Well Workover and Intervention

abrasive jetting A wellbore treatment in which a fluid laden with solid particles is used to
remove deposits from the surface of wellbore tubularsand completion components.
The treatment fluid is pumped at high pressure through a downhole tool equipped with
nozzles that direct a jet, or jets, of fluid onto the target area. Most tool designs use a
controlled rotary motion to ensure complete circumferential treatment of internal surfaces.
Abrasive jetting techniques can also be used to cut completion or wellbore components. For
this application, highly abrasive particles, such as sand, are carried in a fluid and jetted at the
target area over an extended period to erode the tubular.

absolute filter A type of high-specification fluid filter frequently used to remove small solid
particles from workover or treatment fluids that may be injected into, or placed adjacent to,
the reservoir formation. In using absolute filters, all particles larger than the micron rating of
the filter element in use will be removed from the treated fluid.

accelerator A downhole tool used in conjunction with a jar to store energy that is suddenly
released when the jar is activated. The energy provides an impact force that operates
associated downhole tools or, in a contingency role, helps release a tool string that has
become stuck. Depending on the operating mode, the energy in tension or compression can
be stored by means of a mechanical spring or a compressible fluid such as nitrogen gas.
Accelerators should be selected on the basis of their compatibility with the jar to be used.

Accumulator A device used in a hydraulic system to store energy or, in some applications,
dampen pressure fluctuations. Energy is stored by compressing a precharged gas bladder with
hydraulic fluid from the operating or charging system. Depending on the fluid volume and
precharge pressure of the accumulator, a limited amount of hydraulic energy is then available
independent of any other power source. Well pressure-control systems typically incorporate
sufficient accumulator capacity to enable the blowout preventer to be operated with all other
power shut down.

acetic acid An organic acid used in oil- and gas-well stimulation treatments. Less corrosive
than the commonly used hydrochloric acid, acetic acid treatments can be more easily
inhibited or retarded for treatments of long duration. This is necessary particularly in
applications requiring the protection of exotic alloys or in high-temperature wells. In most
cases, acetic acid is used in conjunction with hydrochloric acid and other acid additives. It
can also be used as a chelating agent.

acid A generic term used to describe a treatment fluid typically comprising hydrochloric acid
and a blend of acid additives. Acid treatments are commonly designed to include a range of
acid types or blends, such as acetic, formic, hydrochloric, hydrofluoric and fluroboric acids.
Applications for the various acid types or blends are based on the reaction characteristics of
the prepared treatment fluid.

acid frac A hydraulic fracturing treatment performed in carbonate formations to etch the
open faces of induced fractures using a hydrochloric acid treatment. When the treatment is
complete and the fracture closes, the etched surface provides a high-conductivity path from
the reservoir to the wellbore.
acid inhibitor A chemical additive used to protect wellbore components and treatment
equipment from the corrosive action of an acid. The type and concentration of acid inhibitors
are determined by the type of metal to be protected and the specific wellbore conditions, such
as temperature and the length of exposure time anticipated during the treatment. To ensure
efficient protection, the inhibitor should be consistently blended throughout the treatment
fluid.

acid job The treatment of a reservoir formation with a stimulation fluid containing a reactive
acid. In sandstone formations, the acid reacts with the soluble substances in the formation
matrix to enlarge the pore spaces. In carbonate formations, the acid dissolves the entire
formation matrix. In each case, the matrix acidizing treatment improves the formation
permeability to enable enhanced production of reservoir fluids. Matrix acidizing operations
are ideally performed at high rate, but at treatment pressures below the fracture pressure of
the formation. This enables the acid to penetrate the formation and extend the depth of
treatment while avoiding damage to the reservoir formation.

acid stimulation The treatment of a reservoir formation with a stimulation fluid containing a
reactive acid. In sandstone formations, the acid reacts with the soluble substances in the
formation matrix to enlarge the pore spaces. In carbonate formations, the acid dissolves the
entire formation matrix. In each case, the matrix acidizing treatment improves the formation
permeability to enable enhanced production of reservoir fluids. Matrix acidizing operations
are ideally performed at high rate, but at treatment pressures below the fracture pressure of
the formation. This enables the acid to penetrate the formation and extend the depth of
treatment while avoiding damage to the reservoir formation.

acid tank The rubber-lined vessel used to transport raw or concentrated acid to the wellsite.
Some acid additives attack or degrade rubber. Consequently, acid treatment fluids are not
generally mixed or transported in acid tanks, but are instead mixed in special batch tanks or
continuously mixed as the treatment is pumped.

acid wash A wellbore acid treatment designed to remove scale or similar deposits from
perforations and well-completion components. Acid-wash treatments generally do not include
injection of treatment fluid into the reservoir formation.

acidize To pump acid into the wellbore to remove near-well formation damage and other
damaging substances. This procedure commonly enhances production by increasing the
effective well radius. When performed at pressures above the pressure required to fracture the
formation, the procedure is often referred to as acid fracturing.

acidizing The pumping of acid into the wellbore to remove near-well formation damage and
other damaging substances. This procedure commonly enhances production by increasing the
effective well radius. When performed at pressures above the pressure required to fracture the
formation, the procedure is often referred to as acid fracturing.

antifoam A chemical additive used to prevent the formation of foam during the preparation
of a treatment fluid or slurries at surface. Excess foam created during the mixing process may
cause handling and pumping difficulties and may interfere with the performance or quality
control of the mixed fluid. Antifoam agents may also be used to break foams returned from
the wellbore, following a treatment, in preparation for disposal of the fluids.
antifoam agent A chemical additive used to prevent the formation of foam during the
preparation of a treatment fluid or slurries at surface. Excess foam created during the mixing
process may cause handling and pumping difficulties and may interfere with the performance
or quality control of the mixed fluid. Antifoam agents may also be used to break foams
returned from the wellbore, following a treatment, in preparation for disposal of the fluids.

back up To hold one end of a threaded connection while the other is turned to make up the
joint. To ensure a secure connection, many types of threaded joints are made up to specific
torque requirements in oil- and gas-well applications. This process requires the controlled
application of force to the rotating component and a means of stabilizing and securing the
corresponding stationary component to which it is being connected.

balance point The point at which the forces acting on a tubing string suspended in a live
wellbore are equal. Under these conditions, the weight of the tubing string is balanced by the
wellbore pressure acting to expel the string from the wellbore. The friction caused by the
tubing string passing through the stripper or wellhead sealing device acts to extend the
interval over which the balance point is apparent.

ball diverter Small spheres designed to seal perforations that are accepting the most fluid,
thereby diverting reservoir treatments to other portions of the target zone. Ball sealers are
incorporated into the treatment fluid and pumped with it. The effectiveness of this type of
mechanical diversion to keep the balls in place is strongly dependent on the differential
pressure across the perforation and the geometry of the perforation itself.

ball dropper The device used to inject ball sealers into the treatment fluid as it is pumped
through the surface treating lines.

ball launcher The device used to inject ball sealers into the treatment fluid as it is pumped
through the surface treating lines.
ball out A condition that may occur during ball diversion treatments in which all open
perforations capable of receiving fluid are sealed. Ballout is signified by a rapid increase in
treating pressure. Maintaining the treatment pressure may result in the breakdown and
subsequent treatment of plugged perforations. If no further injection is possible, the pressure
must be released to unseat the ball sealers, at which time the treatment will be terminated.

ball sealers Small spheres designed to seal perforations that are accepting the most fluid,
thereby diverting reservoir treatments to other portions of the target zone. Ball sealers are
incorporated into the treatment fluid and pumped with it. The effectiveness of this type of
mechanical diversion to keep the balls in place is strongly dependent on the differential
pressure across the perforation and the geometry of the perforation itself.

barrel pump A small pump with an extended suction duct that is designed to pump fluid from
barrels. Barrel pumps are commonly used to decant liquid additives during the preparation of
treatment fluids at the wellsite.

basket A downhole device or tool component designed to catch debris or objects, such as
balls, darts or plugs dropped to actuate downhole equipment or tools.
Batch mixer A vessel and mixing system used to prepare treatment fluids. A batch mixer is
generally equipped with a means of adding dry and liquid chemicals, an agitation or
circulation system and a manifold system to deliver the prepared fluid to storage tanks or
treating pumps.

