ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Dragon Notes
______________________________________________
TERMINOLOGY/DEFINITIONS:
source = charge/current distribution of interest
field = non-source point of interest, where a field exists due to a source
𝜙 = angle w.r.t. unit normal vector (unless stated otherwise)
≡ = defined as / by definition
𝜕Ω = N-dimensional bounding contour of an (N+1)-dimensional manifold Ω
[N, M] = equations N, M, boxed left-to-right; pertinent Descriptions separated by ‘;’ respectively
[SN, SM] = set N, M of equations, ordered downward; [SX.Y] = equation Y in set X
[#N] = region N
UPL wave = uniform plane wave

PHYSICAL CONSTANTS:
𝜖0 = 8.85 × 10−12 F/m [Vacuum dielectric permittivity]
𝜇0 = 1.26 × 10−6 H/m [Vacuum magnetic permittivity]
𝑞 = 1.60 × 10−19 C [𝑒 − charge]
𝑚0 = 9.11 × 10−31 kg [𝑒 − rest mass]
 ⃗⃗
𝜕𝑩 𝑺
𝑑 𝑠
⃗⃗ = −
𝛁×𝑬 ∮ 𝑬⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝒍 = − ∬ 𝑩 ⃗
⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑺
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑆 𝑑𝑡 𝑆

[1, 2]/Description: fundamental postulate for electromagnetic induction; integral form of [1] –
Faraday’s law of induction
Underlying Assumptions
- [2] applies to both stationary and moving conductors
Properties / Ideas
- [1] Is a point-relation; that is, it applies to every point in space, whether in free space or in
a material medium
- [2] For stationary paths, when computing the RHS integral, the time-derivative moved
inside the integrand turns into a partial differential:
𝑠 𝑠
𝑑 𝜕
⃗⃗ ⃗
− ∬ 𝑩 ⋅ 𝑑𝑺 → − ∬ ⃗𝑩 ⃗
⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑺
𝑑𝑡 𝑆 𝑆 𝜕𝑡

Physically, the LHS and RHS of the above are equivalent – as, in the LHS-integral, time
drops out via integration (and integration paths are unvarying) – leaving no need for partial
differentiation.
Implications N/A
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𝑑Φ𝐵
ℰ=− ,
𝑑𝑡
𝑠
Φ𝐵 = ∬ ⃗𝑩 ⃗
⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑺
𝑆
[3]/Description: emf induced in a closed loop due to change of magnetic flux through the loop
Underlying Assumptions N/A
Properties / Ideas
- Induced magnetic emf depends on the area of the loop, the angle between the loop and the
magnetic field, and the rate of change of the magnetic field.
Implications
- The direction of any magnetic field induction effect is such as to oppose the cause of the
effect – Lenz’s law
- The induced current opposes the change in flux – not the flux itself.
 𝑪
⃗ × ⃗𝑩
ℰ = ∮ (𝒗 ⃗ ) ⋅ 𝑑𝒍
𝐶
⃗𝑭𝐵
𝑑ℰ = ( ) ⋅ 𝑑𝒍
𝑞
[4]/Description: motional emf induced by a magnetic field in a closed conducting loop
Underlying Assumptions
⃗⃗ field) conductors. For stationary conductors, apply Eq. 2, 3
- Valid for moving (w.r.t. 𝑩
- Time-invariant magnetic field at each point along the path of integration
Properties / Ideas
- [1] Is a point-relation; that is, it applies to every point in space, whether in free space or in
a material medium
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𝑺 𝑪 𝑠 ⃗⃗
𝜕𝑩
⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝒍 = ∮ (𝒗
∮ 𝑬 ⃗⃗ ) ⋅ 𝑑𝒍 − ∬
⃗ ×𝑩 ⃗
⋅ 𝑑𝑺
𝜕𝑆 𝜕𝑆 𝑆 𝜕𝑡

[5]/Description: complete (time-dependent) form of Faraday’s law of induction

- LHS describes induced emf in the moving frame of reference
- RHS-1 represents emf induced due to motion of the circuit in the B-field
- RHS-2 represents emf induced due to the circuit’s flux-cutting of the B-field (which
includes the time-variation of the B-field)
Underlying Assumptions
- The division of the induced emf between RHS-1 and RHS-2 depends on the motional
frame of reference
Properties / Ideas
- [1] Is a point-relation; that is, it applies to every point in space, whether in free space or in
a material medium
- Moving RHS-2’s partial derivative outside the integral as a complete (including implicit)
derivative makes the integration account for spatial (that is, motional) variation that is
otherwise computed by RHS-1 – reducing Eq. 5 to Eq. 2.
 𝑺 𝑠 ⃗⃗
𝜕𝑫
⃗⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝒍 = ∬ (𝑱 +
∮ 𝑯 ⃗
) ⋅ 𝑑𝑺
𝜕𝑆 𝑆 𝜕𝑡

