. .

SPE 10032
SPE
Society of P@’oleumEngineers

Consequences of Salting Wel

by Horace J, Beach,* Gu/f Research & Development Co,

.... ....
“Member . . .SPF.
-, -r
AIMF
. . . ..-

Copyright 1982. Society of Petroleum Engineers

This paper was presented at the International Petroleum Exhibition and Technical Symposium of the Society of Petroleum Engineers held in
Bejing, China, 18.26 M?.@. 1982. The material is subject to correction by the author. Permission to copy is restricted to an abstract of not
more than 300 words. V;rite SPE, 6200 North Central Expressway, Dallas, Texaa, 75206 USA. Telex 730989

ABSTRACT make newer uses of highly salted cement for inhibiting

the hydration of shale and depressing slurry freezing
Salted cement remains active long after hydrating points frequently simplify their slurries by half saturation
and hardening. In contact with less salted water, it which stabilizes thickening time yet provides abundant
exchanges salt for water through the permeable mem- ions specified for inhibition and depression.
brane continuum of the cement. Osmotic stresses in time
produce multiple fmctures. in Arctic uses, water imbibed Slagle and Smith3 reviewed the use of salted cement
from alternately thawed and frozen formations ca,? that began more than forty years ago and described novel
freeze, expand, and rubble salted cement. Salt misuses uses for stabilizing shale. They wrote about earliest
can be reduced by balancing ion concentrations in cement slurries that were most often mixed at or near saturation
with those in formations. Salt addition or any other and usually limited to cementing casing into or through
mechanism of freezing paint depression is unnecessary. massive salt. They explained how uses had diversified as
Inclusion in the slufry of a small amount of hydrophilic they and others recognized that salt added new properties
material prevents expansion damage from the freeze of to slurries and improved others. They described how salt
free water in hydrated cement. inhib!ted the swelling of mont morillonite particles in
water-aensit ive shales and sands. They provided pictures
INTRODUCTION of laboratory specimens consisting of pieces of water-
sensitive shale embedded in cements containing salt in
Most well cementers salt saturate the water phase various concentrations. These showed improved bonding
of the slurry they intend should best bond casing to a salt of cement to shale with increased salt concentrations.
formation. A saturated slurry dissolves little salt and They supported their speculations about the inhibiting
sh Ad form an adequate interface with it on hardening. value of high salt concentrations in water phases of
But saturation makes slurry mixing difficult and exces- cement slurries by more than a hundred histories of
sively delays initial set. These flaws prompt some users completions requiring little remedial squeezing. They
to try half saturation as an alternative. A slurry contain- pointed out that low concentrations of salt that acceler-
ing only half as much sodium chloride mixes easier and, ate cement in cool, shallow wells nevertheless have
because it sets quicker, can absorb the brief melt of the substantial inhibiting effect. Should retarding be needed
salt body unclersaturation promotes. Usually adequate, if in deeper, hotter wells, they explained that the higher salt
imperfect, seals reportedly result. The use of half- additions that furnish it would be even more beneficial in
saturated slurries to cement salt and, more recently, suppressing hydration. However, because more efficient
other types of formations conforms to a rationale con- accelerators and retarders are available, additions of salt
tained in Fig. 1. to suppress the swelling of shales and clayey sands have
tended in practice toward 18 percent or half saturation.
‘ah earher
reiterate ‘e. ‘ecent!’
fmdmgscollected WIW::ytd
of Ludwig $ $:i:a:
The main concern of well cementers in Arctic
additions alter the elapsed time, termed thickening time, regions has been to design slurries that do not freeze
from slurry mixing to initial set. A half=satu.rated slurry before hardening around casings in frozen formations.
has the same time as salt-free cement, and the slurry They do this by adding enough sodium chloride to depress
should harden against salt before it dissolves much of it. freezing pointa below formation temperatures, but not
Adding lees salt shortens the time or accelerates the adding an excess that would delay initial set. Approxi-
slurry, adding more lengthens or rttards. Saturation in mately 18 percent additions meet both conditions. Base
this example increased the time threefold. Those who slurries have ranged from near-neat accelerated cement

References and illustrations at end of paper.