bed wrap The first layer of coiled tubing, slickline or wireline to be wound on the core of a
reel drum or spool. The bed wrap helps secure the tubing string or slickline to the reel core
and provides the foundation upon which subsequent wraps are laid as the drum is filled. A
neat and secure bed wrap is necessary for proper spooling that will allow the drum to hold the
maximum capacity without damaging the string.

belt effect A condition in deviated wellbores in which an additional friction component is

applied as the slickline, wireline or coiled tubing is drawn to the inside radius of the curve.
The effect is largely dependent on the load on the string, with the resultant friction forces
being of most influence when high loads are encountered under static or slow-moving
conditions.

bias weld A technique used in the assembly of coiled tubing strings at the manufacturing
plant. Prior to being formed, the string is assembled from flat steel strips joined by a bias
weld that is angled across the strip joint at 45 degrees. When the tubing string is milled, the
helical weld form provides enhanced characteristics of the tube at the weld site. These are
significantly better than those achievable with the alternative butt weld technique.

blast sleeve A sleeve installed in flow control equipment to protect sensitive equipment from
abrasive fluid flow. A blast sleeve is commonly inserted in flow crosses where wireline,
coiled tubing, or fiber-optic cables are being passed through.

bleed off To equalize or relieve pressure from a vessel or system. At the conclusion of high-
pressure tests or treatments, the pressure within the treatment lines and associated systems
must be bled off safely to enable subsequent phases of the operation to continue. The bleedoff
process must be conducted with a high degree of control to avoid the effect of sudden
depressurization, which may create shock forces and fluid-disposal hazards.

bleedoff line A section of manifold containing the valves and piping necessary to bleed off
pressure from a vessel or system. Bleedoff lines may be exposed to widely fluctuating
pressures. They must be adequately secured, and consideration must be given to safe
handling or disposal of the resulting fluids.

blender The equipment used to prepare the slurries and gels commonly used in stimulation
treatments. The blender should be capable of providing a supply of adequately mixed
ingredients at the desired treatment rate. Modern blenders are computer controlled, enabling
the flow of chemicals and ingredients to be efficiently metered and requiring a relatively
small residence volume to achieve good control over the blend quality and delivery rate.

blind box A simple slickline tool used to dislodge or push tools or equipment down the
wellbore. The blind box is generally of heavy construction and is hardened to reduce damage
when jarring is required.
blind shear ram A blowout preventer (BOP) closing element fitted with hardened tool steel
blades designed to cut the drillpipe or tubing when the BOP is closed, and then fully close to
provide isolation or sealing of the wellbore. A shear ram is normally used as a last resort to
regain pressure control of a well that is flowing. Once the pipe is cut (or sheared) by the shear
rams, it is usually left hanging in the BOP stack, and kill operations become more difficult.
The joint of drillpipe or tubing is destroyed in the process, but the rest of the string is
unharmed by the operation of shear rams.

braided line A type of multistrand wireline used for slickline applications in which higher
tension or weight-carrying ability is required. The most common size of braided line is 3/16-
in. diameter, although special heavy applications use 1/4-in. and 5/16-in. sizes. When larger
sizes are used, it may be necessary to kill the well due to the effect of wellhead pressure on
the relatively large cross-sectional area of the line entering the wellbore.

breaker A chemical used to reduce the viscosity of specialized treatment fluids such as gels
and foams. Breaking down the fluid viscosity may be desirable either as part of a treatment,
such as allowing flow back of the spent treatment fluid, or following a treatment as part of the
fluid-disposal process. Depending on the application, a breaker of predictable performance
may be incorporated into the treatment fluid for downhole activation, or be added directly to
the returned fluid for immediate effect at surface.

bridge off The accumulation or buildup of material, such as sand, fill or scale, within a
wellbore, to the extent that the flow of fluids or passage of tools or downhole equipment is
severely obstructed. In extreme cases, the wellbore can become completely plugged or
bridged-off, requiring some remedial action before normal circulation or production can be
resumed.

bridging agent Material of a coarse, fibrous or flaky composition used to form an

impermeable barrier across a formation interface or perforation. Bridging materials are most
commonly used when lost circulation occurs during drilling. They are also used in workover
operations in preparation for killing a well when the kill fluid is likely to be lost to the
perforations. The selection of an appropriate bridging material is critical during workover
operations since the barrier should be completely removed in preparation for placing the well
back on production.

broach A downhole tool used to repair the internal diameter of the production tubing where a
slight collapse or a dent has occurred. Cutting profiles on a broach removes the tubing-wall
material to allow subsequent passage of tools and equipment of a prescribed diameter.

buffalo head A flow cross installed on top of a frac tree where treating iron is connected and
treatment fluid enters the frac tree.

buffer A chemical used to adjust and control the pH of stimulation fluids. Gels and complex
polymer fluids are sensitive to pH changes, especially during the mixing phase when the
dispersion and hydration of some polymers require specific pH conditions. In addition, the
performance of crosslinked fluids is optimized over a relatively narrow pH range. Buffers,
added to the aqueous phase before mixing, adjust the base-fluid pH to achieve a stable
treatment fluid with the desired characteristics and predictable performance.
bull plug A solid plug used as an isolation device in piping systems, conduits or wellbore
tubulars.

Burn over The use of a mill or burn shoe to remove the outside area of a permanent
downhole tool or fish. Burning over the obstruction provides a profile on which fishing or
retrieval tools can be engaged to pull the obstruction from the wellbore.

burn shoe A downhole tool routinely used in fishing operations to prepare the top and
outside surface of a fish, generally to allow an overshot or similar fishing tool to engage
cleanly on the fish. In some cases, the outer portion of a fish may be milled out to allow the
body and remaining debris to be pushed to the bottom of the wellbore.

butt weld A welding technique used to join two tubes in which the squared and prepared
ends are butted together in preparation for welding. The resulting circumferential weld has
relatively good strength characteristics but has limitations where the tube is to be plastically
deformed or bent, such as occurs on a coiled tubing string. Consequently, butt welds
performed on a coiled tubing string should be checked carefully using hardness and
radiographic testing methods and their locations detailed in the string record. The anticipated
fatigue life in the butt-weld area must also be reduced to compensate for the weakness of the
weld.

C pump A type of pump commonly used in the handling and mixing of oilfield fluids. The
rotary motion of a profiled impeller in combination with a shaped pump housing or volute
applies centrifugal force to discharge fluids from the pump. Centrifugal pumps generally
operate most efficiently in high-volume, low-output-pressure conditions. Unlike a positive-
displacement pump, the flow from centrifugal pumps can be controlled easily, even allowing
flow to be completely closed off using valves on the pump discharge manifold while the
pump is running. This pump is known as a "centrifugal pump."

casing patch A downhole assembly or tool system used in the remedial repair of casing
damage, corrosion or leaks. Casing patches are most frequently used as short- to medium-
term repairs that enable production to be resumed until a major workover operation is
scheduled. In some cases, such as in depleted wells nearing the end of viable production, a
casing patch may be the only economic means of safely returning the well to production.

casing roller A heavy-duty downhole tool used to restore the internal diameter of collapsed
or buckled casing. Casing rollers generally are configured with an incremental series of
rollers that act to gradually form the damaged casing to the desired size. Depending on the
degree of damage and the requirement for wellbore access below the site of damage, the
nominal diameter of the casing roller and repaired wellbore may be significantly less than the
nominal drift diameter of the original casing string.

casing scraper A downhole tool incorporating a blade assembly that is used to remove scale
and debris from the internal surface of a casing string. Generally run on tubing or drillpipe,
casing scrapers are routinely used during workover operations to ensure that the wellbore is
clean before reinstalling the completion string.

centrifugal pump A type of pump commonly used in the handling and mixing of oilfield
fluids. The rotary motion of a profiled impeller in combination with a shaped pump housing
or volute applies centrifugal force to discharge fluids from the pump. Centrifugal pumps
generally operate most efficiently in high-volume, low-output-pressure conditions. Unlike a
positive-displacement pump, the flow from centrifugal pumps can be controlled easily, even
allowing flow to be completely closed off using valves on the pump discharge manifold while
the pump is running. This pump is sometimes known as a "C pump."