[6]/Description: complete (time-dependent) form of Ampere’s circuital law

Properties / Ideas
⃗
⃗ , or conduction current density 𝜎𝑬
- 𝑱 may consist of a convection current density 𝜌𝒖
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⃗⃗
𝜕𝑨
⃗⃗ = −𝛁𝑉 −
𝑬 ⃗⃗ = 𝛁 × ⃗𝑨
𝑩 ⃗
𝜕𝑡
[7, 8]/Description: total (electrostatic + electromotive) electric field, due to electrostatic charges
and time-varying magnetic fields; magnetic field intensity related to vector magnetic potential
Properties / Ideas
- When 𝜌 and 𝑱 vary slowly with time, at a low frequency, and 𝑅 ≪ wavelength of interest,
𝑆 𝑆
1 𝜌 𝜇 𝑱
𝑉= ∫ 𝑑𝑣 ′ , 𝑨 ⃗ = 0 ∫ 𝑑𝑣 ′
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑉 ′ 𝑅 4𝜋 𝑉 ′ 𝑅
May be used to determine quasi-static fields (approximations of actual fields)
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𝜕𝑉 𝜕 2 ⃗𝑨
⃗ 𝜕2𝑉 𝜌
𝛁 ⋅ ⃗𝑨
⃗ + 𝜇𝜖 = 0 𝛁2 ⃗𝑨
⃗ − 𝜇𝜖 = −𝜇𝑱 𝛁 2
𝑉 − 𝜇𝜖 = −
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑡 2 𝜖
[9, 10, 11]/Description: time-varying vector magnetic potential divergence definition – Lorentz
condition for potentials; nonhomogeneous wave equation for vector potential 𝑨 ⃗⃗ ;
nonhomogeneous wave equation for scalar potential 𝑉
Properties / Ideas
- The Lorentz condition [9] uncouples the wave equations for 𝑨 ⃗ [10] and for 𝑉 [11]
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⃗⃗ 1 − 𝑫
̂ 2 × (𝑫
𝐸1𝑡 = 𝐸2𝑡 𝒏 ⃗⃗ 2 ) = 𝜌𝑠 𝒏 ⃗⃗⃗ 1 − 𝑯
̂ 2 × (𝑯 ⃗⃗⃗ 2 ) = 𝑱𝑠 𝐵1𝑛 = 𝐵2𝑛
[𝜌𝑠 , 𝜎 = 0] 𝐷1𝑡 /𝐷2𝑡 = 𝜖1 /𝜖2 𝜖1 𝐸1𝑛 = 𝜖2 𝐸2𝑛 𝐵1𝑡 /𝐵2𝑡 = 𝜇1 /𝜇2 𝜇1 𝐻1𝑛 = 𝜇2 𝐻2𝑛
̂ 2 × ⃗𝑯
[𝜎2 → ∞] 𝐸1𝑡 = 0, 𝐸2𝑡 = 0 𝐷1𝑛 = 𝜌𝑠 , 𝐷2𝑛 = 0 𝒏 ⃗⃗ 1 = 𝑱𝑠 , 𝐻2𝑡 = 0 𝐵1𝑛 = 0, 𝐵2𝑛 = 0

[S12, S13, S14]/Description: electromagnetic wave boundary conditions: general; lossless media;
[#1] = dielectric, [#2] = perfect conductor
 𝑆 (
1 𝜌 𝑡 − 𝑅/𝑢) ′ 𝜇 𝑆 𝑱(𝑡 − 𝑅/𝑢) ′
𝑉 (𝑅, 𝑡 ) = ∫ 𝑑𝑣 ⃗𝑨
⃗ (𝑅, 𝑡 ) = ∫ 𝑑𝑣
4𝜋𝜖 𝑉′ 𝑅 4𝜋 𝑉 ′ 𝑅
[15, 16]/Description: retarded scalar potential; retarded vector potential
Implications
- Potential at distance 𝑅 from the source at time 𝑡 depends on the value of the source
(charge/current density) at an earlier time (𝑡 − 𝑅/𝑢).
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1 𝜕 2 ⃗𝑬
𝟐 ⃗⃗
⃗
𝟐 ⃗⃗⃗
1 𝜕 2 ⃗𝑯
⃗⃗
𝛁 𝑬− 2 2 =0 𝛁 𝑯− 2 2 = 0
𝑢 𝜕𝑡 𝑢 𝜕𝑡
[17, 18]/Description: homogeneous vector electromagnetic wave equations
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⃗⃗
𝜕𝑩 ⃗⃗
𝜕𝑫
𝛁 × ⃗𝑬
⃗ =− 𝛁 × ⃗𝑯
⃗⃗ = 𝑱 +
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝛁 ⋅ ⃗𝑫
⃗ = 𝜌 𝛁 ⋅ ⃗𝑯
⃗⃗ = 0
[S19]/Description: Maxwell’s equations
- 𝜕𝑫 ⃗⃗ /𝜕𝑡 = displacement current density
- 𝜌 = free charge volume-density
⃗)
⃗ and conduction current 𝜎𝑬
- 𝑱 = free current density (may comprise convection current 𝜌𝒖
Properties / Ideas
- [S19] are point-relations; they hold at every point in space
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⃗⃗ = −𝑗𝜔𝜇𝑯
𝛁×𝑬 ⃗⃗⃗ 𝛁 × 𝑯
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑱 + 𝑗𝜔𝜖𝑬
⃗⃗
⃗⃗ = 𝜌/𝜖 𝛁 ⋅ 𝑯
𝛁⋅𝑬 ⃗⃗⃗ = 0
[S20]/Description: time-harmonic Maxwell’s equations in terms of field and source phasors
- If medium is nonconducting, 𝜌 = 0 in [S20.3]
Underlying Assumptions
- Simple (linear, isotropic, homogeneous) medium
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𝛁2 𝑉 + 𝑘 2 𝑉 = −𝜌/𝜖 𝛁 𝟐 ⃗𝑨
⃗ + 𝑘 2 ⃗𝑨
⃗ = −𝜇𝑱