133

2 CONSEQUENCES OF SALTING WELL CEMENTS
to gypsum-cement blends, with or without lightening
agents. Many have used salted cements for Arctic
cementing with a common misgiving. that salt melts ice.
They see in persistent melts around salted slurries poured
into holes in block ice in Iaborator y cold chambers coun-
terparts around cement sheaths in permafrost.
The API Committee on Standardize Lion4’f Oii-i4ell
Cements specifies ~erformance requirements for these
materials and tests to measure how well cements meet
them. The committee cent inually refines laboratory
instruments and procedures so as to impose ever more
realistic well conditions in tests. Conditions that most
influence cement strength and its rate of development are
temperature and pressure. Specified curing temperatures
are currently realistic of well conditions, curing pressures
are not. Until now, pressures have been limited to the
maximum of 3000 lb (20.7 MPa) due partly to our accep-
tance of the inaccuracy that higher curing pressures had
little additional effect on strength, but due mainly to the
inherently slow and expensive development of research
equipment to impose higher preswres. We are now
learning better with this equipment, and in due course this
new knowledge will be incorporated into recommended
testing practices.
Metcalf and Dresher6 worked at higher pressures
and presented compressive strength data on cement sys-
tems cured at temperatures from 170 to 260 F (76.7 to
126.7 C) and at pressures from 3,000 to 10,000 lb (20.7 to
68.9 M Pa). They reported pertinent data for an API
Class H cement slurry containing 18 percent sodium
chloride. These showed the 24-hour compressive strength
at 170 F (76.7 C) for this system dropped from nearly
6000 to less than 3000 psi (41.4 to 20.7 MPa) when the
curing pressure was increased from 3000 to 8000 lb (20.7
to 55.2 MPa). Metcalf and Dresher reported that x-ray
diffraction analyses fz%?d to disclose the cause of
strength losses. R k, p~ssible tk “i ‘“-* fIShIg pressure
increases the amount of chloride ion which combines with
cement as Ludwig described, and that the increased
combination fu ther weakens cement.
The user must judge for himself whether half or full
saturation is sufficient or necessary for properly cement-
ing through salt. Cement bond logs, communication tests
and other evaluations can help him decide. There are
reasonable expectations from references cited and from
theory that the other uses of highly salted cement for
inhibiting hydration and depressing slurry freezing tem-
peratures will meet those objectives. What has been
lacking, except for the Metcalf and Dresher data, is
information on what can happen to the cement itself as a
result of salting. The purpose of this paper is to provide
it. Data and pictures are presented which suggest the
continuing decline in strength with time. These further
show that deterioration is more rapid and failure more
certain if salted cement remains in contact with less
salted water.
EXPERIMENTAL REACTIVITY OF SALTED CEMENT
We (authw and co-workers) conducted many experi-
ments on salt cement deteriorate ion during the past ten
years to find its cause and prevention. We selected the
. .
SPE 10032
following as most pertinent and arranged them in a logic&l
sequence. All cubes referred to were API standard two-
inch (50.8 mm).
1. Material Balance
We molded a standard test cube from 100 parts API
Class A cement mixed with 46 parts brine containing 30
parts salt per 100 parts water (by weigt!t). We made a
control cube of the same size and w/c (water-cement
weight ratio) from another port ion of the same cement
mixed with distilled water. We removed both cubes from
the molds after three days of curing at 140 F (60 C) and
3000 psi (20.7 MPa) and immersed each in a separate
reservoir of 800 ml of ion-free water. Once a week, later
at two-week intervals as changes slowed, we calculated
material balances on the specimens after analyzing reser-
voir waters and weighing cubes. Reservoir water was
replaced after each periodic analysis to accelerate
changes. Results shown in Fig. 2 are for materials that
changed significantly, salt and water; those which
changed little were cieieted. The data were converted
intc volumes of material gained and lost for a more
explim i presentation.
2. Cement Cubes and Cylinders
We molded standard cubes and comparably sized
cylinders from a slurry of 100 parts API Class H cement
mixed with 40 parts brine containing 18 parts salt per 100
parts water. After three days curing at 140 F (60 C) and
3000 psi (20.7 MPa) we removed the specimens from the
molds, immer%ed them in tap water and aged them at 75 F
(22~8$). Fig. 3 is a photograph of the specimens after six
.
3. Shale-Cement Cube Halves
We poured slurries of API Class A cement mixed
