming Sampling
Final grading Final fruit Surge bin Fruit storage

wash
Sizing Extraction
Flow chart:
Fruit reception
Sampling
From each truck, a sample of fruit is taken to be analysed. The main parame-
ters to be analsysed are juice yield, brix, acidity and colour. This gives the
processor an indication of the maturity of the fruit. As the fruit goes into bin
storage, provided that the fruit is tagged, it is possible to select fruit from var-
ious sources to blend during the extraction process to achieve the desired final
product quality. In Florida the measured juice yield forms the basis for pay-
ment to the fruit supplier.
Fruit storage
The pre-graded fruit is stored in bins. These bins are specially designed with
inclined multi level internal baffles that direct the fruit forward and back in the
bin to avoid too much weight coming to bear on the fruit. Time period that the
fruit stays in the storage bins should be as short as possible, but can be up to
24 hours.
Surge bin
Fruit is drawn from the storage bins to the surge bin. In this bin, streams of fruit
from one or more storage bins may be combined.
Final fruit washing

A second and final wash of the fruit is carried out immediately before the ex-
traction process. The wash water may include a mild disinfectant to assist in
lowering the micro-biological count on the surface of the fruit.
Typical water consumption for the washing stages of the fruit reception line is
between 110 and 200 l per 1 000 kg of fruit. In plants with concentrate produc-
tion, condensate from the evaporators may be used for final washing. Other-
wise fresh water has to be taken in for this duty.
Final grading
The fruit passes over a series of grading tables for final visual inspection and
removal of damaged or unsuitable fruit. The rejected fruit are called “culls”.
Juice extraction
Once the fruit has been washed and graded, it is nearly ready for the extraction
process. The extraction process has a major effect on the total economics of
the process (yield) and the quality of product produced. For the extraction
equipment to operate close to the optimum condition, the raw fruit must be
sorted according to size.
Fruit sizing
After grading, the fruit will pass over the sizing table to divide the fruit into
several streams according to the diameter of the fruit. A sizing table is gener-
ally made up a series of rotating rollers over which the fruit must pass. The dis-
tance between the rollers is pre-set, and increases as the fruit travels over the
table. Over the first set of rollers, the smallest fruit will drop between the gap
onto a conveyor, and pass to an extractor set up for that size range of fruit. As
the gap increases, so the larger fruits will pass through and on to extractors set
for that size. In this way, the fruit is selected to suit the individual setting of
the extractor.
A well functioning sizer is necessary to produce juice of high quality and/or
high juice yield.
Extractor types
The objective of the extraction process is to reclaim as much juice from the
fruit as possible, but to avoid the presence of rag, oil or other components of
the fruit which may lead to bitterness in taste or other defects later in the life
of the juice.
Generally, two major manufacturers of extraction equipment are used, FMC
(squeezer style) and Brown (reamer style). Both FMC and Brown are US com-
panies. In Florida, the total installed extraction capacity is about equal for
Brown and FMC. Outside Florida, however, FMC has a dominant position on
the extractor market.
There are other manufacturers of extraction equipment, such as Formesa
(FMC copy) and the more multi-purpose machines from Italian Indelicato and
Bertuzzi. For citrus they are of little significance in comparison to FMC and
Brown.
The FMC extractor

Extractors are laced into lines with 8-10 extractors in each line. Each extractor
may be fitted with 5 “heads”. The job of the FMC extractor is to separate the
fruit into four streams, pulpy juice, peel, core (rag, seeds and pulp), and oil
emulsion.
The “heads” are available in different sizes; 23/8", 3", 4", and even 5" (used
mainly for grapefruit). Choice of “head” size depends upon the type and qual-
ity of fruit available. “Head” sizes for each extractor in a line are chosen so that
the fruit (which will range in size over the line) can be handled optimally.
The “head” of an extractor is comprised of an upper and a lower cup. The cups
have metal “fingers” that mesh together as the upper cup is lowered to the low-
er cup. A cutter connected to the perforated “strainer tube” (sometimes re-
ferred to as the pre-finisher) comes up through the centre of the lower cup to
remove core material.
Once the strainer tube has cut into the fruit and travelled up to meet the upper
cup, this upper cup squeezes down on the lower cup. This pressure initially
forces the juices to break from the juice vesicles and pass through the perfora-
tions of the juice tube. Some pieces of the juice vesicle (pulp) will pass through
with the juice. The upper cup continues to squeeze down on the lower cup to
extract as much of the juice as possible. Eventually the downward pressure
causes the peel to break up and disintegrate, passing up through the fingers of
each cup.
The core material is discharged from the bottom of the strainer tube through
the orifice tube. Juice flows out from the strainer tube through the juice man-
ifold.
As the peel is forced through the fingers of the cups (step 4), oil is released
from the peel. At this time the peel bits are washed with recycled water to ex-
tract the oil. This is discharged from the extractors as an emulsion.
The operation of the extractor is explained in the picture below.
1 2 3 4
Upper
cutter
Upper cup
Lower cup
Lower
cutter
Prefinisher
tube
Juice
manifold
Orifice
tube
With the FMC process, the one item of equipment (i.e. the extractor) is used
to separate the four principle streams in one basic step. The claim of the man-
ufacture is that contact is avoided between the juice and oil, and the juice and
peel. This avoids any transfer of bitterness and helps to produce a high quality
of juice.
For successful operation of this equipment, the correct selection of cups and
the adjustment of the movement of the cups and cutter are important. Too
much pressure brought on the fruit, due to small cups, may result in peel en-
tering the juice stream. Too little pressure, then yield will drop.
The capacity of a five-head extractor will vary according the quality of fruit
and its size. The standard operating speed of the FMC extractor is 100 rpm (or
500 fruits per minute). The following are approximate juice flowrates assum-
ing 100% feed efficiency.
Fruit size Average juice flowrate per extractor
21/2" diameter 2700 l/h (=12 US gallon/min)
3" diameter 3420 l/h (=15 US gallon/min)
FMC Premium Pulp extractor
The standard FMC extractor will tend to break up the pulp to small pieces (typ-
ically less than 5 mm in length). This is acceptable if the pulp is intended for
pulp wash rather than for sale as commercial pulp.
Market demands are changing, and the need for more “natural” pulp that has
been subjected to less shear is increasing. FMC have consequently developed
a Premium Pulp system to ensure that larger pulp pieces flow forward with the
juice stream (the cells are up to 15 - 20 mm long). The main difference in the
extractor is the use of a different strainer tube. The modified strainer tube will
put more pulp into the juice stream. The pulp is then separated from the juice
and treated in a modified pulp recovery system.This is the latest in a series of
developments by FMC. Today (1995) there are some three FMC Premium
Pulp lines in Florida, but none in Brazil.
FMC Low oil extractor