𝛁 ⋅ ⃗𝑨
⃗ + 𝑗𝜔𝜇𝜖𝑉 = 0
[21, 22, 23]/Description: time-harmonic wave equations for scalar and vector potentials /
nonhomogeneous Helmholtz’s equations; Lorentz condition for potentials
- 𝑘 = 𝜔√𝜇𝜖 = 𝜔/𝑢
 𝑠
1 𝜌𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑅 ′ 𝜇 𝑠 𝑱𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑅 ′
𝑉 (𝑅 ) = ∫ 𝑑𝑣 ⃗𝑨
⃗ (𝑅 ) = ∫ 𝑑𝑣
4𝜋𝜖 𝑉′ 𝑅 4𝜋 𝑉′ 𝑅
[24, 25]Description: phasor solutions to Helmholtz’s equations
Properties / Ideas
- Relations obtained using [15, 16] in solving Helmholtz’s equations
Implications
- The Taylor-series expansion for the exponential factor 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑅 is
𝑘 2𝑅2 2𝜋𝑓 2𝜋
𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑅 = 1 − 𝑗𝑘𝑅 + + ⋯,𝑘 = =
2 𝑢 𝜆
If 𝑘𝑅 = 2𝜋(𝑅/𝜆) ≪ 1, or if distance 𝑅 is very small in comparison to the wavelength 𝜆,
𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑅 can be approximated by 1. [22, 23] then simplify to static expressions to find quasi-
static fields.
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𝛁2 ⃗𝑬
⃗ + 𝑘 2 ⃗𝑬
⃗ = 0 𝛁2 ⃗𝑯
⃗⃗ + 𝑘 2 ⃗𝑯
⃗⃗ = 0
[25, 26]/Description: electromagnetic wave equations for simple, nonconducting, source-free
media / homogeneous vector Helmholtz’s equations
Underlying Assumptions
- Simple, nonconducting, source-free medium
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𝜖 ′′ 𝜎
𝜖𝑐 = 𝜖 ′ − 𝑗𝜖 ′′ 𝜇𝑐 = 𝜇′ − 𝑗𝜇′′ 𝑘𝑐 = 𝜔√𝜇𝜖𝑐 tan(𝛿𝑐 ) = ′
≅
𝜖 𝜔𝜖
[S27]/Description: medium complex characteristics
- [S28.1] If a simple medium is conducting, a current 𝑱 = 𝜎𝑬 ⃗ will flow, and [S20.2] should
be changed to
𝜎
𝛁×𝑯 ⃗⃗⃗ = (𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜖)𝑬
⃗ = 𝑗𝜔 (𝜖 + ) 𝑬 ⃗ = 𝑗𝜔𝜖𝑐 𝑬 ⃗
𝑗𝜔
with 𝜖𝑐 = 𝜖 − 𝑗(𝜎/𝜔), where 𝜖𝑐 = complex permittivity.
- When an external time-varying electric field is applied to material bodies, small
displacements of bound charges result, giving rise to a volume density of polarization.
o This polarization vector will vary with the same frequency as that of the applied
field.
o As the frequency increases, the inertia of the charged particles tends to prevent the
particle displacements from keeping in phase with the field changes, leading to a
frictional damping mechanism that causes power loss because work must be done
to overcome the damping forces.
o This phenomenon of out-of-phase polarization can be characterized by a complex
electric susceptibility and hence a complex permittivity.
- If a material body or medium has an appreciable amount of free charge carriers such as the
electrons in a conductor, the electrons and holes in a semiconductor, or the ions in an
electrolyte, there will also be Ohmic losses.
 o In treating such media it is customary to include the effects of both the damping
and the Ohmic losses in the imaginary part of a complex permittivity 𝜖𝑐 :
𝜖𝑐 = 𝜖 ′ − 𝑗𝜖 ′′
where both 𝜖 ′ and 𝜖 ′′ may be functions of frequency.
- Similarly, complex magnetization involves an out-of-phase component under the influence
of an external time-varying magnetic field:
𝜇 = 𝜇 ′ − 𝑗𝜇 ′′
- The ratio 𝜖 ′′ /𝜖 ′ , called a loss tangent, is a measure of the power loss in the medium:
𝜖 ′′ 𝜎
tan(𝛿𝑐 ) = ′ ≅ ,
𝜖 𝜔𝜖
where 𝛿𝑐 is called the loss angle.
Implications
- On the basis [S26] relations, a medium is said to be a good conductor if 𝜎 ≫ 𝜔𝜖 , and a
good insulator if 𝜎 ≪ 𝜔𝜖 ; a material thus may be a good conductor at low frequencies
but have the properties of a lossy dielectric at very high frequencies.
______________________________________________________________________________
𝐸0+
⃗⃗ +
𝑬 ̂ + ⃗⃗⃗ + ̂
𝑥 (𝑧, 𝑡 ) = 𝑬𝐸0 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘0 𝑧) 𝑯𝑥 (𝑧, 𝑡 ) = 𝑬 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘0 𝑧)
𝜂0
[28, 29]/Description: uniform plane wave propagating in free space H- and E- field relations
- 𝑘0 = 2𝜋/𝜆0 – subscript 0 for free space
- 𝜂0 = √𝜇0 /𝜖0 = 377Ω – impedance of free space
- 𝑬̂ = direction of wave oscillation
______________________________________________________________________________
angular
(initial) frequency spatial complex
amplitude attenuation (⋅time) phase phase
⏞ −⏞
⃗𝑭⏟(𝑟, 𝑡 ) = ̂
𝑭
⏟ ⏟ |⏞
𝐹0 | 𝑒 −𝛼(𝒏̂⋅𝒓⃗) ⏟
cos[ ⏞
𝜔𝑡 𝛽 (𝒏 ⃗)+
̂⋅𝒓 𝜃⏞𝜂 ]
UPL direction amplitude sinusoiodal waveform
EM of
wave polarization