either with fresh or salt saturated water around pieces of
water+ ensit ive Miocene shale in standard cube molds,
covered and immersed them in a water bath at 120 F (48.9
C) for 48 hours. We removed the hardened cubes from the
molds and cut them into halves exposing internal faces
each consisting of shale surrounded at least on three sides
by cement. We immersed the halves in waters that were
either fresh or that contained varied amounts of salt and
aged them eight months at atmospheric pressure and 75 F
(23.9 C). We removed, dried, stained with kerosene for
better contrast and photographed the specimens which are
pictured in Figs. 4, 5, 6, and 7.
We pretested the shale used in this experiment for
water sensitivity by immersing pieces in fresh water. The
pieces first became fractured, then crumbled and finally
disintegrated after a few days.
EXPERIMENTAL FREEZE-THAW CYCLING BEHAVIOR 01
HYDRATED CEMENTS IN WATERY ENVIRONMENTS
The freeze-thaw tests in the following experiments
foliowed the alternate method described in the last para-
graph of lb API Arctic Cementing Testing Procedure
reproduced in the Appendix. The regular procedure
decelerates changes in that specimens are cycled in molds
with single cube faces exposed; whereas, the alternate
procedure specifies removal from molds and exposure of
all six faces. Changes occur with the third or last cycle
in the alternate which never appear in the regular proce-
dure.
4. Salted Gypsum-Cement
The specimen shown in Fig. 8 was originally a cube
of a typical Arctic cement consisting of 50-50 gypsum-
cement mixed with water containing enough salt (18
percent) to lower the freezing point to 15 F (-9.4 C).
5. Low Density Cement - A
The specimen shown in Fig. 9 had been a standard
cube made from a slurry containing the following mate-
rials in parts by weight:
100 API Class B cement
30 Gilsonite
1 calcium chloride
59 water.
6. Low Density Cement - B
The specimen shown in Fig. 10 is a cube made from
a slurry containing the following materials in parts by
weighti
100 API Class B cement
30 Gilsonite
3 bentonite
1 calcium chloride
L3 water.
DISCUSSION OF SHALE INHIBITION
Salting can weaken cement in three ways: by
making a noncementitious dilution, by combining with
silicates, by inducing physical reactivity. Dilution and
combination are the only ones that weaken cement adja-
cent to salt. Half saturation instead of full reduces
dilution losses. Usually, combination loss should be mini-
mal as Metcalf and Dresher found it proportional to
confining pressure, and as most massive salt bodies
cemented are relatively shallow and low pressured.
Except in a rare instance, neither saturation nor half
saturation causes strength loss sufficient to deter the user
from his choice of concentrations to cement salt forma-
t ions. But in uses to inhibit shale, salting initiates a
sequence of changes that can disintegrate cement.
Primary cement sheaths commonly overlap different
kinds of formations. It is tedious and impractical to
displace incremental slurries so that only specific ones
harden against certain formations. Primary cementing
Usl]ally is a compromise in tailoring a slurry for priority
zones with lesser concern for secondary. Part of a slurry
salted mainly to inhibit shales wiU frequently harden also
against a fresher-water sand. Experiments 1 and 2
examined this consequence.
Material balances plotted in Fig. 2 (Exp. 1) reveal
that water replaced virtually all salt in the test cube in
eight weeks. Osmosis effected the exchange. The
cement behaved initially as a series of semipermeable,
then permeable, membranes of silica with microscopic
capillaries that allowed the influx of water and efflu of
salt. The volumes of wat ~ and salt exchanged, 19 cmy, is
14 percent of the 131 cm volume of the cube. Osmotic
pressure created high stresses in the specimen during this
relatively large exchange. We began to see the effects of
these stresses as we watched the specimens longer.
Aging was prolonged in Exp. 2 (Fig. 3) on cubes and
cylinders to observe the final consequences of stresses.
All cubes and cylinders in Fig. 3 display multiple fractures
after six months of aging. It was necessary to tape the
specimens together to photograph them.
In Exp. 3 fresh water cement kept the shale intact
although the specimens were aged in fresh water (Fig. 4).
There are no signs of weakened cement or shale nor
damage to the bond between them. The same description
applies to the fresh water and salt+ aturated shale-
cement halves aged in saturated salt water (Fig. 5). Both
sets of specimens were nearly in equilibrium with their
aging waters. Little stress developed in the fresh water
specimen aged in saturated salt water (Fig. 5) as there
was little free water in the cement. Of most significance
among aged specimens was the inhibition of this shale by