Certain fruit varieties (e.g. the Florida Valencia) will express more oil into the
fruit stream than other varieties. This can lead to oil levels in the juice in excess
of 0.035% (max level in Florida for grade “A” juice) The high oil levels can
lead to increased harshness in the flavour of the finished juice when intended
for NFC production.
To avoid this problem FMC offer a “low oil” extractor. Again the difference
are in the strainer tube and orifice tube area. The intent is to put less pressure
on the fruit. However, this may lead to a reduction in juice yield. As an alter-
native, Tetra Pak can supply “single strength de-oiling” centrifuges that will
operate in conjunction with the standard FMC extractor set up. The higher
juice yield can be maintained, and the oil is removed by centrifuge immediate-
ly after the extraction process. See the later section on de-oiling.
The Brown juice extractor

The Brown extractors are different to FMC as they are of the reamer type. A
Brown extraction line also comprises several extractors. As for FMC, it is very
important to set up each extractor to suit the size of fruit that is fed to it. Below
is a picture of a Brown extractor.
Fruit in
Feed wheel
Peel ejector
Reamer head
Side peel discharge

with pulp recovery roll
Air cushioned cup

track adjustment
Knife
Peel chute
Juice outlet in rear
Fruit is fed into the feed wheel and cut in half. The halves are orientated and
picked up in synthetic rubber cups mounted on a continuous belt system. A se-
ries of nylon serrated reamers (cone shaped inserts that have ridges moulded
into the form from tip to base of the reamer) are mounted on a rotating turnta-
ble (for most models in the vertical plane). These reamers meet each fruit half,
rotating as they penetrate the fruit. The speed of rotation varies as the reamer
penetrate the fruit (slower towards the end). Juice, pulp, rag and seed pass out
through one outlet, the peel segment out through the peel shute.
The juice and pulp are separated from the rag and seed by a strainer, then pass
on to the finishers.
The pressure that the reamer operates and the speed of rotation can all be ad-
justed to suit the maturity, size and quality of fruit.
The Brown system will typically give a better quality of pulp (longer and larg-
er cell fragments) than the standard FMC extractors. Juice yields between the
Brown and FMC systems are comparable.
The Brown oil recovery system

Peel oil can be recovered from the peel using the BOE (Brown Oil Extraction)
system. The BOE is placed upstream of the juice extractors. (See BOE flow-
chart below).
Peel oil is retained in glands within the flavedo (coloured portion of the peel).
The Brown Oil Extraction system operates on the principle of puncturing these
oil glands and washing the oil out to make an emulsion. In the first stage of the
oil extraction system, the whole fruit passes over a series of semi-submerged
rollers with small but sharp needle-like projections. The oil glands are pricked
rather than scraped open, so little damage is done to the peel, and the amount
of other material washed away with the oil is minimal. This makes the water
stream cleaner and easier to re-cycle.
Oil extractor Water

Fruit in
Dryer
Screw
finisher
Surge
tank
Middle phase
recirculation
Oil
Waste
Desludger Polisher
Sludge Sludge
The water washes out the oil from the pierced glands. After a finishing stage
to remove any large particles of peel, the oil-water emulsion can be concen-
trated and polished in a series of centrifuges (see section on Peel oil recovery).
Much of the water can be re-cycled for further oil removal washings.
Instead of the recently developed BOE system, older Brown installations use
“peel shavers” after the juice extraction stage. The outer layer of flavedo is lit-
erally shaved off from the peel mechanically. As the flavedo is shaved off from
the peel (albedo), it is washed and pressed to remove the oil. The emulsion is
then centrifuged in the traditional manner.
Although the Brown extraction system requires two separate “steps” to extract
juice and oils from the fruit, it is often considered that the Brown oil emulsion
is easier to centrifuge (giving higher oil yields) and that the juice has less con-
tact with the oil (consequently has a better flavour).
Downstream of the juice extractors

The juice streams leaving either an FMC line or Brown system then flow for-
ward for clarification and onto evaporation (or pasteurisation if end-product is
NFC juice).
The oil emulsion passes forward to peel oil recovery, using centrifuge tech-
niques. Peel, rag, seed and other solid material pass on to the feed mill. Solid
waste streams from some of the other processes (e.g. discharge from centrifug-
es) are sometimes added to the feed mill streams. This material is then dried.
Sometimes residual oil is removed (d-Limonene).
Clarification
The juice leaving the extraction process will contain too much pulp and mem-
brane material (typical pulp levels at this stage are around 20 - 25% having
both “floating” and “sinking” pulp present). The juice is therefore finished, i.e.
pulp is removed from the juice. A finisher is fundamentally a sieving cylindri-
cal screen.
Extractor suppliers also install the finishers. There are two types of finishers:
1. Screw type finishers. A
Unfinished juice stainless steel screw con-
veys the pulp juice
through the unit to press
the pulp against the cylin-
drical screen, so pushing
the juice out through the
screen holes. The pulp is
consequently “concen-
trated” inside the screen
and is discharged at the
end of the finisher. A sche-
matic of an FMC screw
type finisher is shown to
the left
2. Paddle finishers. These
units incorporate a set of
paddles rotating on a cen-
tral shaft within the finish-
Finished Pulp ing cylinder, again pushing
juice the pulp against the screen
as in the screw finisher.
Two finishers are often placed in series at the end of the extraction line. The
upstream “primary” finisher is not set as tight as the downstream “second-
ary” unit and so will have a higher flow capacity.
The exact set up of the clarification stage will vary depending upon both the
manufacture of the extractor system, and the type of pulp that the processor
wishes to recover. A Brown system or FMC Premium extractor may use a clas-
sifying finisher (with larger holes) to remove peel and membrane pieces before
entering the primary finisher. Whereas the standard FMC extractor will use a
pre-finishing tube in the extractor, so that the pulpy juice can flow direct to the
primary finisher.
Pulpy juice from Flow chart: Clarification

extraction line
Pulp
Primary finishers Pulp Pulp recovery

line
Juice
Juice
Bottom pulp
Bottom pulp
Juice
Juice Clarifying
centrifuge
Product chiller
Clarified juice
Clarified juice
Buffer storage
tanks
NFC production Concentrate