Chelate To combine a metal ion and a complexing agent to form a ring structure.

chelating agent A chemical added to an acid to stabilize iron. The injected acid dissolves
iron from rust, millscale, iron scales or iron-containing minerals in the formation. Iron can
exist as ferric iron [Fe+3] or ferrous iron [Fe+2]. If the iron is not controlled, it will
precipitate insoluble products such as ferric hydroxide and, in sour environments, ferrous
sulfide [FeS], which will damage the formation. Chelating agents associate with iron [Fe+3
or Fe+2] to form soluble complexes. Citric acid, acetic acid and EDTA are effective chelating
agents and can be used at temperatures up to 400oF [204oC].

chemical diverter A chemical agent used in stimulation treatments to ensure uniform

injection over the area to be treated. Chemical diverters function by creating a temporary
blocking effect that is safely cleaned up following the treatment, enabling enhanced
productivity throughout the treated interval. In matrix acidizing of injection wells, benzoic
acid is used as a chemical diverter, while oil-soluble resins are employed in production wells.
Both compounds are slightly soluble or inert in the acidic medium [HCl], but after
functioning as diverters, they dissolve with water injection or oil production, respectively.
Stable, viscous foams generated in the rock matrix are also considered to be chemical
diverters.

chrome tubing Tubing manufactured from an alloy containing a high proportion of chrome,
typically greater than 13%. Chrome tubing is classified as a corrosion-resistant alloy (CRA)
and is used where the wellbore conditions or reservoir fluid create a corrosive environment
that conventional tubing cannot safely withstand. Wells that produce hydrogen sulfide, and
similar corrosive fluids, typically require chrome tubing.

circulation sub A downhole tool typically used with motors or assemblies that restrict the
allowable fluid-circulation rates. When operated, the circulation sub allows a higher
circulation rate to be established by opening a path to the annulus in the top section of the
tool string. This is especially useful in applications such as drilling in slim-diameter wells,
where a higher circulation rate may be necessary to effect good cuttings transport and hole
cleaning before the string is retrieved.

circulation valve A downhole device that enables circulation through the tubing string and
associated annulus. As a completion accessory, a circulation valve is included to circulate
fluid for well kill or kickoff. Circulation valves typically are operated by slickline tools and
are generally capable of several opening and closing cycles before requiring service.

clay stabilizer A chemical additive used in stimulation treatments to prevent the migration or
swelling of clay particles in reaction to water-base fluid. Without adequate protection, some
water-base fluids can affect the electrical charge of naturally occurring clay platelets in the
formation. Modifying the charge causes the platelets to swell or migrate in the flowing fluid
and, once these are dispersed, it is likely that some clay plugging of the formation matrix will
occur. Clay stabilizers act to retain the clay platelets in position by controlling the charge and
electrolytic characteristics of the treatment fluid.

clean out To remove wellbore-fill material such as sand, scale or organic materials, and other
debris from the wellbore. Many reservoirs produce some sand or fines that may not be carried
to surface in the produced fluid. Accumulations of fill material may eventually increase in
concentration within the lower wellbore, possibly restricting production. Cleanouts using
coiled tubing, snubbing or hydraulic workover techniques are performed routinely.

closing unit A generic term given to the hydraulic power pack and accumulators used to
control the blowout preventers on a drilling or workover rig.

closure pressure An analysis parameter used in hydraulic fracture design to indicate the
pressure at which the fracture effectively closes without proppant in place.

coiled tubing A long, continuous length of pipe wound on a spool. The pipe is straightened
prior to pushing into a wellbore and rewound to coil the pipe back onto the transport and
storage spool. Depending on the pipe diameter (1 in. to 4-1/2 in.) and the spool size, coiled
tubing can range from 2,000 ft to 15,000 ft [610 to 4,570 m] or greater length.

coiled tubing connector The downhole device used to connect the tool string to the coiled
tubing string. Several types of devices with varying principles of operation are commonly
used. The primary requirement is provision of an adequate mechanical connection capable of
withstanding the necessary tensile and compressive forces, while ensuring efficient hydraulic
isolation of the connection between the tool string and the coiled tubing string.

coiled tubing string A continuous length of low-alloy carbon-steel tubing that can be
spooled on a reel for transport, then deployed into a wellbore for the placement of fluids or
manipulation of tools during workover and well-intervention operations. The process of
spooling and straightening a coiled tubing string imparts a high degree of fatigue to the tube
material. Therefore, a coiled tubing string should be regarded as a consumable product with a
finite service life. Predicting and managing the factors that affect the safe working life of a
coiled tubing string are key components of the string-management system necessary for
ensuring safe and efficient coiled tubing operations.

coiled tubing unit The package of equipment required to run a coiled tubing operation. Four
basic components are required: the coiled tubing reel to store and transport the coiled tubing
string, the injector head to provide the tractive effort to run and retrieve the coiled tubing
string, the control cabin from which the equipment operator controls and monitors the
operation, and the power pack that generates the necessary hydraulic and pneumatic power
required by the other components. The dimensions and capacities of the coiled tubing unit
components determine the size and length of coiled tubing string that can be used on the unit.
Pressure-control equipment is incorporated into the equipment to provide the necessary
control of well pressure fluid during normal operating conditions and contingency situations
requiring emergency control.
collapse pressure The pressure at which a tube, or vessel, will catastrophically deform as a
result of differential pressure acting from outside to inside of the vessel or tube. The collapse-
pressure rating of perfectly round tubing is relatively high. However, when the tubing is even
slightly oval, the differential pressure at which the tube will collapse may be significantly
reduced. This is an important factor in determining the operating limits of coiled tubing
strings since the action of spooling the string tends to induce some ovality.

collector The electrical device used on the axle of a spool or reel to provide electrical
continuity between the rotating reel core and the stationary reel chassis. When using a coiled
tubing string equipped with an electrical conductor, such as required during coiled tubing
logging operations, a collector is fitted to the reel axle to allow connection of the surface
data-acquisition equipment.

combi BOP A type of blowout preventer (BOP) in which each ram set combines two
conventional ram functions, such as blind/shear and pipe/slip. The principal advantage of the
combi-BOP is the reduced height required for rig up of the required ram functions.

command trailer A trailer in which fracturing engineers can monitor formation pressures
and other critical information pertaining to the fracturing process.

composite frac tree A frac tree in which multiple frac valves are contained in a single large
body such that the overall height of the frac tree is reduced.

consistometer A laboratory device used to determine the thickening time of cement slurries
under simulated downhole pressure and temperature conditions.

contaminant A chemical or fluid that alters the performance of an engineered slurry or

treatment fluid. Some remedial cementing treatments require unpredictable volumes of
cement slurry to achieve the desired results. When excess slurry is left in the wellbore, it may
not be possible to remove the excess slurry by conventional means, such as reverse
circulation, before the slurry thickens and becomes immovable. Mixing the contaminant with
the slurry in the correct proportions increases the thickening time of the slurry, allowing it to
be safely removed from the wellbore.

core testing Laboratory analyses performed on formation core samples as part of a

stimulation-treatment design process. Tests such as the formation flow potential, fracture
orientation and fluid compatibility tests are commonly run in preparation for stimulation
treatments.

corrosion inhibitor In matrix treatments, a chemical added to acid that adsorbs on the pipe
surface to form a protective film. This decreases the destructive reaction of acid with metals.
The inhibitor does not completely stop the corrosion reaction, but it eliminates more than
99% of the metal losses that would occur if the inhibitor were not present. The inhibitor has
little or no effect on the reaction rate of acid with limestone, dolomite or acid-soluble
minerals. Specific corrosion inhibitors are environmentally compatible, effective in hydrogen
sulfide [H2S] environments, effective on high chrome steel, and effective on special steel
alloys, such as coiled tubing. These inhibitors may be used at temperatures approaching
500oF [260oC].
counterbalance winch The lifting device on a snubbing unit used to pick up and lay down
the tool string and running-string tubulars.

coupon An abbreviation for electrical coupon, an instrument used in a corrosion test to

determine metal loss. It directly measures the increase in resistance of a metal as its cross-
sectional area is reduced by corrosion. At suitable times, once the readings are obtained, these
numbers are converted into corrosion rates (mpy). An electrical coupon is also called
an electrical resistance probe.

crosslinker A compound, typically a metallic salt, mixed with a base-gel fluid, such as a
guar-gel system, to create a viscous gel used in some stimulation or pipeline cleaning
treatments. The crosslinker reacts with the multiple-strand polymer to couple the molecules,
creating a fluid of high, but closely controlled, viscosity. Treatments using crosslinkers
should take account of the conditions needed to break the gel structure to ensure
satisfactory cleanup and disposal.