a cement slurry that contained only a few hundred parts
per million of calcium ion. Salt supplements were un-
necessary.
The severity of fracturing in the specimens shown in
Figs. 6 and 7 is proportional to differences between
original salt concentrations in the cement and aging
water. Developments from Exp. 2 provide the basis for
concluding that fractures began in the cement and con-
tinued into the shale. Furthermore, the shale appears
unaffected by cement or aging water in any specimen.
There would have been no damage to any specimen if the
ion concentration in the aging water had been the same as
in the cement.
When we drill a well with a Iow+mlt mud but set
casing with a high-salt cement, we probably inhibit shale
but we certainly damage cement. All the specimens from
Exp. 1, 2 and 3 display the same consequence of confining
hardened cement with Iess+alted water. There have been
no exceptions, including specimens not pictured. As
osmotic pressure is independent of confining pressure, it
is unlikely that aging specimens under a few thousand
pounds of pressure would have changed results much.
Never salt ing cement is not the solution to the
inhibition problem. Salting mud with sodium or potassium
chloride is now recognized as essential to drilling and
stabilizing shales and sands sensitive to fresh water.
Salted filtrate from these muds invades fissures and
fractures in the shale. To the detriment of cement and
shale, an unsalted slurry against this shale would lose its
water to dilute the salt in the fissures and fractures.
Balancing ions in the cement with those in the formation
is the solution indicated for all these problems, but it is a
difficult solution to apply.
* w....”-~v- ----- -.
DISCUSSION OF FREEZING POINT DEPRESSION
Wolfgang Czernin7 examined freeze probabilityies=
water existing in three possible states in hardened con-
crete. He describes the chemically combined water as
‘non-f reezable’ as is also the gel water which freezes at
very low temperatures owing to the surface forces to
which it is subjected. Thus, under normal climatic
conditions, it is only the capillary water which can be
regarded as freezable. But even the capillary water does
not freeze completely as soon as the temperature drops to
the freezing point of ‘water. This is due to the fact that
capillary water is not pure water but an aqueous solution
of a number of salts, mainly of calcium hydroxide and
alkalis. Its freezing point should correspond roughly to 30
F (-1 C). In considering the porosity conditions in
hardened cement paste, Czernin maintains that no capil-
lary water remains after complete hydration if the w/c
ratio of the paste is 0.4 or less. The assumption that only
the capillary water can be considered as practically
freezable would indicate that a frost-resistant concrete
must be obtained if the w/c ratio used in its preparation
lies below about 0.4.
Ease in pouring and working concrete into surface
forms requires adding little more water than necessary
for fully hydrating the cement. Limiting water conserves
ultimate strength and reduces concern for post-hydration
freeze if the Czernin threshold of 0.4 is valid and not
exceeded. There is more concern for cement slurries
pumped around casings in permanently frozen formations
where slurry mobility requires water fractions more than
twice those of concrete.
During this study we explored water-cement ratios
around 0.40 for freeze in hmdened cements. We found
that 0.40 is a critical value allowing no more than two or
three hundredths in excess water. Hardened cement
cubes with wlc!s of 0.44 to 0.50 dkintegrated on thawing
after the second, sometimes the first, freeze to 20 F (-6.7
C). Similar specimens with w/c’s of 0.40 and below were
undamaged after several freeze-thaw cycles as evidenced
by increased compressive strength and cube integrity.
Freeze-thaw cycling simulates conditions impe:ed
on cement around casing in permafrost for a well alter-
nately produced and closed in. Permafrost is an all-
inclusive name for frozen formations ranging in composi-
tion from all-water to silt, sand, and/or gravel mixtures
devoid of water. Nearly all slurry water is freezable
before hydration; according to Czernin only capillary
water is freezable afterwards. The common method of
preventing freeze consisting in adding an electrolyte,
usually 18 percent sodium chloride, depresses the slurry
ireezing temperature to about 15 F (-9.4 C). This works
in fluid slurries and continues working in hydrated cement
isolated from water, but protection breaks down above 20
F in hardened cement contacting alternately thawed and
frozen water of lower salinity. This accounts for the
damage to the specimen described in Experiment 4 and
pictured in Fig. 8.
Rarely does permafrost water contain more than