production HQOJ: U 2567 J
Typically the pulp content in the juice leaving the secondary finisher is about
12%. This pulp is predominately “sinking” pulp. If the market requires a juice
with a lower pulp content (pulp standardization), the juice can be further clari-
fied using a. For this application a 2-phase machine (clarifier) is normally used.
However, if the juice needs to be de-oiled, a 3-phase centrifuge could be used so
achieving two duties at the same time (de-oiling and pulp standardization).
Clarification by centrifuge can often lead to improved operation of the evapo-
ration system by reducing the overall levels of pulp in the juice.
After clarification the juice often undergoes some degree of blending before
further processing to harmonise the flavour, colour, acidity and Brix levels.
The juice leaving the clarification section should therefore be cooled to 4 °C
before passing into the buffer blend tanks to minimise the potential for micro-
biological activity.
Turbofilters, a recent development from a Californian based company, Mecat,
have been introduced into Brazil on some FMC lines. The Turbofilters have
been installed to replace the FMC primary finishers. They are claimed to give
a more constant sinking pulp level of the juice, so that fewer clarifying centri-
fuges would be needed for juice standardization.
NFC Production
The objective of NFC (Not From Concentrate) production is to prepare a prod-
uct with the minimum of thermal processing so that the flavour characteristics
are subjected to the least possible damage. Yet the thermal process should be
sufficient to ensure that the product is physically and microbiologically stable.
Since fruit harvesting is seasonal and the juice consumption is year round, the
product must be stable enough to be stored for several months, up to one year,
so that the seasons are bridged.
Juice
from clarification Flow chart: NFC Production
Buffer tank
De-oiling centrifuge
Pasteuriser Deaeration
Storage
Blending
Tetra Allink Re-pasteurisation
In some instances the NFC juice will be processed and packaged for immedi-
ate distribution in the retail market. When this is the case, following the clar-
ification step, some blending may occur (to minimize hourly variations in
acidity/Brix), and some pulp may be added (depending upon market de-
mands).
Alternatively, the juice is processed and bulk stored (frozen or aseptic) for
some months until it is re-processed and packaged. The re-processing often in-
volves the blending of juice from early and late season fruit in order to stand-
ardize Brix, ratio, colour, etc. The addition of pulp to the consumer product (if
required) is done at this stage. Sometimes, if volatiles have been removed from
the juice prior to storage these are added back to the juice during the blending
step.
Prior to pasteurisation but after the clarification stage, the product should be
cooled as soon as possible to avoid microbiological growth or enzymatic reac-
tions. Unfortunately in the traditional citrus processing facility, this is seldom
done. A plate heat exchanger or tubular heat exchanger can be employed for
this duty (choice of which will be dictated by the type and quantity of pulp
present in the juice).
High oil levels
Depending upon fruit source and extractor operation, the oil level in the juice
from the extractor may exceed acceptable levels. The levels can be according
to a legal standard (e.g. grade A juice under the USDA directives has a maxi-
mum oil content of 0.035%).
Alternatively, the levels may be decided on the basis of consumer preference
(too high oil content can make a harsh flavour or a burning sensation). Desir-
able levels of oil in the juice, when consumed, range from 0.015 to 0.025%.
Oil reduction can be achieved by:
• Adjusting the extractor (with FMC extractors: apply less pressure on the
fruit during extraction, or use a Low Oil Head. Either approach may lead to
lower juice yields).
• Vacuum flashing as an integral part of the thermal processing of the juice.
This method can remove desirable volatiles from the juice.
• Centrifugal separation of the oil phase from the juice. This is discussed in a
separate section.
The (de-oiled) juice is then buffer stored for a short period prior to pasteurisa-
tion. At this stage, some blending (as described above) may be carried out.
Primary pasteurisation
The purpose of the primary pasteurisation is two-fold:
• To de-activate the enzymes (which otherwise lead to cloud loss and brown-
ing).
• To make the juice microbiologically stable.
Pasteurisation is carried out using plate or tubular heat exchangers. The choice
of heat exchanger type is according to pulp quantities in the product (tubular
units will be used when the juice contains floating pulp or cells) and to proc-
essor’s preference.
The long shelf life expected for NFC going to storage, demand stricter hygi-
enic design of the systems employed. Single strength juice is more sensitive to
microbial contamination than concentrate. The use of chilled storage instead
of frozen also adds to much stricter hygiene requirements for NFC production
than FCOJ producers may have been accustomed to.
Good manufacturing practice now dictates that the pasteuriser system should
be pre-sterilised at 95 °C or higher prior to production, and CIP program inte-
grated into the control system. Tetra Pak can offer a range of TA/Drink sys-
tems as modules for this application incorporating high degree of energy
recovery.
Thermal treatment is a concern among many NFC producers. The combined
effect of time and temperature can lead to degradation of the product flavour.
To a certain extent, this can be minimized by using well designed heat ex-
changers using low temperature differentials between heating media (hot wa-
ter) and product. This reduces the “shock” to the product. Some processors
will specify the maximum allowed time for the product above a certain tem-
perature. For example, some processors require that the product is above 35 °C
for a maximum of 50 seconds, in order to minimise the thermal degradation of
the product.
Oxygen effects - Vitamin C losses

Oxygen can also lead to degradation of the juice. Browning and vitamin loss
is caused by oxygen contact with the product. The processes of extraction and
finishing will expose the juice to air, and can cause a high proportion of air to
be introduced into the product. Buffer storage can assist in allowing some en-
trained air to escape. However, some entrained air and always dissolved air
will be present in the juice.
Deaeration is a desirable process, especially in the production of NFC juice.
Many processors fear the loss of volatiles during deaeration, consequently will
carry out deaeration at ambient or lower temperatures. The reduction of dis-
solved oxygen is low under such conditions. The Tetra Alrox systems incor-
porate volatile recovery, so deaeration by vacuum flashing at elevated
temperatures (50 °C) can be carried out.
It is generally recognized that by oxidation reactions:
1 ppm oxygen can lead to a loss of 11 mg/l of vitamin C
Some numbers for orange juice:
• Non-deaerated juice contains typically 7 ppm oxygen.
• Deaerated juice contains typically 0.5 ppm of oxygen.
Thus, between non deaeration and deaeration, the difference in level of vita-
min C can be 70 mg/l.
This difference is significant when considering the facts that:
• Typical levels of Vitamin C in juice at the time of extraction is 500 mg/l.
• Minimum contents at consumption date is legally 350 mg/l in many
countries
Long term storage

After primary pasteurisation, the juice is then bulk stored. Three major options
are employed;
1. Frozen. Juice is filled into drums and stored frozen (-18 °C). Vitamin and
flavour changes over storage period are minimized by freezing. Energy
and ware house costs of freezing and storing frozen NFC are large. Large
volumes and juice freezes to solid blocks.
When the product is then thawed to be ready for final processing, the logis-
tics of handling the product are difficult. It takes time for the bulk to thaw,
however the outer layer of juice may be exposed to microbiological con-
tamination during that process which will have a negative impact on the
product quality. Crushing systems are high in energy consumption and in-
vestments
Systems to freeze larger blocks of product using novel techniques for rapid
freezing and rapid thawing have been presented to the industry. However,
presently (1995) none seem to be commercially viable.
2. Aseptic storage in tanks. Technology exists to build tanks up to 4 million
litres capacity for aseptic storage of juice. These tanks are specially fabri-
cated, using unique coating techniques of the internal surfaces of the tanks.
The tanks are sterilized prior to filling juice by flooding with a sterilizing
fluid (iodoform). The juice is stored within these tanks under refrigerated
conditions (-1 °C). Rather than build the tanks with cooling jackets, typi-
cally these tanks will be built within a large refrigerated building.
The juice must be periodically agitated to avoid separation of sinking pulp
and maintain uniformity of the brix level. A top pressure of nitrogen is of-
ten maintained to minimize the risk of vitamin C loss through oxidation.
Normally, when product is required from these tanks, it is drawn off, blend-
ed with juice from another part of the season (and with pulp) and re-pas-
teurised.
3. Aseptic storage is bulk bag-in-box. As an alternative to aseptic tanks, the
juice may be filled into 1140 l (300 US gallon) aseptic bag-in-box bins.
These bags are then stored in refrigerated conditions. When required, the
product is accessed by cutting open the bag and pumping the product out
of the bags.
This approach to storage requires more labour when filling and emptying
the product. However, it gives more flexibility for storage capacity as the
investment required to store additional volumes of juice is moderate. The
aseptic tank route has a restriction in that a finite volume for storage is
available unless a major investment is undertaken. Consequently, the bag-
in-box route is often taken by those entering into NFC production. The
aseptic tanks are installed with established NFC producers.
Tetra StarAsept is the Tetra Pak aseptic bag-in-box system. Compared to the
rival bag-in-box systems, Tetra StarAsept offers a high degree of product pro-
tection. The simplicity of the filling system (spout and filling valve) combined
with the use of steam as sterilising agent make Tetra StarAsept superior in
aseptic security. The super-barrier bag (foil based laminate) provides superior
protection against ingress of oxygen compared against metalized laminates.
Such technology when combined with refrigerated storage ensures a high
product quality even after prolonged storage. Further details and reference list
of installations can be supplied by Tetra StarAsept.
Re-processing
Traditionally, NFC juice taken from storage is blended with juice from a dif-
ferent part of the season and/or with pulp. The juice blend is then re-pasteur-
ised. The second pasteurisation will add thermal impact to the product. Tetra
Allink, applicable to Tetra StarAsept bags only, can be utilized to empty prod-
uct from aseptic bags and transfer it aseptically, via an aseptic tank, to consum-
er packages without the need to re-pasteurise. By unloading bags from
different production dates using the Tetra Allink system, blending can be
achieved within the aseptic tank.
Tetra Allink
Aseptic Aseptic Filling machine