CT A generic term relating to the use of a coiled tubing string and associated equipment. As
a well-intervention method, coiled tubing techniques offer several key benefits over
alternative well-intervention technologies. The ability to work safely under live well
conditions, with a continuous string, enables fluids to be pumped at any time regardless of the
position or direction of travel. This is a significant advantage in many applications. Installing
an electrical conductor or hydraulic conduit further enhances the capability of a coiled tubing
string and enables relatively complex intervention techniques to be applied safely.
dart A device dropped or pumped through a tubing or coiled tubing string to activate
downhole equipment and tools.

Defoamer A chemical additive used to prevent the formation of foam during the preparation
of a treatment fluid or slurries at surface. Excess foam created during the mixing process may
cause handling and pumping difficulties and may interfere with the performance or quality
control of the mixed fluid. Antifoam agents may also be used to break foams returned from
the wellbore, following a treatment, in preparation for disposal of the fluids.

Densitometer A device installed on a mixing or pumping system manifold to measure the

density of fluids. The density of fluids pumped into a well is frequently a key operating
parameter, requiring constant monitoring and control. This is especially true when mixing
slurries and transport fluids for solids, such as fracturing or gravel-pack fluids.

deployment system An assembly of pressure-control equipment that enables the running and
retrieval of long tool strings on a coiled tubing string in a live wellbore. The deployment
system is configured to provide two barriers against well pressure as the tool string is
assembled and run into the wellbore. Once fully assembled, the coiled tubing equipment is
connected and the tool string is run into the wellbore. The process is reversed for tool
retrieval.

depth correlation The process of comparing and fixing measured depths with known
features on baseline logs of the wellbore tubulars and the surrounding formation.
diversion A technique used in injection treatments, such as matrix stimulation, to ensure a
uniform distribution of treatment fluid across the treatment interval. Injected fluids tend to
follow the path of least resistance, possibly resulting in the least permeable areas receiving
inadequate treatment. By using some means of diversion, the treatment can be focused on the
areas requiring the most treatment. To be effective, the diversion effect should be temporary
to enable the full productivity of the well to be restored when the treatment is complete.
There are two main categories of diversion: chemical diversion and mechanical diversion.

diverter A chemical agent or mechanical device used in injection treatments, such as matrix
stimulation, to ensure a uniform distribution of treatment fluid across the treatment interval.
Injected fluids tend to follow the path of least resistance, possibly resulting in the least
permeable areas receiving inadequate treatment. By using some means of diversion, the
treatment can be focused on the areas requiring the most treatment. To be effective, the
diversion effect should be temporary to enable the full productivity of the well to be restored
when the treatment is complete. There are two main categories of diversion: chemical
diversion and mechanical diversion. Chemical diverters function by creating a temporary
blocking effect that is safely cleaned up following the treatment, enabling enhanced
productivity throughout the treated interval. Mechanical diverters act as physical barriers to
ensure even treatment.

diverting agent A chemical agent used in stimulation treatments to ensure uniform injection
over the area to be treated. Diverting agents, also known as chemical diverters, function by
creating a temporary blocking effect that is safely cleaned up following the treatment,
enabling enhanced productivity throughout the treated interval. In matrix acidizing of
injection wells, benzoic acid is used as a chemical diverter, while oil-soluble resins are
employed in production wells. Both compounds are slightly soluble or inert in the acidic
medium [HCl], but after functioning as diverters, they dissolve with water injection or oil
production, respectively. Stable, viscous foams generated in the rock matrix are also
considered to be chemical diverters.

dosing pump A low-volume fluid pump with controllable discharge rate used to inject
chemical additives to the mixing or pumping system. Dosing pumps frequently are used to
inject fluids that may be difficult to mix efficiently in batch-tank systems because of their low
volume.

dummy valve A blank gas-lift valve placed in a gas-lift mandrel to isolate the tubing string
from the annulus. Gas-lift valves frequently are replaced with dummy valves during
intervention work on wells with gas-lift completions.

dump bailer A wireline or slickline tool used to place small volumes of cement slurry, or
similar material, in a wellbore. Typically, the slurry is placed on a plug or similar device that
provides a stable platform for the low-volume cement plug.

duplex pump A type of fluid pump, commonly used on workover rigs, that has two plungers
or pistons. As a positive-reciprocating pump, the fluid flow rate is typically calculated from
the number of strokes per minute that the pump makes and the displacement volume per
stroke. Such a level of accuracy usually is sufficient for general workover purposes.

electrical coupon An instrument used in a corrosion test to determine metal loss. It directly
measures the increase in resistance of a metal as its cross-sectional area is reduced by
corrosion. At suitable times, once the readings are obtained, these numbers are converted into
corrosion rates (mpy). An electrical coupon is also called an electrical resistance probe.

endless tubing A generic term relating to the use of a coiled tubing string and associated
equipment. As a well-intervention method, coiled tubing techniques offer several key benefits
over alternative well-intervention technologies. The ability to work safely under live well
conditions, with a continuous string, enables fluids to be pumped at any time regardless of the
position or direction of travel. This is a significant advantage in many applications. Installing
an electrical conductor or hydraulic conduit further enhances the capability of a coiled tubing
string and enables relatively complex intervention techniques to be applied safely.

entrained gas The gas present in the fluids of a wellbore circulatory system. Many well-
intervention operations are conducted with the well live or held on balance. Fluids circulated
within the wellbore under these conditions are likely to pick up reservoir fluid and gas. The
entrained gas and fluid require special handling and processing before the base fluid can be
safely recirculated in the wellbore or prepared for disposal.

equalizing loop The high-pressure piping and valves configured around the stripping rams of
a snubbing unit. The equalizing loop enables the wellhead pressure to be applied on both
sides of the rams when closed, a process required before the rams can be opened.

equalizing valve A high-pressure valve, generally of small diameter, located on a conduit

that runs between the two sides of an isolation valve or blowout preventer ram set. The forces
acting on isolation devices such as blowout preventer rams can be extremely high, preventing
the rams from being opened, or causing damage to the ram set seals during the opening
process. The equalizing valve allows the pressure to be equalized across the ram set or
isolation valve, enabling the device to be opened safely.

excess cement The cement slurry remaining in the wellbore following a cement squeeze in
which the objective is to squeeze slurry into the perforations and behind the casing or liner.
The volume of slurry required to effect a successful squeeze is often difficult to estimate. In
most cases, an excess allowance is made since a shortage of slurry would result in failure of
the operation. Removal of the excess cement slurry before it sets has been a key objective in
the development of modern cement-squeeze techniques.

external cutter A downhole tool used to cut tubing or similar tubulars that have become
stuck in the wellbore. The external cutter slips over the fish or tubing to be cut. Special
hardened metal-cutters on the inside of the tool engage on the external surfaces of the fish.
External cutters are generally used to remove the topmost, possibly damaged, portion of a
fish to enable an overshot, or similar fishing tools, to engage on an undamaged surface.
field weld A welding technique used to join two tubes in which the squared and prepared
ends are butted together in preparation for welding. The resulting circumferential weld has
relatively good strength characteristics but has limitations where the tube is to be plastically
deformed or bent, such as occurs on a coiled tubing string. Consequently, butt welds
performed on a coiled tubing string should be checked carefully using hardness and
radiographic testing methods and their locations detailed in the string record. The anticipated
fatigue life in the butt-weld area must also be reduced to compensate for the weakness of the
weld.