three percent salt and only then when its source was sea
water. So the ion differential that preceded the specimen
destruction shown in Fig. 8 was of the magnitude to be
expected in the thawed medium of true permafrost. The
. . . . . . . . - ..-— — --..-—- ..- -- —-- ----
same osmotic exchange illustrated in Fig. 2 proceeded in
the gypsum-cement specimen until influx water had
diluted the selt enough to have a freezing temperature
above 20 F.
No exihange occurred in Experiment 5. The rubble
shown in Fig. 9 resulted from the freeze of the 19 percent
water in excess of the 40 percent limitation previously
described and tested. The specimen froze in the first
cycle as there was no time lag required for inbibing free
water.
Priority concern for freeze in the slurry is mis-
placed if it ignores the more imminent freeze in the
hardened cement, especially when salting to prevent the
former virtually assures the latter. There are meesures
other than salting that can be taken to delay I ~” eze
beyond the time necessary for an accelerated set. A
warmed slurry supplemented by drilling fluid warmed
casing comprise a sensible heat bank that would take a
long time to exhaust to the slurry freeze, perhaps days.
Experiment 6 revealed another measure that if taken will
remove the danger of freeze in the hardened cement.
The contrast between specimen appearances in Figs.
9 and 10 is due entirely to the inclusion of three percent
smectite (bentonite) by weight of cement when the sur-
viving cube was prepared. Otherwise, the compositions
were identical. Thecompressive strength of the cube was
more than 2000 psi (13.78 MPa) at the time it was
photographed. The same addition of bentonite also pro-
tected other arctic type cements including those salted
from freeze damage during cycling.
One explanation for the protection afforded by
bentonite involves comparisons of forces binding water to
clay ~d forces of ice crystallization. Gregor and
Gregor recently suggested a more novel one. They wrote
of two researchers, J. D. Bernal and R. h. Fowler, who in
1933 demonstrated that inclusion of a very small amount
of hydrophilic material caused water frozen in a semi-
permeable membrane to be in an ice lattice instead r“ ‘
crystal. The lattice is distinguished from the crystal
its discontinuity and relatively few molecules per un:‘i.
Freeze expansion is apparently absorbed in the spaces
between lattice units.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Cements salted to half saturation or more which
harden against formations other than massive salt
likely deteriorate with time and to an extent pro-
portional to depth and confining pressure.
2. Optimistic initial com@etions through salted
cement may be misleading as deterioration of
cement sheaths may not become evident for many
months, perhaps years.
3. The only way to anticipate halting salted cement
deterioration short of destruction is to balance ion
concentrations in the cement slurries and forma-
tions.
4. Salting cements to depre.s slurry freezing tempera-
tures is unnecessary and self defeating. Accelerat-
ing and warming slurries preclude freeze before
initial set; inclusion of a hydrophilic material in the
slurry formulation prevents freeze damage after-
wards.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I express my appreciation to the management of
Gulf Science and Technology Company and Gulf Research
& Development Co., for encouragement to prepare this
paper and permission to publish it. This appreciation
extends to co-workers, particularly W. H. Grantt Jr.,
whose patient and precise work made this paper possible.
REFERENCES
1. Ludwig, N. C.: ffchemistry of Portland Cement
Used in Oil Wells”, Oil-Well Cementing Practices in
the United States, API, New York (1959) 27-33.
2. Ludwig, N. C: !!Effects of Sodium Chloride On
Setting Properties of Oil-Well Cements”, Drill. and
Prod. Prac., API (1951) 20-27.
3. Slagle, K. A., and Smith, D. K.: “Salt Cement for
Shale and Bentonitic Sands”, J. Pet. Tech. (Feb.
?.963) 187-194; Trans. AIME, 228.
4. “API Specif icat ion for Oil-Well Cements and
Cement Additives”, API Spec lOA, 20th cd., API
Prod. Dept., Dallas (1979).
5. I?API Recomme!lded Practice for Testing Oil-kfeu
Cements and Cement Additives”, API RP 10B, 21st
cd., API Prod. Dept., Dallas (1979).
6. Metcalf, Arthur S., and Dresher, Thomas D: “The
Effects of Pressure on the Set Properties of
Cements with Various Additives”, paper SPE 6800
presented at SPE 52nd Annual Fall Meeting, Denver,
Oct. 9-12, 1977.
7. Czernin, Wolfgang Cement Chemistry and Physics
for Civil Engineers, Chemical Pub. Co., New York
?1962).
8. Gregor, Harry P., and Gregor, Charles D.: l’Synthe-
tic - Membrane Technology”, Scientific American
(JuIY, 1978) 112-128.
 CONSEQUENCES OF SALTING WELL CEMENTS SPE 10932