unloading tank
Steam
Steam
Concentrate production
For production of orange juice concentrate the juice from the clarification
stage is sent to the evaporators.
The most widely used citrus evaporator is the TASTE evaporator. It was intro-
duced in the 1950’s and replaced low-temperature plate evaporators and Cen-
tritherm units.
Flow chart: Juice

Concentrate production from clarification
Condensate recovery
TASTE returned to
evaporator fruit reception
Essence
recovery/storage
Cold wall
blend tanks
PHE cooler
Frozen concentrate
storage
The TASTE evaporator

The TASTE evaporator is generally described as a continuous, high tempera-
ture short time evaporator of the long vertical tube falling-film type.The name
is an acronym: Thermally Accelerated Short Time Evaporator.
The four basic elements that comprise a TASTE system are;
• the pre-heater
• distribution cones
• tube bundles
• liquid-vapour separators
The development of the TASTE evaporator has been extensive. Examples of
installations with as many as 7 effects (7 juice stage) are installed. Such sys-
tems have extremely low specific steam consumption (only 1 kg of steam is
used to evaporate 6 kg of water).
The overall concept is to first pre-heat (and consequently pasteurise) the juice
to 95 - 98 °C. Then product passes through a number of effects under vacuum,
until a concentration of 65 °Brix is reached. By this time the product temper-
ature has fallen to some 40 °C. The residence time within the evaporator sys-
tem is in the region of 6 or 7 minutes.
The significant technical innovation in the TASTE evaporator is the method
by which the product is distributed across the tube bundle. Good distribution
is of primary importance in the design of an evaporator to ensure that all prod-
uct is uniformly treated and that the heat exchange surface is used to its max-
imum potential.
15.3 Brix 22.6 Brix Juice feed 12 Brix 41.7 Brix Juice distributor
No. 8 Pre−heater
(juice stabilizer) Vapor effect
Juice stage Tube nests Barometric condenser
I III V
VII
15.3 Brix 12 Brix 12 Brix Steam
3 5 1
Vacuum jets
7
No. 1
Vapor liquid Pre−heater
separator
18.3 Brix No. 5 29.5 Brix No. 3 No. 2
Pre− Pre−heater 13.4 Brix Pre−heater
No. 7 No. 6 heater No. 4
Pre−heater Pre−heater d−Limonene
Pre−heater
II IV VI
4 6 2
Cooling booster
43 C
15.3 Brix Flash cooler Condenser water

Steam for Vapor Steam Return to
evaporation 22.6 Brix cooling tower
41.7 Brix
Transfer pumps Hotwell

Evaporator Concentrate out Evaporator
Seven stage TASTE condensate 65 Brix 13 C feed 12 Brix
evaporator
The product is fed into the distribution section at a temperature and pressure
greater than that in the entry zone of the tube bundle. The liquid product is fed
through a diverging expansion nozzle that converts the all liquid product into
a liquid/vapour mixture. The expanding vapour accelerates the liquid vapour
mixture through a second nozzle and cone assembly. Further flash expansion
of the vapour causes atomization of the liquid phase into a turbulent mist. This
mist is evenly distributed across the tube bundle. As it flows down the tubes,
the vapour driven off from the liquid mist through evaporation, accelerates the
mist. Thus high heat transfer rates are achieved and a uniform heating effect
maintained. The high degree of turbulence prevents burn on and helps achieve
long operating hours. The acceleration effect can cause mist velocities to ex-
ceed 50 m/s on leaving the tube bundle! The high vapour speeds help separate
the vapour and liquid centrifugally in a drywall separator.
The TASTE evaporator can handle efficiently the large capacities that are of-
ten encountered in a citrus plant. Evaporator capacities can exceed
100 000 kg/h water evaporated.
While the TASTE evaporators were developed by Ralph Cook of Gulf Ma-
chinery Corporation in Florida, also other companies have licensed the rights
to manufacture and sell TASTE evaporators. (In 1994 these were GUMACO
of Brazil and FMC in Parma Italy).
Homogenisation
APV have patented (for US) the application of the homogenisation of concen-
trate within the evaporator system. This is normally carried out prior to the last
effect of stage of the evaporator. The concentrate, at that stage, is approximate-
ly 40 - 42 °Brix.
The effect of the homogenisation process is to breakdown the pectin, so low-
ering the viscosity of the concentrate. This increases the efficiency of the final
stage of the evaporator, making the final concentration process easier to
achieve. APV also claim that homogenisation reduces the sinking pulp level
in the final juice. This could allow for higher pulp levels in the juice going to
the evaporator, and as a consequence, increase juice yields by tighter operation
in the finishers.
Many homogenisers have been installed into existing evaporator systems to
help increase throughput of the total process (and yield??).
Other evaporation systems