Fishing The application of tools, equipment and techniques for the removal of junk, debris or
fish from a wellbore. The key elements of a fishing operation include an understanding of the
dimensions and nature of the fish to be removed, the wellbore conditions, the tools and
techniques employed and the process by which the recovered fish will be handled at surface.

fishing diagram A diagram noting the major profiles and dimensions of tools and equipment
run into a wellbore. A fishing diagram should be prepared for every tool operation, enabling
contingency plans to be implemented efficiently if the tool string becomes stuck or lost.

fishing neck The surface on which a fishing tool engages when retrieving tubing, tools or
equipment stuck or lost in a wellbore. Tools and equipment that are temporarily installed in a
wellbore are generally equipped with a specific fishing-neck profile to enable the running and
retrieval tools to reliably engage and release.

Flag A mark or marker applied to a sand line or similar wire rope to indicate a specific depth
or as a means of indicating the end of the line is nearing surface during retrieval. The term
may also be used for magnetic or physical marks applied to wireline or coiled tubing strings.

flow assurance The design, strategies and principles for ensuring that there is uninterrupted
hydrocarbon production flowing from the reservoir to the point of sale. Impediments to
hydrocarbon flow in wellbores and flowlines may arise from an interrelated combination of
effects involving flow dynamics—single and multiphase fluid flow—and production
chemistry. At reservoir pressure and temperature conditions, fluids are single phase. As they
travel toward the production facility, the fluids experience changes in pressure and
temperature that result in multiple fluid phases and the formation, accumulation and dispersal
of inorganic and organic solids that may become impediments to production. Multiphase flow
may cause phenomena such as slugging in subsea flowlines and risers. Solids deposition may
cause flowline plugging anywhere in the system.
Historically, production impediments in wellbores and flowlines are well-known in onshore
and shallow water environments, where they have been managed using thermal, mechanical
and chemical means. The long flowlines connecting a wellhead or manifold to a production
facility are exposed to low temperatures and high pressures. In these deepwater
environments, intervention technologies and operations are expensive because they typically
require deepwater vessels or a rig. Personnel responsible for flow assurance should have
advanced knowledge of flow dynamics and production chemistry.

flow back The process of allowing fluids to flow from the well following a treatment, either
in preparation for a subsequent phase of treatment or in preparation for cleanup and returning
the well to production.
flow cross Pressure-containing equipment consisting of four or more flanged or studded
connections used to control and direct fluid flow. A flow cross is typically a component of
Christmas trees, where it connects the master valve, wing valves, and swab valve.

flow meter A device for measuring in-situ the velocity of fluid flow in a well, usually one
completed for production or injection. The most common device is the spinner flowmeter, but
torque flowmeters and crosscorrelation flowmeters also are used. In the 1940s and 1950s,
various other surface-metering techniques were tried, but spinner flowmeters emerged as the
most suitable for measuring downhole velocities. Spinner and torque flowmeters measure the
average velocity of the fluids crossing the device, while crosscorrelation flowmeters measure
the velocity of a particular phase. Although not normally called flowmeters, various other
techniques measure flow velocity, for example water-flow logs, phase-velocity logs,
distributed-temperature logs and even audio measurements.

Flowback The process of allowing fluids to flow from the well following a treatment, either
in preparation for a subsequent phase of treatment or in preparation for cleanup and returning
the well to production.

flowmeter A device for measuring in-situ the velocity of fluid flow in a well, usually one
completed for production or injection. The most common device is the spinner flowmeter, but
torque flowmeters and crosscorrelation flowmeters also are used. In the 1940s and 1950s,
various other surface-metering techniques were tried, but spinner flowmeters emerged as the
most suitable for measuring downhole velocities. Spinner and torque flowmeters measure the
average velocity of the fluids crossing the device, while crosscorrelation flowmeters measure
the velocity of a particular phase. Although not normally called flowmeters, various other
techniques measure flow velocity, for example water-flow logs, phase-velocity logs,
distributed-temperature logs and even audio measurements.

fluid compatibility test A test, or series of tests, performed to check that no undesirable
reactions occur with a specific fluid. The testing process may include checks for
compatibility with other treating fluids, wellbore fluids, reservoir fluids and the reservoir
formation. In extreme cases, the mixing of seemingly benign fluids can create significant
reactions that may damage the reservoir permeability permanently.

fluid level The depth, or distance from surface, that the fluid in a well incapable of natural
flow will reach under static conditions.

fluid loss The leakage of the liquid phase of drilling fluid, slurry or treatment fluid containing
solid particles into the formation matrix. The resulting buildup of solid material or filter cake
may be undesirable, as may the penetration of filtrate through the formation. Fluid-loss
additives are used to control the process and avoid potential reservoir damage.

fluid-friction reducer A chemical additive that alters fluid rheological properties to reduce
friction created within the fluid as it flows through small-diameter tubulars or similar
restrictions. Generally polymers, or similar friction reducing agents, add viscosity to the fluid,
which reduces the turbulence induced as the fluid flows. Reductions in fluid friction of 50 to
60% are possible.
foam breaker A chemical additive used to prevent the formation of foam during the
preparation of a treatment fluid or slurries at surface. Excess foam created during the mixing
process may cause handling and pumping difficulties and may interfere with the performance
or quality control of the mixed fluid. Antifoam agents may also be used to break foams
returned from the wellbore, following a treatment, in preparation for disposal of the fluids.

foam diversion The use of foam as a diverting agent during staged stimulation treatments.
Stable foam is relatively viscous and the effect within a reservoir matrix can be used to divert
subsequent acid stages from the zones already treated. Following the treatment, the foam
breaks, with little risk of formation damage, to form a mixture of liquid and gaseous nitrogen
that facilitates the cleanup process.

foam generator A device fitted in surface treatment lines that helps distribute a liquid foamer
phase in a stream of nitrogen gas. The foam generator creates a consistent mixture that
becomes a stable foam under downhole pressure and temperature conditions.

formation fracture pressure Pressure above which injection of fluids will cause the rock
formation to fracture hydraulically.

formic acid An organic acid used in the stimulation of high-temperature oil and gas wells in
which conventional hydrochloric acid systems cannot be adequately inhibited, or where
contact time with tubulars is likely to be extended.

frac balls Another term for ball sealers, small spheres designed to seal perforations that are
accepting the most fluid, thereby diverting reservoir treatments to other portions of the target
zone. Ball sealers are incorporated into the treatment fluid and pumped with it. The
effectiveness of this type of mechanical diversion to keep the balls in place is strongly
dependent on the differential pressure across the perforation and the geometry of the
perforation itself.

frac crew Collective term for the personnel required to run a successful hydraulic fracturing
operation. Members of the frac crew prepare the equipment on the wellsite prior to the
operation, mix and pump the necessary chemicals and fluids during the frac job and render
the wellsite location safe following the completion of the operation.

frac gel The primary fluid used in hydraulic fracturing operations. Several chemical additives
generally will be added to the frac gel to form a treatment fluid specifically designed for the
anticipated wellbore, reservoir and operating conditions.

frac gradient The pressure gradient, generally stated in psi/ft [kPa/m], at which a specific
formation interval breaks down and accepts fluid. Determining the frac gradient is a key
requirement in designing and analyzing a hydraulic fracturing treatment.

frac head A flow cross installed on top of a frac tree where treating iron is connected and
treatment fluid enters the frac tree.

frac iron The temporary surface piping, valves, and manifolds necessary to deliver a fluid
treatment to the wellbore from the mixing and pumping equipment.
frac job Another term for hydraulic fracturing, a stimulation treatment routinely performed
on oil and gas wells in low-permeability reservoirs. Specially engineered fluids are pumped at
high pressure and rate into the reservoir interval to be treated, causing a vertical fracture to
open. The wings of the fracture extend away from the wellbore in opposing directions
according to the natural stresses within the formation. Proppant, such as grains of sand of a
particular size, is mixed with the treatment fluid to keep the fracture open when the treatment
is complete. Hydraulic fracturing creates high-conductivity communication with a large area
of formation and bypasses any damage that may exist in the near-wellbore area.

frac manifold A system of frac valves that directs treatment fluid from the missile to
multiple frac trees. The frac manifold facilitates quick redirection of fracturing pressure from
one well to another, enabling pump trucks to run nearly continuously to minimize downtime.

frac pump A high-pressure, high-volume pump used in hydraulic fracturing treatments.