APPENDIX

*SECTION 17

ARCTIC CEMENTINGTESTINGPROCEDURE

17.1 Preparation of Slurry Sample% Test sam-

ples should be prepared according to Section 4 testing c. Remove molds 30 min before breaking
procedures, except that dry cement should be stored and store at 40 F (4 OC) under water.
overnight in refrigerator at 20 F (-7 oC). Ice water
should be used for mixing slurry and to chill Waring
Blendor container before using. Slurry after mixing 17.5 Freeze-Thaw CycJing at Atmospheric Pr~
should be 40 F (4 oC):2 F @ oC) and ter.,perature should sure. S?urry should be prepared as in Par. 17.1 and cured
be measured and reported on all tests. under the following cycling (It is suggested that the
cycle begin on a Monday.)
17,2 Water Requirement. Mixing water is to be
expressed on the basis of 100 parts of solids. a. 48 hours at 40 F (4 oC) Monday
b. 24 hours at 20 F (-7 oC) Wednesday
17.3 Thickening-Time. Thickening-time test is 24 hours at 40 F (4 oC) Thursday
to be performed on an atmospheric pressure consistom- :: 72 hours at 100 F (38 oC) Friday
eter at 40 F (4 W). P,. 72 hours at 170 F (77 oC) Monday
f. 24 hours at 100 F (38 oC) Thursday
17.4 Strength Samples should be cured at 20 F g. 72 hours at 20 F (-7 oC) Friday
(-7 oC) and 40 1?(4 oC) for desired testing period, i.e., 1- h. Raise to 40 F (~ oC) and repeat cycle
3-7 days. on Monday

Selected cementing compositions should be pumped

fcr 1# hours on an atmospheric pressure consistometer
before pouring into cube molds for curing. Curing envi-
ronment below 32 F (O oC) should be in air or in a
container of fresh water placed in ethylene glycol bath.
Example — For 24-hour strengths:
17.6 Strength cubes should be examined and
broken after 1 and 3 cycles under these conditions (14
days and 42 days). Cure all strength specimens under
water in molds during cycles with top of cement exposed
to water. Break control test specimens after 48 hours at
40 F (4 oC) for reference.

a. Pump 1# hours at 40 F (4 oC) and

atmospheric pressure. An alternate procedure would be to completely
remove the cement strength specimens from molds in 48
.— Cure slurry for 22 hours d 20 F (-7 oC) hours at 40 F (4 oC) end immerse the unconfined cement
~.--- b.
-— or 40 F (4 oC). cubes in fresh water for freeze-thaw cycling.
E

I * Reproduced from API RP 10B, 21st Ed., Dec. 1979, by permission of American
Depart ment.
Petroleum Institute, Production

136
 mm SODIUM cHLoRIDE

100gIII SLURRV WATER

Fig. 1- Effect of sodium chloride additions to API

Class A cement.

-10 — . ----- ------ --

/#-
‘\,,~,
3 :8 z ,/”
w
v -b /
~

—\
m -4 —N,

4 :* z ‘~,
u .-
w --N TEST
~ -8 -- --- ---- f ------ -
s -,0
r 1
tL~ 9 4 6 s 10 12
WEEKS

Fig. 2- Material balances on neat and salted

API Class A cement.
 ,.

.;;57

., ,#-,

‘“y
.“

.
,.’.
,-, ...,.
b..
. +-AL,.,
,’<i
->:=:~:,r :.
,..-,, -.~y LA.

..~;
‘

. .

:“
,,

,.,

Fig. 3- Salted cement cylinders and cubes.

Fig. 4- Fresh water cement aged in Fig. 5- Fresh and saturated salt
fresh water. cements aged in saturated salt water.
.

m
‘!!!!!!
Fig. 6- Saturated salt cement aged in
100/0 salt water.

‘4, ~a -%

~~#dJlll@~
Fig. 7- Saturated salt cement aged i n Fig. 8- Salted gypsum cement after two
30/0 salt water. freeze-thaw cycles.

141
 ,

Fig. 9- Low density cement – A, after 1

Freeze-thaw cycle.

Fig. 10- Low density cement – B, after 3

freeze-thaw cycles.

142