GEA-Wiegand have also entered the citrus evaporator market with a design
similar to TASTE but incorporating thermal recompression to increase steam
economy. However, they have a conventional mechanical method to distribute
product across the tube bundles.
Plate evaporators are also used for the smaller capacities. Often these evapo-
rators also process other products outside the orange juice season. A number
of Tetra Pak evaporator systems are installed in Africa and the Middle East.
Essence recovery
Vapours from the first effect of the evaporator can be recovered to extract the
volatile essences. These essences can be separated from the vapour by distil-
lation and subsequent condensation. Essence recovery systems are normally
supplied by the evaporator manufacturer as the process is an integral part of
the mass and thermal balance of the concentrating system.
The recovered essences contain both oil phase and aqueous phase products.
The aqueous phase sometimes being added back to the concentrate to enhance
flavour. The oil phase (essence oils) hold the aroma and flavours characteristic
of fresh juice, and have different properties to those of the peel oil. The essence
oils and the water phase (aroma) are either sold as a separate product to con-
centrate blending houses or juice packers, or alternatively purchased on con-
tract by specialty flavour manufacturing companies and processed further into
flavour products.
Concentrate storage
After evaporation, the 65 °Brix concentrate is chilled (normally within a plate
heat exchanger) to -10 °C. The concentrate is stored in bulk storage tanks, for
later blending at dispatch, or blended and stored in 200 l drums. Drum storage
is normally maintained at -20 to -25 °C, bulk storage in large tanks is generally
-6 to -10 °C.
The concentrate is traded as Frozen Concentrated Orange Juice, FCOJ. The
term may be misleading as concentrate of 65 °Brix does not freeze solid due
to its high sugar content. FCOJ has a very high viscosity but is still pumpable.
Alternative concentration methods

Alternative methods for juice concentration have been developed and tested.
However, the economics of operation have not been able to justify investing
in new systems.
Freeze concentration. Grenco Process Technology B.V., Hertogenbosch,
The Netherlands, developed a system of freeze concentration of pasteurised
juice. Pasteurisation prior to freezing was found to be necessary to ensure that
enzymes were fully de-activated. Capital costs for such a system are extremely
high, and throughput extremely limited. No commercial plant is in operation.
Membrane Technology. FMC developed a system, Fresh Note, together with
DuPont. It uses Ultrafiltration to separate the pulp from the serum. Then by
Reverse Osmosis, concentrates the serum while the retentate of the UF system
(the pulp) is thermally pasteurised. After re-combining the two streams, a con-
centrate of approximately 42 °Brix can be obtained. Operating costs and con-
trol instability (unable to maintain a constant Brix level) have prevented this
system from being further developed.
Peel oil recovery

“Oil frit” from the extraction process is sent to the Peel Oil Recovery section.
Flow chart: Peel oil emulsion

Peel oil recovery
from extraction line
Reclaimed water
Oil returned to
finisher extraction line
First stage centrifuge
Second stage centrifuge
Winterisation
Drum filler Bulk transport
The oil frit will contain some larger particles of peel or other substance. Thus,
the first step is a “finisher”, as a form of filtration or straining, prior to passing
to the centrifuges.
The oil emulsion entering the first stage centrifuge contains typically
0.5 - 2.0% of oil. The objective of this centrifuge is to concentrate the oil up to
70 - 90% oil. This centrifuge is a typical three phase machine, the light phase
being the concentrate oil, the heavy phase water. Some solids are ejected from
the sludge space. The control of the solids discharge is critical to the overall
performance of the oil recovery system. If the discharge frequency is set too
often, then product will be lost, but if the sludge space is allowed to become
filled up, then separation efficiency will be lost.
The water stream is often re-cycled back to the oil recovery system. It is im-
portant that some water is “lost” so that a degree of make up water can be add-
ed into the system. Microbiological issues can occur if too much re-cycle
occurs. Also, the centrifuged water will contain microscopic particles of oil
that are too small to be separated by the centrifuge. The level of oil will build
up with re-cycling. As the level of oil builds, the effectiveness of the water to
extract the oil from the peel will decrease. This will lead to an overall drop in
efficiency of oil recovery.
In this application, the hermetic centrifuge has many clear advantages over the
open bowl type design. The fully flooded bowl ensures that oil does not con-
tact air. Air will oxidize the oil and lead to loss of performance (flavour). The
precise manner in which the interface between oil and water may be controlled
in the hermetic machine leads to higher efficiency of separation. (For details
on the specific machine advantages, please see the Orange Juice Application
Manual from Alfa Laval Separation in Tumba.)
The concentrated oil stream then passes to a second stage centrifugation proc-
ess (polishing). Within this machine, the oil is further purified to 99% purity.
The flowrates are extremely small in comparison to the flowrates that might
be seen in juice clarification or single strength de-oiling. Since the product has
already undergone one centrifuge process, the presence of solid particles in the
product is virtually non-existent. For smaller applications, a solid bowl ma-
chine is used. Periodic take down removes any material that collects in the
bowl periphery. The water and oil then are continuously discharged. For larger
flowrates, when the oil feed stream comes from two or more desludgers (first
phase centrifuges), a solids ejecting clarifier is used. The discharge mecha-
nism is set up to shoot frequently. The water (heavy phase) collects in the
sludge space. Regular discharges remove the water as it accumulates.
The winterisation process

The polished oil will contain trace amounts of wax (from the peel of the fruit).
This wax is dissolved in the oil. At temperatures above 15 or 20 °C, this wax is
totally dissolved. However, at lower temperatures it may give a haze to the prod-
uct to which it is added. To obtain a pure product, the polished oil is winterized.
Winterisation is a process involving precipitating the wax by first causing it to
crystallize and then settle. The oil is stored in tanks at 1 °C (or lower). The
waxes come out of solution and sediment. The process typically takes 30 days
or more. The winterized oil is then decanted from the tank. A larger processor
will collect the sludge from the winterizing tanks. Once sufficient material
from several tanks has been accumulated, the waxes can be removed by using
one of the centrifuges and the oil recovered.
The winterized oil is then packed off in 200 l (55 US gallon) drums or road
tankers. Normally the oil is stored under refrigeration (-10 °C). It is traded as
Cold Pressed Peel Oil, CPPO. It is used as a raw material in the flavour man-
ufacturing industry or by the concentrate blending houses.
Pulp production
Pulp production can be split into two process lines;
• Production of pulp for add back into juice and juice drinks
• Production of pulp wash (= the juice sugars obtained by washing pulp with
water). The remaining cells are sold as “washed pulp” or as cattle feed.
There is an excess of pulp present in the fruit compared to pulp required in the
juice market. Initially most pulp went to pulp washing. With the current mar-
ket trend to add more pulp (cells) to final juice, the proportion of pulp from the
extractors going to commercial pulp production is increasing.
In some plants the extractors used for production of commercial pulp have
been adjusted, in order to optimize pulp quality rather than to maximize juice
yield. In other plants this is not the case.
The downstream processing to produce commercial pulp differ between geo-
graphical markets and if FMC or Brown extractors are used. The choice of ex-
tractor and how it is operated will influence the quality of the pulp produced.
Pulp washing
The reason to apply the pulp washing process, is the fact that the pulp stream
from the final finishers, and the pulp discharged from the centrifuges in the
clarification or de-oiling processes, contain valuable juice solubles. Although
no more liquid can be squeezed from the pulp stream by mechanical force, a
lot of juice is still adsorbed to the cells.
These juice sugars can be reclaimed by a counter current water washing system.
The pulp passes through an extra finisher between the washing stages. The re-
sultant “juice” is called pulp wash. It can be concentrated by evaporation and
used as an add back to juice (if the law permits) or as a base for juice drinks.
The number of stages in a pulp wash system will be determined by the eco-
nomics of operation. In the first stage washing operation, typically 50% of the
available “juice sugars” can be reclaimed. With two stages, as much as 63%
can be reclaimed. Three stages can give 75% recovery and four stages (today’s
maximum) about 80%. Typical flow rates through the system is 1.5- 2 vol-
umes water/volume pulp.
Through pulp washing (assuming all pulp is washed) the overall yield of sol-
ubles solids can be increased by 4 - 7%. The value is dependent on e.g. fruit
variety and maturity. The yield increase from pulp washing is significant to the
overall plant economics.
Pulp from Multistage Pulp wash Continuous