frac stack A Christmas tree installed specifically for the fracturing process. A frac stack
typically consists of upper and lower master valves, flow cross, wing valves, goat head, and
swab valve. Frac stacks generally have larger bores and higher pressure ratings than
production trees to accommodate the high flow rates and pressures necessary for hydraulic
fracturing.

frac tree A Christmas tree installed specifically for the fracturing process. A frac tree
typically consists of upper and lower master valves, flow cross, wing valves, goat head, and
swab valve. Frac trees generally have larger bores and higher pressure ratings than production
trees to accommodate the high flow rates and pressures necessary for hydraulic fracturing.

frac valve A high-pressure isolation valve fitted to the top of the wellhead on a well that is
about to be hydraulically fractured. The frac valve can be closed to isolate the treating
equipment from the wellbore.

fracturing mandrel A sleeve with a flanged top connection upon which a frac tree is
installed. The sleeve is inserted into a wellhead to isolate its low-pressure connections from
the higher fracturing pressures. The fracturing mandrel enables the use of low-pressure
wellheads that could not normally withstand the higher pressures necessary for hydraulic
fracturing.

fracturing manifold A system of frac valves that directs treatment fluid from the missile to
multiple frac trees. The frac manifold facilitates quick redirection of fracturing pressure from
one well to another, enabling pump trucks to run nearly continuously to minimize downtime.

fracturing pressure Pressure above which injection of fluids will cause the rock formation
to fracture hydraulically.

fracturing sleeve Similar to a fracturing mandrel, a fracturing sleeve is temporarily inserted

into a wellhead before the fracturing process begins to isolate low-pressure connections from
the higher fracturing pressures. Fracturing sleeves differ from fracturing mandrels in that the
fracturing sleeve is fully contained within the wellhead, and the frac tree is installed on the
wellhead, not the sleeve.
free point The depth at which a tubing or coiled tubing string that is stuck in the wellbore is
free to move. When the tubing string must be cut to enable recovery, the free point should be
known to ensure retrieval of the cut tubing. This enables remedial action to be taken to
resolve the sticking mechanism on the portion of the string below the cut.

free point indicator A wireline tool used to determine the free point on a stuck string. The
free-point indicator operates by detecting stretch in the tubular when tension is applied at
surface. If stretch is not detected, the string must be stuck above the tool; if stretch is
detected, the string is free above the free-point indicator tool.

free-point indicator A wireline tool used to determine the free point on a stuck string. The
free-point indicator operates by detecting stretch in the tubular when tension is applied at
surface. If stretch is not detected, the string must be stuck above the tool; if stretch is
detected, the string is free above the free-point indicator tool.

friction reducer An additive, generally in slurry or liquid form, used to reduce the friction
forces experienced by tools and tubulars in the wellbore. Friction reducers are routinely used
in horizontal and highly deviated wellbores where the friction forces limit the passage of
tools along the wellbore.

gas buster A simple separator vessel used to remove free or entrained gas from fluids
circulated in the wellbore, such as mud used during drilling operations. The gas buster
typically comprises a vessel containing a series of baffles with a liquid exit on the bottom and
a gas-vent line at the top of the vessel.

gauge tank A small tank with accurate volume markings used to measure flow into or out of
a well. Treatments that require accurate volume tracking of fluids, such as squeeze
cementing, generally use a gauge tank to measure fluid volumes.

gin pole A lifting device, similar in function to a crane jib, that is used in a number of oilfield
applications, such as for handling tubulars on a snubbing unit, tool strings on a slickline unit
or on a winch truck, and for general lifting at the wellsite.

goat head A flow cross installed on top of a frac tree where treating iron is connected and
treatment fluid enters the frac tree.

goose neck The assembly mounted on a coiled tubing injector head that guides the tubing
string as it passes through an arc from the reel into a vertical alignment with the injector-head
chains and wellbore. The radius of the guide arch is generally designed to be as large as
practicable since the plastic deformation created in the coiled tubing string induces material
fatigue in the tube.

grapple A generic name given to tools that engage on the outer surface of a tubing string or
tool assembly, generally for fishing purposes.

grease injection system An assembly of components used to contain wellhead fluids and
pressure during braided-line or wireline operations. The wireline passes through a close-
tolerance tube assembly as it leaves the wellbore. High-pressure grease is pumped into the
surrounding annulus to effect a pressure-tight dynamic seal that is maintained during the
operation by injecting more grease as required. A slight leakage of grease is normal, and the
addition of fresh grease enables the consistency of the seal to be maintained at an effective
level.

gripper blocks The profiled blocks attached to the drive chains of a coiled tubing injector
head. The gripper blocks are arranged in opposing pairs to secure the coiled tubing string in
the injector-head chains. As the hydraulic drive system rotates the chains, the gripper blocks
feed the tubing string into, or out of the well.

hammer union A connection common in the oil industry consisting of two joints coupled by
a threaded nut. Protrusions on the nut are hit with a sledgehammer to tighten the connection
and energize the seals. Hammer unions are commonly used on treating iron because of their
ability to be quickly made up or broken down.

heavy pipe An operating condition during a snubbing operation in which the force resulting
from the weight of the pipe or tubing string is greater than the wellhead pressure and the
buoyancy forces acting to eject the string from the wellbore. In the heavy-pipe condition, the
string will drop into the wellbore if the gripping force is lost.

hesitation squeeze A technique used in squeeze cementing whereby a portion of the slurry is
pumped, then pumping stops to expose the slurry to differential pressure against the zone of
interest in stages over a period from several minutes to several hours. This pressure, higher
than necessary for fluid movement, is applied to force the cement slurry into the area
requiring repair. This staged procedure is repeated until all the slurry has been pumped or
until no further slurry can be placed into the treatment zone. The cement remaining in the
zone forms an effective hydraulic seal with a high compressive strength.

HF A poisonous liquid acid composed of hydrogen and fluorine. Hydrofluoric acid [HF] is
used primarily because it is the only common, inexpensive mineral acid that can dissolve
siliceous minerals. HF is typically mixed with hydrochloric acid [HCl] or organic acid to
keep the pH low when it spends, thereby preventing detrimental precipitates. These mixtures,
also called mud acids, are considered the main fluid in a sandstone acid treatment because
they remove formation damage. Hydrofluoric acid should not be used in sandstone
formations with high carbonate content because of the high risk of calcium fluoride
precipitation [CaF2].

high pressure squeeze A squeeze-cementing technique involving the application of

treatment pressure that is higher than the fracture pressure of the formation. This procedure
may be necessary to force the slurry into microcracks or annuli that surround the wellbore.
The characteristics of a fracture are dependent on the fluid flow rate when the fracture is
initiated; consequently, high-pressure squeeze operations must be conducted with a high
degree of control to place the slurry in the desired location.

high-pressure manifold Flow control unit used in the pressurization of fluid employed in
hydraulic fracturing. Fracturing fluid enters the missile at low pressure and is directed to the
pump trucks for pressurization. High-pressure fluid returns to the missile and is directed to
the well or, in the case of a multiwell pad, to a frac manifold.

high-pressure squeeze A squeeze-cementing technique involving the application of

treatment pressure that is higher than the fracture pressure of the formation. This procedure
may be necessary to force the slurry into microcracks or annuli that surround the wellbore.
The characteristics of a fracture are dependent on the fluid flow rate when the fracture is
initiated; consequently, high-pressure squeeze operations must be conducted with a high
degree of control to place the slurry in the desired location.

hot oiler A truck- or skid-mounted unit used to heat oil or treatment fluid. Hot oilers are
routinely used in the removal of wax deposits from the upper wellbore section of wells in
cold climates where low wellhead temperatures increases the susceptibility of heavy crude oil
to wax precipitation.