[30]/Description: general transverse UPL electromagnetic wave equation

- 𝛼 = attenuation constant, 𝛽 = phase constant
- 𝒏̂ = direction of wave propagation
- 𝑭̂ = direction of wave oscillation
- 𝜃𝜂 = medium intrinsic impedance phase angle (𝜂 = |𝜂|𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝜂 )
 1
⃗⃗ (𝑹
𝑬 ⃗⃗ ) = −𝜂𝒏 ⃗⃗⃗ (𝑹
̂×𝑯 ⃗⃗ ) 𝑯
⃗⃗⃗ (𝑹
⃗⃗ ) = ⃗⃗ (𝑹
̂×𝑬
𝒏 ⃗⃗ )
𝜂
1
⃗⃗ (𝑹
𝑬 ⃗⃗ 0 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝒏̂⋅𝑹⃗⃗ 𝑯
⃗⃗ ) = 𝑬 ⃗⃗⃗ (𝑹
⃗⃗ ) = (𝒏 ⃗⃗ 0 )𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝒏̂⋅𝑹⃗⃗
̂×𝑬
𝜂
[31, 32, 33, 34]/Description: general TEM wave relations / general form; phase form
- 𝑹 ̂=𝒙 ̂𝑦 + 𝒛̂𝑧 – radius vector from the origin to the field point
̂𝑥 + 𝒚
⃗
- 𝒌=𝒙 ̂𝑘𝑥 + 𝒚
̂𝑘𝑦 + 𝒛̂𝑘𝑧 = 𝒏̂ 𝑘 – wavenumber vector
- 𝜂 = 𝜔𝜇/𝑘 = √𝜇/𝜖
[IM0]: Transverse electromagnetic (TEM) waves are perpendicular to direction of propagation
______________________________________________________________________________
1/2
𝜖 ′′
𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽 = 𝛾 = 𝑗𝑘𝑐 = 𝑗𝜔√𝜇𝜖𝑐 𝛾 = 𝑗𝜔√ 𝜇𝜖 ′ (1 − 𝑗 ′ )
𝜖
2
𝜔𝜖 ′′ 𝜇 ′
1 𝜖 ′′
𝛼≅ √ 𝛽 ≅ 𝜔√𝜇𝜖 [1 + ( ′ ) ]
2 𝜖′ 8 𝜖
𝛼 = 𝛽 = √𝜋𝑓𝜇𝜎
[35, 36, 37, 38, 39]/Description: propagation constant; low-loss dielectrics, good conductors –
attenuation and phase constants
- 𝛼 = attenuation constant [Nepers/m]
- 𝛽 = phase constant [rad/m] – expressing the amount of phase shift that occurs as the
wave travels one meter.
[37IM1]: For low-loss dielectrics, the attenuation constant is approx. directly proportional to freq.
[doesn’t 𝜔 cancel with 1/𝜔 in 𝜖 ′′ ?] [?]
[38IM1]: For lossless dielectrics, the phase constant deviates very little from 𝜔√𝜇𝜖 – making it
approx. directly proportional to frequency
______________________________________________________________________________

𝜔𝜇 𝜇 𝜇 𝜖 ′′ 𝛼
𝜂= = √ 𝜂𝑐 ≅ √ ′ (1 + 𝑗 ′ ) 𝜂𝑐 ≅ (1 + 𝑗)
𝑘𝑐 𝜖 𝜖 2𝜖 𝜎
[40, 41, 42]/Description: intrinsic impedance of: a general medium; of low-loss dielectrics (good
insulators); of good conductors
[41IM0]: Since intrinsic impedance is the ratio 𝐸𝑥 /𝐻𝑦 for a uniform plane wave, the E- and H-
field intensities in a lossy dielectric are thus not in time phase, as they are in a lossless medium.
[42IM0]: In a good conductor, the H-field intensity lags behind the E-field intensity by 45𝑜 .
 1 1 1 𝜆
𝛿≡ = 𝛿= =
𝛼 √𝜋𝑓𝜇𝜎 𝛽 2𝜋
[43, 44]/Description: the distance through which the amplitude of a traveling plane wave
decreases by a factor of 𝑒 −1 (0.368) // skin depth of a conductor (or depth of penetration)
[asm.]: [41-RHS, 42] Good conductor (𝜎 ≫ 𝜔𝜖)
[I0]: Since the attenuation factor is 𝑒 −𝛼𝑧 , the amplitude of a wave will be attenuated by a factor
of 𝑒 −1 when it travels a distance 𝛿 = 1/𝛼.
[I1]: For copper at 3-MHz, 𝛿 = 0.038 mm.
[IM0]: At microwave frequencies the skin depth of a good conductor is so small that fields and
currents can be considered as, for all practical purposes, confined in a very thin layer (that is, in
the skin) of the conductor surface.
______________________________________________________________________________
⃗⃗⃗ ≡ 𝑬
𝓟 ⃗⃗ × 𝑯
⃗⃗⃗
𝒂 𝑠 𝑠
𝜕 1 2 1
∯ ⃗𝓟 ⃗ =−
⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑺 ∭ ( 𝜖𝐸 + 𝜇𝐻 ) 𝑑𝑉 − ∭ 𝜎𝐸 2 𝑑𝑉
2
𝑆 𝜕𝑡 𝑉 2 2 𝑉