Finisher/Clarifier counter current heater stirred tank
wash system reactor
Water
Washed
pulp
Box/drum
filler
Blend tanks TASTE Evaporator Centrifuge

evaporator feed tanks
Drum Pulp wash

filler concentrate storage Flow chart: Pulp wash production
Enzyme treatment and Pulp wash is high in limonin (a bitter flavour) and pectin. Consequently, non-
debittering treated pulp wash has limited use for add back into high quality beverages.
However, a debittering process can be applied to remove the bitter compo-
nents. These are adsorbed onto a polymer bed.
The presence of pectin in pulp wash leads to a greater increase in viscosity dur-
ing the evaporation than is normal for pure juice. This can lead to a limit of 40
°Brix for pulp wash concentration. Therefore enzyme treatment, which breaks
down the pectin, is often part of the pulp washing process. Enzyme treated
pulp wash can be concentrated to the normal 65 °Brix level.
After the counter current washing of the pulp, the resulting pulp wash stream
is heated to about 45 °C and enzyme is added. The mixture is held up to one
hour to allow for the enzyme to react on the pectin. The pulp wash may then
be centrifuged (clarification process) and sent to the evaporator. The 65 °Brix
concentrate is filled into 200 kg drums.
Pulp wash is often used in formulated drinks as a sugar source and as a cloud-
ing agent providing body and mouth feel.
Washed cells The washed cells can either be sent to the feed mill (for final use as cattle feed)
or be bulk packaged into card board boxes of 25 kg or 200 l drums. These are
stored frozen. The product is traded as washed pulp or washed cells and used
as a pulp source in some drink applications.
Regulations for pulp wash In the USA pulp wash concentrate must be labelled “pulp wash” and cannot
be added back to FCOJ.
Also EU regulations do not allow a product, which contains pulp wash, to be
called orange juice. If pulp wash has been debittered, it is, however, very dif-
ficult to detect it in the juice product. There is suspicion that non-declared ad-
dition of pulp wash is sometimes practised.
Production of commercial pulp

The exact set up of the line will vary from installation to installation. The de-
sign will depend on type of extraction system and processor preference. The
basic process steps are shown in the flow chart below.
Reclaimed juice
to evaporator
Pulp from Pulp recovery Pulp stabiliser Drying Box/drum

extractor system /steriliser finisher filler
Tetra StarAsept Frozen pulp

filling machine storage
Aseptic pulp
Chilled storage Flow chart: Pulp production
Pulp recovery system The juice from the extractor will contain pulp. These two components will be
separated either in the pre-finisher tube (part of the extractor for standard FMC
pulp) or some form of classifying finisher (FMC Premium pulp or Brown sys-
tems). At this stage, pulp content is typically in the 200 - 250 g/l range.
A further concentration of the pulp stream is achieved in the primary finisher,
where the pulp content is typically increased to 400 - 500 g/l.
Overflow This stream from the primary finishers, in Florida called “pulpy
juice”, will contain defects. Defects are normally described as small
fragments of peel, membrane or seed. They have to be removed from
the pulp. There is a density difference between the pulp slurry and a
Feed typical defect, so one or two hydrocyclones can be incorporated to
separate out the higher density defects.
The figure shows the operating principles of a hydroclone. Immature
seeds, on the other hand, are lighter and more difficult to remove.
Underflow
Heat treatment The pulp stream contains enzymes that have to be in-activated. In fact enzyme
activity is higher in the pulp fraction than for the corresponding juice. Conse-
quently, the pulp stream is heat treated (typically referred to as “stabilisation”).
Time/temperature combinations vary between 95 - 110 °C for 15 to 30 sec-
onds.
Typically this heat treatment is carried out in tubular heat exchangers. The
product is very unpredictable as regards flow characteristics, consequently
great care has to be exercised in designing processing systems. Pumps should
be slow rotating positive displacement lobe pumps to minimise pulp break up.
The selection of heat exchanger is also difficult. Contact points or any form of
flow restriction should be avoided, as pulp will build up and potential block or
severely restrict flow. Pressure drops through the systems are also normally
high, 1 500 - 2 000 kPa (15 - 20 bar), is quite normal. Typically, some form of
single tube heat exchanger is desired. However, as capacities increase, pres-
sure drops will also increase in the single tube heat exchanger.
The immediate tendency is to build a larger diameter tube for the higher ca-
pacities. Unfortunately, with the unpredictability of the flow behaviour of this
product, “coring” tends to occur. The velocity of the product flow in the centre
of the stream is much greater than the flow at the side (i.e. laminar flow). This
loss of turbulence drastically reduces effective heat transfer coefficients which
can lead to a poor performance of the system (failure to attain design temper-
ature) or a wide variation in product temperature (over processing and under
processing). This leads to inadequate enzyme in-activation and consequently
poor product quality.
Tetra Spiraflo have investigated this phenomenon in detail, and have devel-
oped a multi-tube heat exchanger that can process high pulp flow rates without
the negative of high pressure drops. A specially designed inlet to the Spiraflo
Multi-tube heat exchangers ensures that pulp does not “hang up” at the tube
entrance (so leading to flow path blockage). The use of the multi-tube provides
a high ratio of heating surface to product throughput, hence a more even and
consistent thermal treatment.
Thermal processing of pulp streams at levels much above 500 g/l is not viable
for today’s tubular heat exchangers. Heat transfer coefficients in tubular heat
exchangers rapidly decline at levels above 550 g/l. (The high cellulosic con-
tent of the product itself, severely limits heat transfer through the product.)
Consequently the design of the heat exchanger becomes large, and the added
disadvantage of slow heat up and cool down times effectively over processes
the pulp with consequent loss in product quality.
Air The nature of the pulp recovery process tends to incorporate air into the prod-
uct stream (paddle finishers). Air entrainment can provide some difficulties
within the heat treatment process. As air bubbles pass through the system,
small air pockets will act as insulators to the pulp (air tends to adhere to the
pulp membrane material). Larger air pockets will tend to expand with heat. Air
bubbles alter the designed time/temperature relationship. The consequence is
loss of control of the system with localised over or under heating of the prod-
uct. It is also possible that microbes contained within an air bubble, will not be
effectively heated, so will survive the process and recontaminate the product.
Deaeration has been attempted in some installations, but is not in widespread
use.
Frozen storage and chilled Traditionally, the heat treated (stabilised) pulp is further concentrated using a
aseptic storage final or “drying” finisher (up to 950 - 1000 g/l). The concentrated pulp is then
packed off. Normally in 20 kg corrugated cardboard boxes (lined with a poly-
ethylene bag), which are then frozen. The freezing time of the pulp is normally
some 7 days, and it is stored at -18 °C. Sometimes pulp is also filled into 200 l
(55 US gallon) drums, again for frozen storage. Drum are, however, less com-
mon.
Some processors have modified the stabilisation process into a stabilisation/
sterilisation process and aseptically pack the pulp immediately after the heat
treatment step. Further concentration of the pulp under aseptic conditions is
not possible using present day technology but pulp is bulk filled at a concen-
tration of ca 500 g/l.
The disadvantage of packing pulp aseptically (with refrigerated storage) at
500 g/l concentration, is that larger storage and shipping volumes are needed
compared to frozen pulp. The advantage is that the pulp is easier to handle. No
thawing and crushing of frozen blocks. The larger juice content (effectively
NFC juice) of the aseptic pulp product compared to frozen pulp, gives some
flavour top notes to the juice product to which the pulp is added. Thus enhanc-
ing the final product.
Feed mill operations