HPU A device used in a hydraulic system to store energy or, in some applications, dampen
pressure fluctuations. Energy is stored by compressing a precharged gas bladder with
hydraulic fluid from the operating or charging system. Depending on the fluid volume and
precharge pressure of the accumulator, a limited amount of hydraulic energy is then available
independent of any other power source. Well pressure-control systems typically incorporate
sufficient accumulator capacity to enable the blowout preventer to be operated with all other
power shut down.

hydraulic bypass A design feature on packers and similar downhole tools that occupy a large
proportion of the drift diameter of the wellbore. When running and retrieving such tools, the
hydraulic bypass allows the wellbore fluid to flow through part of the tool assembly to reduce
the forces applied to the tool and reduce any damaging swab or surge effect on the reservoir
formation.

hydraulic bypass A design feature on packers and similar downhole tools that occupy a large
proportion of the drift diameter of the wellbore. When running and retrieving such tools, the
hydraulic bypass allows the wellbore fluid to flow through part of the tool assembly to reduce
the forces applied to the tool and reduce any damaging swab or surge effect on the reservoir
formation.

hydraulic disconnect A downhole tool designed to allow the lower and upper tool string
sections to be parted to enable retrieval of the running string. Hydraulic disconnects rely on
the application of a predefined pressure through the running string to activate a release
mechanism. In some cases, a ball or dart is plugged to block circulation through the tool
string and enable the application of the release pressure.

hydraulic fracturing A stimulation treatment routinely performed on oil and gas wells in
low-permeability reservoirs. Specially engineered fluids are pumped at high pressure and rate
into the reservoir interval to be treated, causing a vertical fracture to open. The wings of the
fracture extend away from the wellbore in opposing directions according to the natural
stresses within the formation. Proppant, such as grains of sand of a particular size, is mixed
with the treatment fluid to keep the fracture open when the treatment is complete. Hydraulic
fracturing creates high-conductivity communication with a large area of formation and
bypasses any damage that may exist in the near-wellbore area.

hydraulic power pack An assembly of components and controls necessary to provide a

hydraulic power supply. In modern oilfield activities, many systems are hydraulically
powered, including the majority of mobile systems such as slickline units, coiled tubing units
and snubbing units. In most cases, a diesel engine is the prime mover, providing an
independent power supply that is harnessed to the necessary hydraulic pump and control
systems.
hydraulic power unit A device used in a hydraulic system to store energy or, in some
applications, dampen pressure fluctuations. Energy is stored by compressing a precharged gas
bladder with hydraulic fluid from the operating or charging system. Depending on the fluid
volume and precharge pressure of the accumulator, a limited amount of hydraulic energy is
then available independent of any other power source. Well pressure-control systems
typically incorporate sufficient accumulator capacity to enable the blowout preventer to be
operated with all other power shut down.

hydraulic release tool A downhole tool designed to allow the lower and upper tool string
sections to be parted to enable retrieval of the running string. Hydraulic disconnects rely on
the application of a predefined pressure through the running string to activate a release
mechanism. In some cases, a ball or dart is plugged to block circulation through the tool
string and enable the application of the release pressure.

hydrochloric acid An acid type commonly used in oil- and gas- well stimulation, especially
in carbonate formations. The reaction characteristics of hydrochloric acid enable it to be used
in a wide range of treatments, often with chemical additives that enhance its performance or
allow greater control of the treatment. Treatments are most commonly conducted with 15%
or 28% solutions of hydrochloric acid.

hydrofluoric hydrochloric acid A mixture of hydrofluoric acid [HF] and hydrochloric acid
[HCl] or organic acid used as the main fluid in a sandstone matrix treatment. Hydrochloric
acid or organic acid is mixed with HF to keep the pH low when it spends, thereby preventing
detrimental precipitates. The name mud acid was given to these mixtures because they were
originally developed to treat damage from siliceous drilling muds.

hydrofluoric-hydrochloric acid A mixture of hydrofluoric acid [HF] and hydrochloric acid

[HCl] or organic acid used as the main fluid in a sandstone matrix treatment. Hydrochloric
acid or organic acid is mixed with HF to keep the pH low when it spends, thereby preventing
detrimental precipitates. The name mud acid was given to these mixtures because they were
originally developed to treat damage from siliceous drilling muds.

hydrogen sulfide [H2S] An extraordinarily poisonous gas with a molecular formula of H2S.
At low concentrations, H2S has the odor of rotten eggs, but at higher, lethal concentrations, it
is odorless. H2S is hazardous to workers and a few seconds of exposure at relatively low
concentrations can be lethal, but exposure to lower concentrations can also be harmful. The
effect of H2S depends on duration, frequency and intensity of exposure as well as the
susceptibility of the individual. Hydrogen sulfide is a serious and potentially lethal hazard, so
awareness, detection and monitoring of H2S is essential. Since hydrogen sulfide gas is
present in some subsurface formations, drilling and other operational crews must be prepared
to use detection equipment, personal protective equipment, proper training and contingency
procedures in H2S-prone areas. Hydrogen sulfide is produced during the decomposition of
organic matter and occurs with hydrocarbons in some areas. It enters drilling mud from
subsurface formations and can also be generated by sulfate-reducing bacteria in stored muds.
H2S can cause sulfide-stress-corrosion cracking of metals. Because it is corrosive, H2S
production may require costly special production equipment such as stainless steel tubing.
Sulfides can be precipitated harmlessly from water muds or oil muds by treatments with the
proper sulfide scavenger. H2S is a weak acid, donating two hydrogen ions in neutralization
reactions, forming HS- and S-2 ions. In water or water-base muds, the three sulfide species,
H2S and HS- and S-2 ions, are in dynamic equilibrium with water and H+ and OH- ions. The
percent distribution among the three sulfide species depends on pH. H2S is dominant at low
pH, the HS- ion is dominant at mid-range pH and S2 ions dominate at high pH. In this
equilibrium situation, sulfide ions revert to H2S if pH falls. Sulfides in water mud and oil
mud can be quantitatively measured with the Garrett Gas Train according to procedures set
by API.

hydrostatic bailer A slickline tool generally used for the removal of sand or similar small
particles around the fishing necks of downhole tools or equipment. The hydrostatic bailer
incorporates a sealed atmospheric chamber and a shear pin, or similar activation mechanism,
to allow communication with the wellbore. When the tool is activated, there is a fluid surge
into the atmosphere as the pressure is equalized. A shroud arrangement at the base of the tool
contains and directs the fluid surge to dislodge and capture any debris in the area.

inhibited acid An acid treatment fluid that has been mixed with chemical additives to control
the corrosive effect on the mixing and pumping equipment, as well as on any wellbore
tubulars and completion equipment that the fluid may contact. Almost all acid treatments
require the addition of an inhibitor to protect against undesirable reactions.

injection test A procedure conducted to establish the rate and pressure at which fluids can be
pumped into the treatment target without fracturing the formation. Most stimulation
treatments and remedial repairs, such as squeeze cementing, are performed following an
injection test to help determine the key treatment parameters and operating limits.

injector head One of the principal equipment components of a coiled tubing unit. The
injector head incorporates special profiled chain assemblies to grip the coiled tubing string
and a hydraulic drive system that provides the tractive effort for running and retrieving the
string from the wellbore. The base of the injector head is secured to the wellhead pressure-
control equipment by the stripper assembly mounting system. The gooseneck mounted on top
of the injector head feeds the tubing string from the reel around a controlled radius into the
injector head.

Intensifier A downhole tool used with a jar to increase the impact force imparted as the jar is
fired. Similar in function to an accelerator, intensifiers typically use compressed gas rather
than a mechanical spring to store the energy released during operation.

internal flash The excess material formed on the internal surface of a coiled tubing string by
the longitudinal weld during manufacture. The internal flash can be removed in some larger
sizes of string to make a fullbore string less susceptible to localized corrosion that can occur
in the area of the longitudinal weld.

iron stabilizer Also known as a chelating agent, a chemical added to an acid to stabilize iron.
In the oil field, acid is used in stimulation treatments and to treat or remove scale or
weighting material in reservoir drilling fluids.The injected acid dissolves iron from rust,
millscale, iron scales or iron-containing minerals in the formation. Iron can exist as ferric iron
[Fe+3] or ferrous iron [Fe+2]. If the iron is not controlled, it will precipitate insoluble
products such as ferric hydroxide and, in sour environments, ferrous sulfide [FeS], which will
damage the formation. Chelating agents associate with iron [Fe+3 or Fe+2] to form soluble
complexes. Citric acid, acetic acid and EDTA are effective chelating agents and can be used
at temperatures up to 400oF [204oC].
jacking frame A support structure used to stabilize the injector head and pressure-control
equipment on some offshore, or special onshore, coiled tubing units. The jacking frame is
hydraulically controlled to enable the injector head to be located at a safe and secure working
height. Additional features, such as the ability to skid the injector head to the side for access
to the wellbore are included in some of the more complex designs of jacking frame.