[45, 46]/Description: rate of flow of electromagnetic energy / Poynting vector; electromagnetic

power flow through a surface equals rate of decrease of the electric and magnetic energies stored,
subtracted Ohmic power dissipated as heat – within the bounded volume / Poynting’s theorem
[50-asm]: simple medium with time-invariant 𝜖, 𝜇, 𝜎.
[P0]: [50] [W/m2 ]
[I0] [50] negated,
𝒂 𝑠 𝑠
𝜕 1 1
−∯ 𝓟 ⃗ =
⃗⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑺 ∭ ( 𝜖𝐸 2 + 𝜇𝐻 2 ) 𝑑𝑉 + ∭ 𝜎𝐸 2 𝑑𝑉 ,
𝑆 𝜕𝑡 𝑉 2 2 𝑉
states that the total power flowing into a closed surface at any instant equals the sum of the rates
of increase of the stored electric and magnetic energies and the Ohmic power dissipated – within
the enclosed volume.
[I1] For a lossless region (𝜎 = 0), the last term on 50-RHS vanishes – indicating zero Ohmic
losses – and the total power flowing into a closed surface is equal to the rate of increase of the
stored electric and magnetic energies in the bounded volume.
[I2] In an electro/magneto-static situation, the first two terms on 50-RHS vanish – and the total
power flowing into a closed surface is equal to the Ohmic power dissipated in the bounded volume.
______________________________________________________________________________
1 𝑇 𝐸02 −2𝛼𝑧 1
⃗𝓟
⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑣 (𝑧) = ⃗
⃗⃗
∫ 𝓟(𝑧, 𝑡 )𝑑𝑡 = 𝒛̂ 𝑒 cos(𝜃𝜂 ) ⃗𝓟
⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑣 (𝑧) = ℜℯ(𝑬
⃗⃗ × ⃗𝑯
⃗⃗ ∗ )
𝑇 0 2|𝜂 | 2
[47, 48]/Description: average power flow density of an electromagnetic wave / time-average
Poynting vector; [51] general expression
[P0]: [W/m2 ]
 𝜔 1 𝑢𝑝
𝑢𝑝 = 𝑢𝑔 = =
𝛽 𝑑𝛽/𝑑𝜔 𝜔 𝑑𝑢𝑝
1−
𝑢𝑝 𝑑𝜔
2
1 1 𝜖 ′′
𝑢𝑝 ≅ [1 − ( ′ ) ] 𝑢𝑝 ≅ √2𝜔/𝜇𝜎
√𝜇𝜖 ′ 8 𝜖
[49, 50, 51, 52]/Description: the velocity of propagation of a single frequency equiphase
wavefront / phase velocity; velocity of propagation of a wave-packet envelope (a group of
frequencies) group velocity
[51-asm]: low-loss dielectric (good insulator) (𝜎 ≪ 𝜔𝜖)
[52-asm]: good conductor (𝜎 ≫ 𝜔𝜖)
______________________________________________________________________________
𝐸𝑟0 𝐸𝑡0
Γ≡ 𝜏≡
𝐸𝑖0 𝐸𝑖0
𝜂2 − 𝜂1 2𝜂2
Γ= 𝜏=
𝜂2 + 𝜂1 𝜂2 + 𝜂1
𝜂1
1 + Γ = 𝜏 1 − Γ2 = 𝜏 2
𝜂2
[53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58]/Description: reflection and transmission coefficient definitions;
corresponding expressions for EM-wave normal incidence from [#1] into [#2]; Γ-𝜏 relations
Note: [53, 54] work for all 𝜎; for non-zero 𝜎, 𝜂 is complex
______________________________________________________________________________
|𝐸 |max 1 + |Γ| 𝑆−1
S≡ = |Γ| =
|𝐸 |𝑚𝑖𝑛 1 − |Γ| 𝑆+1
[59, 60]/Description: standing-wave ratio; inverse-relation to [58]
[I0]: It is customary to express 𝑆 on a logarithmic scale: in decibels, 𝑆𝑑B = 20 log10 (𝑆) [𝑑B]
______________________________________________________________________________
𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 (𝑟)
𝑍 (𝑟 ) ≡
𝐻𝑡𝑜𝑡 (𝑟)
[61]/Description: wave impedance of the total field at any plane parallel to the plane boundary –
defined as the ratio of the total E-field intensity to the total H-field intensity.
[I0]: It is customary to express 𝑆 on a logarithmic scale: in decibels, 𝑆𝑑B = 20 log10 (𝑆) [𝑑B]
 sin(𝜃𝑡 ) 𝑢𝑝2 𝛽1 𝑛1
𝜃𝑟 = 𝜃𝑖 = = =
sin(𝜃𝑖 ) 𝑢𝑝1 𝛽2 𝑛2
[62, 63, 64, 65]/Description: Snell’s law of reflection, refraction
[I1]: [𝜇1 = 𝜇2 = 𝜇0 ] Nonmagnetic media – [63] reduces to:

sin(𝜃𝑡 ) 𝜖1 𝜖𝑟1 𝑛1 𝜂2
=√ =√ = =
sin(𝜃𝑖 ) 𝜖2 𝜖𝑟2 𝑛2 𝜂1

[I2] [#1] = Free space – [64] reduces to:

sin(𝜃𝑡 ) 1 1 𝜂2
= = =
sin(𝜃𝑖 ) √𝜖𝑟2 𝑛2 120𝜋
[I3] When 𝜃𝑡 = 𝜋/2 in an 𝜖1 > 𝜖2 interface, further increases in 𝜃𝑖 result in total reflection; the
𝜃𝑖 at which 𝜃𝑡 = 𝜋/2 is the critical angle:
𝑛2
𝜃𝑐 = sin−1(√𝜖2 /𝜖1 ) = sin−1 ( )
𝑛1
______________________________________________________________________________
𝜂2 cos(𝜃𝑖 ) − 𝜂1 cos(𝜃𝑡 ) 2𝜂2 cos(𝜃𝑖 )
Γ⊥ = 𝜏⊥ =
𝜂2 cos(𝜃𝑖 ) + 𝜂1 cos(𝜃𝑡 ) 𝜂2 cos(𝜃𝑖 ) + 𝜂1 cos(𝜃𝑡 )
𝜂2 cos(𝜃𝑡 ) − 𝜂1 cos(𝜃𝑖 ) 2𝜂2 cos(𝜃𝑖 )
Γ∥ = 𝜏∥ =
𝜂2 cos(𝜃𝑡 ) + 𝜂1 cos(𝜃𝑖 ) 𝜂2 cos(𝜃𝑖 ) + 𝜂1 cos(𝜃𝑡 )
cos(𝜃𝑡 )
1 + Γ⊥ = 𝜏⊥ 1 + Γ∥ = 𝜏∥ ( )
cos(𝜃𝑖 )
[66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71]/Description: oblique incidence reflection and transmission coefficients for
parallel and perpendicularly polarized EM-waves
______________________________________________________________________________
1 − 𝜇1 𝜖2 /𝜇2 𝜖1 1 − 𝜇2 𝜖1 /𝜇1 𝜖2 𝑛2
sin2 (𝜃𝐵⊥ ) = sin2(
𝜃𝐵∥ ) = 𝜃𝐵∥ = tan −1
( )
1 − (𝜇1 /𝜇2 )2 1 − (𝜖1 /𝜖2 )2 𝑛1
[72, 73, 74]/Description: Brewster angle for perpendicular & parallel polarization / angle of
incidence at which no reflection occurs
[74-asm.]: [𝜇1 = 𝜇2 = 𝜇0 ] Nonmagnetic media
[I0]: For nonmagnetic media (𝜇1 = 𝜇2 = 𝜇0), [70-RHS] becomes infinite, and 𝜃𝐵⊥ does not exist.
[IM1]: Because of the difference between 𝜃𝐵⊥ and 𝜃𝐵∥ , it is possible to separate perpendicular and
parallel polarization components in an unpolarized wave. Ex: when an unpolarized wave such as
random light is incident upon a boundary at 𝜃𝐵∥ , only the component with perpendicular
polarization will be reflected. (Thus a Brewster angle is also referred to as a polarizing angle).
- Based on this principle, quartz windows set at the Brewster angle at the ends of a laser tube
are used to control the polarization of an emitted light beam.
 𝑑 2 𝑉 (𝑧 ) 2
𝑑 2 𝐼 (𝑧 )
= −𝜔 𝐿𝐶𝑉 (𝑧) = −𝜔2 𝐿𝐶𝐼 (𝑧)
𝑑𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 2
𝑉 (𝑧) = 𝑉0 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 𝐼(𝑧) = 𝐼0 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧
[S75, S76]/Description: time-harmonic (lossless) transmission line equations and their solutions
/ [asm.] wave propagating in +𝑧-direction.
______________________________________________________________________________

2 𝜋𝑓𝜇𝑐 𝑑 𝑤 𝑤
𝑅= √ 𝐿=𝜇 𝐶=𝜖 𝐺=𝜎
𝑤 𝜎𝑐 𝑤 𝑑 𝑑

𝑉 (𝑧) 𝑉0 𝑑 𝜇 𝑑
𝑍0 = = = √𝐿/𝐶 𝑍0 = √ = 𝜂
𝐼 (𝑧 ) 𝐼0 𝑤 𝜖 𝑤
[S77, S78]/Description: transmission-line parameters: series resistance per unit length (along the
plates); inductance per unit length (along the plates); capacitance per unit length (between the
plates); conductance per unit length (between the plates); line characteristic impedance
[S77, S78.2-asm.]: parallel-plate transmission line
- 𝐿𝑖 = 𝑋𝑠 (= 𝑅𝑠 )/𝜔 – internal series inductance per unit length; negligible w.r.t. 𝐿 at high freq.
______________________________________________________________________________
𝜔 1 1
𝛽 = 𝜔√𝐿𝐶 = 𝜔√𝜇𝜖 𝑢𝑝 = = =
𝛽 √𝐿𝐶 √𝜇𝜖
[79, 80]/Description: transmission-line: phase constant; velocity of propagation.
______________________________________________________________________________