About 50% of the incoming fruit is a “by-product”, i.e. not juice. Much of this
material is seemingly low grade material in the form of peel, rag, core material,
seeds and pulp (assuming that pulp is not recovered for sale as commercial
pulp). The overall moisture content of this combined material is in the region
of 80%.
The operation of the feed mill section represents a significant part of the total
plant running costs. Improvements in operating efficiency and increasing re-
cycling of liquids to other parts of the plant are desirable, not only for econom-
ical but also for environmental reasons. Legislative pressures for
environmental control are growing.
The world market for orange juice concentrate has been very competitive the
1990’s. Thus, the revenue from sale of by-products from feed mill, such as
d-Limonene and animal feed, are important contributions to the overall prof-
itability for orange processors.
Process steps
The feed mill is the general recipient of this material together with the culled
fruit (rejected bad fruit) from the grading tables in the fruit reception area. This
material is conveyed (using screw conveyors) to the wet peel bins of the feed
mill. From there, it is broken down to small pieces by hammer mills. Small
amounts of lime (0.15 to 0.25%) are added in order to aid the de-watering
process. In the reaction screws, the lime is mixed throughout the material. Af-
ter a dwell time of about 15 minutes the mixture passes to the peel presses.
Peel, pulp, rag

& seed from
extraction line Flow chart: Feed mill
Wet peel bin
Hammer mills
Reaction screws
Static screens Reaction screws

Peel presses
Press liquor tanks Peel presses
Waste heat
evaporator Peel drier
Molasses tanks d-Limonene tank Pellet mill
Bulk tanker Bulk tanker Bulk storage

loading loading
In the primary peel presses some 10% of the moisture is removed. Batch hy-
draulically operated presses are traditionally used, however continuous screw
presses have recently been introduced for this duty although continuous screw
presses have recently been introduced. Further addition of lime and secondary
pressing can remove a further 2 or 3% moisture.
The press liquor contains some 9 - 15% solids, much of which are sugar solids.
Oil content can be between 0.2 to 0.8% (depending on fruit type, etc.). The
press liquor normally flows over static screens to remove peel solids, then to
the “waste heat” evaporator. The press liquor is concentrated to form a molas-
ses of approximately 72 °Brix. This molasses can be blended with the dried
peel, or sold as a feed stock for a fermentation process to make alcohol. The
“waste heat” evaporator has got its name because the thermal energy used for
its operation is waste wet heat from the peel drier.
The press liquor contains a high proportion of suspended materials. Often this
material is high in sand type content. This process liquid can be clarified in a
decanter centrifuge, however special “tiles” within the bowl of the centrifuge
are essential to minimise erosion. A clarified press liquor can increase the run-
ning time of the waste heat evaporator, and reduce cleaning time substantially
to contribute to an overall economic benefit to the operation of the feed mill.
d-Limonene can be striped off within the waste heat evaporator and recovered
as a separate stream from the vapour phase. d-Limonene is used within the
chemical and solvent industries.
The pressed peel is dried in a rotary drier to a moisture content of about 10%,
then pelletized to make animal feed. During the drying process, molasses from
the press liquor stream can be added to adjust the nutrient value of the material.
7
Production of Fruit
Based Beverages

From fruit to beverage
Lund, Sweden
Fruit Ingredients
Machine type
Fruit handling Ingredient handling
Juice winning Ingredient blending
St
T
o
Processing
ra
an
g
Heat treatment Pasteurisation
s
e
po
rt
Juice clarification Deaeration
Issue
Juice concentration Filling
1/9610
Aroma recovery Beverage
OH 635
Storage
Distribution
Beverages
Lund, Sweden
Alcoholic Coffee Soft drinks Packaged
beverages Tea water
Machine type
Processing
Beer Wine Spirits
Still drinks Carbonated
soft drinks
Issue
1/9610
Fruit juice Nectars Other
still drinks
OH 617
A still drink processing line
Lund, Sweden
Citrus
ple
Tropical Ap e
ap
Juice Gr
rr y

Be
Water
Raw material handling
Dry sugar
1 LITRE
Fruit
Machine type
concentrate
Sugar
dissolving
Processing
Steam
Issue
Batch
blending
1/9610
Cleaning station Pasteurisation Aseptic filler
Tetra Therm Aseptic Drink Tetra Brik Aseptic
OH 669
Alcip 10/20/100
Ingredients for fruit based beverages
Lund, Sweden
Fruit base
Machine type
Water
Sweetners
Processing
Acids
Flavourings
Issue
Colourings
1/9610
Other – stabilisers
– preservatives
OH 670
– antioxidants
Ingredients for pure juices
Pulp/Fruit cells
Aroma
Water

Tetra Albrix
Lund, Sweden
for continuous sugar dissolving

Continuous production
Machine type
In-line Brix control
Heat recovery
Sugar suspension
Processing
Automated process Granulated sugar Sugar solution
Water
control Steam
Compact design
Issue
Water
1/9610
Steam
Sugar
OH 672
solution
Still drink blending
Lund, Sweden
Continouos versus batch blending

Concentrate
Batch
Machine type
Blending
Water
Processing
Continuous (in-line)
Water
blending
sattcontrol
86.6% STEAM
29.3% OIL PRESSURE
57.7% GAS FLOW
READY
F1 F2 F3 F4 F5
Concentrate 7
4
8
5
9
6
C
+/-
F6 F7
F8 F9
1 2 3 E
N
T
E
SHIFT 3 R
0 F10 F11
Pasteuriser
Issue
1/9610
Static mixer BxT
LT
To
pasteuriser
OH 673
Blending
Water
Lund, Sweden
sattcontrol
Control
86.6% STEAM
29.3% OIL PRESSURE
57.7% GAS FLOW
READY
F1 F2 F3 F4 F5
panel
Concentrate FT 7 8 9 C F6 F7
4 5 6 +/-

F8 F9
1 2 3 E
N
T
E
SHIFT 3 R
0 F10 F11
Option
FT Buffer tank
RV
Machine type
FT Static mixer BxT
Processing
LT Blended product
to pasteuriser
Concentrate 2
Options
Issue
FT = Flow transmitter
1/9610
RV = Regulating valve
FT BxT = Brix transmitter
(refractometer)
LT = Level transmitter
OH 674
Sugar solution
Small components
Reclaim products
Product stabilising
❑ Homogenisation
❑ Pasteurisation
❑ Deaeration