𝐸𝑡 𝜋𝑓𝜇𝑐 1 𝑅𝑠
𝑍𝑠 = 𝑍𝑠 = 𝑅𝑠 + 𝑗𝑋𝑠 = (1 + 𝑗)√ 𝑃𝜎 = 𝐼2 ( )
𝐽𝑠 𝜎𝑐 2 𝑤
[81, 82, 83]/Description: parallel-plate transmission-line surface impedance; Ohmic power
dissipated in the (lossy) plates
______________________________________________________________________________
𝜕𝑣 (𝑧, 𝑡 ) 𝜕𝑖 (𝑧, 𝑡 ) 𝜕𝑖 (𝑧, 𝑡 ) 𝜕𝑣 (𝑧, 𝑡 )
− = 𝑅𝑖 (𝑧, 𝑡 ) + 𝐿 − = 𝐺𝑣 (𝑧, 𝑡 ) + 𝐶
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
𝑑𝑉 (𝑧) 𝑑𝐼(𝑧)
− = (𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿)𝐼(𝑧) − = (𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶 )𝑉 (𝑧)
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧
𝑑 2 𝑉 (𝑧 ) 2 ( )
𝑑 2 𝐼 (𝑧 )
= 𝛾 𝑉 𝑧 = 𝛾 2 𝐼 (𝑧 )
𝑑𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 2
𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿 𝛾 𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿
𝛾 = 𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽 = √(𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿)(𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶 ) 𝑍0 = = =√
𝛾 𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶 𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶
[S84, S85, S86, 87, 88]/Description: general transmission-line equations1; time-harmonic
transmission-line equations and their solutions; propagation constant2; characteristic impedance
1 - aka telegraphist’s equations, telegrapher’s equations; 2 – not really a ‘constant’ due to 𝜔-dependence
 𝑃𝐿 (𝑧) 𝜕𝑃(𝑧) 1
𝛼= , 𝑃𝐿 (𝑧) = − 𝛼= (𝑅 + 𝐺|𝑍0 |2 )
2𝑃(𝑧) 𝜕𝑧 2𝑅0
[89, 90]/Description: attenuation constant in terms of series power loss and time-average power
propagated; attenuation constant for a lossy transmission line
______________________________________________________________________________
𝐼𝐿
𝑉 (𝑧 ′ ) = 𝐼𝐿 [𝑍𝐿 cosh(𝛾𝑧 ′ ) + 𝑍0 sinh(𝛾𝑧 ′ )] 𝐼 (𝑧 ′ ) =
[𝑍 sinh(𝛾𝑧 ′ ) + 𝑍0 cosh(𝛾𝑧 ′ )]
𝑍0 𝐿
𝐼𝐿 ′ ′ 𝐼𝐿 ′ ′
𝑉 (𝑧 ′ ) = [(𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍0 )𝑒 𝛾𝑧 + (𝑍𝐿 − 𝑍0 )𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 ] 𝐼(𝑧 ′ ) = [(𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍0 )𝑒 𝛾𝑧 − (𝑍𝐿 − 𝑍0 )𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 ]
2 2𝑍0

′)
𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍0 tanh(𝛾𝑧 ′ ) 𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍0 tanh(𝛾𝑙)
(
𝑍 𝑧 = 𝑍0 [ ] 𝑍𝑖 = ( 𝑍 ) 𝑧=0 = 𝑍0 [ ]
𝑍0 + 𝑍𝐿 tanh(𝛾𝑧 ′ ) 𝑧 ′ =𝑙 𝑍0 + 𝑍𝐿 tanh(𝛾𝑙)
[S91, S92, 93, 94]/Description: voltage, current at a point 𝑧 ′ along the transmission line;
equivalent incident/reflected form phasor expressions; impedance looking toward the load end of
the line at a distance 𝑧 ′ from the load; input impedance (seen from source)
- 𝑧 ′ = 𝑙 − 𝑧, 𝑙 = load-source length of transmission line
______________________________________________________________________________
𝑉 (𝑧) = 𝑉𝑖 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 𝐼 (𝑧) = 𝐼𝑖 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 𝑍(𝑧) = 𝑍0
[95, 96]/Description: matched1 transmission-line current, voltage, and impedance at any point 𝑧
- 1 – 𝑍𝐿 = 𝑍0
______________________________________________________________________________
𝐼𝐿 𝐼
(𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍0 )𝑒 𝛾𝑧 [1 + Γ𝑒 −2𝛾𝑧 ] 𝐼 (𝑧 ′ ) = 𝐿 (𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍0 )𝑒 𝛾𝑧 [1 − Γ𝑒 −2𝛾𝑧 ]
′ ′ ′ ′
𝑉 (𝑧 ′ ) =
2 2𝑍0
[S97]/Description: transmission-line IV-relations general termination relations
______________________________________________________________________________
𝑍𝐿 + 𝑗𝑅0 tan(𝛽𝑙 )
𝑍𝑖 = 𝑅0
𝑅0 + 𝑗𝑍𝐿 tan(𝛽𝑙 )
𝐼𝐿 ′ ′
𝑉 (𝑧 ′ ) = (𝑍𝐿 + 𝑅0 )𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧 [1 + |Γ|𝑒 𝑗(𝜃Γ −2𝛽𝑧 ) ]
2
𝐼𝐿 ′ ′
𝐼 (𝑧 ′ ) = (𝑍𝐿 + 𝑅0 )𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧 [1 − |Γ|𝑒 𝑗(𝜃Γ −2𝛽𝑧 ) ]
2𝑅0
𝑉𝐿
𝑉 (𝑧 ′ ) = 𝑉𝐿 cos(𝛽𝑧 ′ ) + 𝑗𝐼𝐿 𝑅0 sin(𝛽𝑧 ′ ) 𝐼(𝑧 ′ ) = 𝐼𝐿 cos(𝛽𝑧 ′ ) + 𝑗 sin(𝛽𝑧 ′ )
𝑅0
[98, S99, S100]/Description: lossless line input impedance, phase/sinusoidal phasor IV-relations
/ tanh(𝑗𝛽𝑙) = 𝑗 tan(𝛽𝑙)
 𝑍𝐿 − 𝑍0 |𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 | 1 + |Γ| 𝑆−1
Γ= 𝑆= = |Γ| =
𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍0 |𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 | 1 − |Γ| 𝑆+1
[101, 102, 103]/Description: ratio of complex amplitudes of reflected and incident voltage waves
at the load / voltage reflection coefficient; standing-wave ratio; [99]-inverse relation
- Γ𝐼 = −Γ𝑉 (current reflection coeff. = (-) voltage reflection coeff.)
______________________________________________________________________________
′ ′
′)
𝑍0 𝑉𝑔 −𝛾𝑧 1 + Γ𝑒 −2𝛾𝑧 ′)
𝑉𝑔 −𝛾𝑧
1 − Γ𝑒 −2𝛾𝑧
𝑉 (𝑧 = 𝑒 ( ) 𝐼 ( 𝑧 = 𝑒 ( )
𝑍0 + 𝑍𝑔 1 − Γ𝑔 Γ𝑒 −2𝛾𝑙 𝑍0 + 𝑍𝑔 1 − Γ𝑔 Γ𝑒 −2𝛾𝑙
𝑍𝑔 − 𝑍0
Γ𝑔 =
𝑍𝑔 + 𝑍0
[S104, 105]/Description: transmission line IV phasor expressions in terms of source & line
characteristics and load impedance; voltage reflection coefficient at the generator end
[TERMINOLOGY]
Plane Wave – an EM-wave with E- and H- fields polarized perpendicular to the direction of
propagation and to each other (with field vectors spanning over a plane)
Uniform Plane Wave – an EM- plane wave with a constant amplitude
Plane of Incidence – plane containing the vector indicating the direction of propagation of the
incident wave and the normal to the incidence boundary surface
Perpendicular Polarization – 𝑬 ⃗⃗ 𝑖 is polarized perpendicular to the plane of incidence / a.k.a.
horizontal polarization or E-polarization
Parallel Polarization – ⃗𝑬𝑖 is polarized parallel to the plane of incidence / a.k.a. vertical
polarization or H-polarization
Transverse [X] Wave – wave with no X-field component along direction of propagation;
[X] = E, M, or EM (Transverse Electric, Transverse Magnetic, Transverse Electromagnetic)
 SIMULATIONS
[SM1] Polarization
https://www.desmos.com/calculator/rney0yhtai
[SM2] Normal Incidence (PEC) – Standing Wave Formation
https://www.desmos.com/calculator/musyyahni6
[SM3] Normal Incidence (PEC) – E vs. H Waves
https://www.desmos.com/calculator/obomayeei2
[SM4] Oblique Incidence (PEC) – Net Wave
https://www.desmos.com/calculator/ifps6xvmyq
[SM5] Oblique Incidence (PEC) – Waveguide
https://www.desmos.com/calculator/9hxrh8jcap
[SM6] Oblique Incidence (PEC) – Movable Wave, Incident [Inaccurate]
https://www.desmos.com/calculator/yvnyouikn5
[SM7] Oblique Incidence (PEC) – Traveling Wave, Incident [Inaccurate]
https://www.desmos.com/calculator/enwbgkigf3
[SM8] Oblique Incidence (PEC) – Traveling Wave, Incident + Reflected [Inaccurate]
https://www.desmos.com/calculator/mj7thizi8q
[SM9] Normal Incidence (Dielectric) – Incident, Reflected, Transmitted Waves
https://www.desmos.com/calculator/jtuklyaej0
[SM10, 11, 12] Wavefronts [1.0], [2.0], [3.0]
https://www.desmos.com/calculator/qthuozxh7a
https://www.desmos.com/calculator/bwsngbefvi
https://www.desmos.com/calculator/xkt0yv5na2

Simulations by: OverLordGoldDragon