Pasteurisation
Lund, Sweden
Machine type
Enzymes are already inactivated.
Processing
Therefore pasteurisation is aimed
at microbiological activity
Issue
1/9610
OH 676:1
Pasteurisation
Lund, Sweden
Machine type
Goal: Commercial sterility, i.e. destroy
all microorganisms capable of
Processing
growth in high acid environment
Issue
How Use sufficient heat load + safety
1/9610
margin
OH 676:2
What is sufficient heat load?
Lund, Sweden
Amount of microorganisms depend on:
Machine type
❑ raw materials
Processing
❑ hygiene, infection risks
Issue
❑ time/temperature before
1/9610
pasteurisation
❑ CIP frequency
OH 677
Variations in microbiological load and economical
Lund, Sweden
losses if commercial sterility is not achieved has lead
to "industry standards"

Machine type
Processing
Issue
1/9610
OH 678
TM
Tetra Therm Aseptic Drink
Lund, Sweden
– type WideStream WAD
Product
reject

25°C
(77°F)
5
Water
Machine type
CIP Dosing
Option 10
12 95°C
3 (203°F)
4
Acid Lye
Processing
Cooling Steam
Product water
inlet Condensate
15°C
Issue
(59°F) 1 2 Cooling
water
Option
1/9610
1. Balance tank 6 Option
2. Product pump
8
3. Plate heat exchanger
4. Hot water system 60°C
5. Holding tube (140°F)
6. Deaerator (option)
8. Homogeniser (option)
10. Aseptic filling machine
12. CIP dosing (option)
OH 679:1
TM
Tetra Therm Aseptic Drink
– type Spiraflo SAD
Lund, Sweden
Cooling
Product water
reject
25°C (77°F)
Machine type
10
CIP Dosing Cooling
Option water
12 60°C Option
(140°F) 6
Processing
5
Acid Lye
95°C
(203°F)
Issue
Product 3
inlet
15°C
(59°F) 2
1/9610
1
1. Balance tank
2. Product pumps Option
3. Tetra Spiraflo 4 Water
4. Hot water unit
8
5. Holding tube
6. Deaerator (option)
8. Homogeniser (option) Steam
10. Aseptic filling machine
12. CIP dosing (option) Condensate
OH 679:2
Deaeration
Lund, Sweden
Machine type
Gases in the product dissolved or as bubbles,
Processing
can cause oxidation reactions,
foaming at the filler
Issue
or reduced pasteurisation effect
1/9610
OH 680:1
Deaeration
Lund, Sweden
Goal: Reduce amount of gases
Machine type
Reduce oxygen level to below 1 ppm
Processing
Issue
How Use vacuum to "boil off" the gases.
1/9610
Product that is boiled off is
condensed back.
OH 680:2
TM
Tetra Therm Aseptic Drink Cooling
To vacuum water out
Options
Lund, Sweden
pump
Tetra Alrox

Machine type
Principle
• Remove free air and
dissolved oxygen
Processing
Applications
• Juices, fruit drinks, purées Product in
and concentrates before aseptic filling
Issue
Customer benefits
1/9610
• Higher retention of Vitamin C
• Improved product quality
Noticeable difference in colour and flavour
for orange juice after 4 - 6 months ambient storage
Product out
OH 681
• Avoid foaming at filler
Homogenisation
Lund, Sweden
Machine type
Certain products
(e.g. nectars or drinks with a comminute base)
Processing
contain particles that sediment or oils that
separate
Issue
1/9610
OH 682:1
Homogenisation
Lund, Sweden
Goal: Reduce sedimentation/separation
Machine type
speed by reducing size of particles/oil
globules
Processing
Issue
How Subject particles/oil globules to
1/9610
high shear forces
OH 682:2
Homogenisation
Lund, Sweden
Homogenised product

Pressure
5 - 50 bar
Machine type
Processing
Issue
1/9610
Unhomogenised
product
Pressure
150 - 350 bar
OH 682:3
Filling
Lund, Sweden
Hot filling > 85 °C
Machine type
Cold filling < 4°C
Processing
Aseptic filling ˜ 25 °C
Issue
– affect design of pasteuriser
1/9610
OH 683
Storage
Lund, Sweden
Important "processing" step for beverage quality
Machine type
Processing
Important parameters during storage
Issue
Oxygen availability
1/9610
Package type
Storage temperature
Storage time
OH 684
8
Processing Motives

9
Course Conclusion

10

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Course Introduction 1

Name: Apple Juice Concentrate Production 5

Orange Juice Concentrate Production 6

Production of Fruit Based Beverages 7

Technical Training Centre

2 Introduction to Fruit Beverage

Technical Training Centre 1/9610 I

5 Apple Juice Concentrate Production

6 Orange Juice Concentrate Production

Technical Training Centre 1/9610 II

Technical Training Centre 1/9610 III

Technical Training Centre

Technical Training Centre 1/9701 TM-00001

Technical Training Centre

Technical Training Centre

Technical Training Centre

Technical Training Centre

Technical Training Centre

Technical Training Centre Machine type Issue

Technical Training Centre Machine type Issue

Technical Training Centre Machine type Issue

Technical Training Centre Machine type Issue

Technical Training Centre

4. AIJN-Code of practice (Association of the

6. Gost-Norms (Moscow USSR)

Technical Training Centre Machine type Issue

Technical Training Centre

Technical Training Centre Machine type Issue

Technical Training Centre

Technical Training Centre

Technical Training Centre

Technical Training Centre Machine type Issue

Technical Training Centre Machine type Issue

Technical Training Centre

Technical Training Centre

Technical Training Centre

Technical Training Centre Machine type Issue

Technical Training Centre Machine type Issue

Technical Training Centre

Neutral solution [H3O+] = [OH-] pH = 7

Technical Training Centre

Technical Training Centre

Technical Training Centre

Technical Training Centre

Technical Training Centre

Degree Brix and soluble solids

Degree Brix ( °Brix, °Bx) ≈ % soluble solids (w/w)

Brix measured by density

Acidity and pH of beverages

Measuring acidity (total acids)

Degree Brix (corrected)

Cloud and Clarity

Turbidimeter (light dispersion)

% Acid Corr. % Acid Corr. % Acid Corr. % Acid Corr.

0.0 0.00 8.0 1.54 16.0 3.00 24.0 4.41

1.0 0.20 9.0 1.72 17.0 3.17 25.0 4.58

2.0 0.39 10.0 1.91 18.0 3.35 26.0 4.76

3.0 0.58 11.0 2.10 19.0 3.53 27.0 4.94

4.0 0.78 12.0 2.27 20.0 3.70 28.0 5.10

5.0 0.97 13.0 2.46 21.0 3.88 29.0 5.28

6.0 1.15 14.0 2.64 22.0 4.05 30.0 5.46

7.0 1.34 15.0 2.81 23.0 4.24

Technical Training Centre