Jar A downhole tool used to deliver an impact force to the tool string, usually to operate
downhole tools or to dislodge a stuck tool string. Jars of different designs and operating
principles are commonly included on slickline, coiled tubing and workover tool strings.
Simple slickline jars incorporate an assembly that allows some free travel within the tool to
gain momentum for the impact that occurs at the end of the stroke. Larger, more complex jars
for coiled tubing or workover strings incorporate a trip or firing mechanism that prevents the
jar from operating until the desired tension is applied to the string, thus optimizing the impact
delivered. Jars are designed to be reset by simple string manipulation and are capable of
repeated operation or firing before being recovered from the well.

jet cutter A downhole tool, generally run on wireline or coiled tubing, that uses the
detonation of a shaped explosive charge to cut the surrounding tubing or casing wall. The
cutting action leaves a relatively clean cut surface, although the explosive action tends to
flare the cut ends, making retrieval of cut tubular difficult if the fishing tool engages on the
external surfaces.

junk pusher A downhole tool similar in function to a casing scraper. A junk pusher is run to
ensure an unobstructed wellbore before setting a packer or similar fullbore device.

junk sub A downhole tool with a profiled external surface designed to catch and retrieve
junk or debris from the wellbore. The debris is carried up the tool-string annulus in the
circulation fluid. An indented profile creating a larger annular area causes the fluid flow rate
to drop and allows debris to drop into a basket or receptacle located at the base of the tool.

kill pump A high-pressure pump designated for well-kill purposes. Depending on the
application, the kill pump may need to be connected to a ready supply of kill fluid should
well control be required at short notice.

Levelwind The assembly on a coiled tubing reel that guides the tubing string onto the drum.
Accurate spooling is necessary to avoid damaging the tubing and to ensure that the entire
string can be run and retrieved without jamming. The levelwind functions automatically,
although it incorporates a manual override to facilitate minor corrections.

lifting frame A lifting device used when performing coiled tubing operations from a
semisubmersible rig or drillship. The coiled tubing injector and pressure-control equipment
are positioned within the lifting frame, which is attached to the flow head and running string
and supported by the traveling blocks. This configuration enables the heave-compensation
system of the rig to counteract the vessel motion.

light pipe An operating condition during a snubbing operation in which the wellhead
pressure and buoyancy forces are greater than the force resulting from the weight of the pipe
or tubing string. In the light-pipe condition the string will be ejected from the wellbore if the
gripping force of the slips is lost.
liner patch A downhole assembly or tool system used in the repair of liner damage,
corrosion or leaks. Liner patches are most frequently used as short- to medium-term repairs
that enable production to be resumed until a major workover operation is scheduled. In some
cases, such as in depleted wells nearing the end of viable production, a liner patch may be the
only economic means of safely returning the well to production.

live cement A term used to describe a cement slurry that remains liquid but is still capable of
thickening or setting to become an unmovable solid mass. Some remedial operations treat the
excess live cement slurry with a contaminant to extend the thickening time and allow its safe
removal from the wellbore.

load cell The sensor component in a weight-indicator system that detects the tensional or
compressional forces being imparted to the running string at surface. Load cells are
hydraulically or electronically operated and are connected to the weight-indicator display
system on the equipment operator's console.

load oil Oil pumped into a wellbore in preparation for, or as part of, a treatment. Some
treatments, such as hydraulic fracturing, involve pumping large volumes of fluid. Using load
oil, often produced and processed from adjacent wells in the field, reduces the cost of fluids
and can enhance the cleanup process when the treatment is complete.

lock-up A condition that may occur when a coiled tubing string is run into a horizontal or
highly deviated wellbore. Lock-up occurs when the frictional force encountered by the string
running on the wellbore tubular reaches a critical point. Although more tubing may be
injected into the wellbore, the end of the tool string cannot be moved farther into the
wellbore.

Lubricator A term initially applied to the assembly of pressure-control equipment used on

slickline operations to house the tool string in preparation for running into the well or for
retrieval of the tool string on completion of the operation. The lubricator is assembled from
sections of heavy-wall tube generally constructed with integral seals and connections.
Lubricator sections are routinely used on the assembly of pressure-control equipment for
other well-intervention operations such as coiled tubing.

lubricator valve The topmost valve on a Christmas tree that provides vertical access to the
wellbore.

Manifold An arrangement of piping or valves designed to control, distribute and typically

monitor fluid flow. Manifolds are often configured for specific functions, such as a choke
manifold used in well control operations, a frac manifold for directing treatment fluid, and a
squeeze manifold used in squeeze-cementing work. In each case, the functional requirements
of the operation have been addressed in the configuration of the manifold and the degree of
control and instrumentation required.

marker joint A joint of tubing used in a workover or completion tubing string that serves as
a position or depth indicator. In most cases, a marker joint is significantly shorter than other
joints in the string so that it is easily noticeable on correlation logs or when retrieving a work
string, such as on a snubbing or hydraulic workover unit.
mast unit A well-servicing unit for slickline, wireline or coiled tubing operations that is
equipped with a mast rather than a crane or gin pole. The mast provides a means of lifting
and stabilizing tools, and running pressure-control and other equipment.

matrix acidizing The treatment of a reservoir formation with a stimulation fluid containing a
reactive acid. In sandstone formations, the acid reacts with the soluble substances in the
formation matrix to enlarge the pore spaces. In carbonate formations, the acid dissolves the
entire formation matrix. In each case, the matrix acidizing treatment improves the formation
permeability to enable enhanced production of reservoir fluids. Matrix acidizing operations
are ideally performed at high rate, but at treatment pressures below the fracture pressure of
the formation. This enables the acid to penetrate the formation and extend the depth of
treatment while avoiding damage to the reservoir formation.

matrix stimulation A treatment designed to treat the near-wellbore reservoir formation

rather than other areas of the production conduit, such as the casing across the production
interval, production tubulars or the perforations. Matrix stimulation treatments include acid,
solvent and chemical treatments to improve the permeability of the near-wellbore formation,
enhancing the productivity of a well. Matrix stimulation is a process of injecting a fluid into
the formation, either an acid or solvent at pressures below the fracturing pressure, to improve
the production or injection flow capacity of a well. The goal of a matrix treatment is different
in sandstones than in carbonates. In sandstones, matrix treatments restore or improve the
natural formation permeability around the wellbore by removing formation damage, by
dissolving material plugging the pores or by enlarging the pore spaces. In carbonates, matrix
stimulation creates new, highly conductive channels (wormholes) that bypass damage.
Because of these differences, the selection criteria for the treating fluid are also distinct. For
sandstone treatments, knowledge of the extent, type of damage, location, origin, reservoir
mineralogy (petrographic study) and compatibility of the treating fluid with the formation are
especially important. In carbonate treatments, reservoir temperature, pumping rate and fluid
type become more significant because these parameters directly affect the reactivity of the
treating fluid with the reservoir rock. A sandstone matrix stimulation treatment is generally
composed of a hydrochloric acid [HCl] preflush, a main treating fluid (HCl-HF mixtures) and
an overflush (weak acid solution or brine). The treating fluid is maintained under pressure
inside the reservoir for a period of time, after which the well is swabbed and returned to
production. In carbonate reservoirs, HCl is the most common fluid used. Organic acids such
as formic and acetic acid are used in either sandstone or carbonate acidizing, mainly in
retarded-acid systems or in high-temperature applications. Matrix stimulation is also called
matrix treatment or matrix acidizing.

maximum treating pressure The surface-pump pressure limit below which a treatment
should be performed. The maximum treating pressure is determined to avoid fracturing the
formation or damaging completion components. The maximum treating pressure is generally
calculated to ensure that the pump-pressure limit equates to downhole and reservoir
conditions that are within the design limits of the treatment.

mechanical diversion The use of mechanical devices, such as ball sealers, packers and
straddle-packer assemblies, to divert reservoir treatments to the target zone. Ball sealers and
solid-particle diverting agents incorporated into the treatment fluid form a temporary plug in
the perforations accepting the most fluid flow, thereby diverting the remaining treatment fluid
to the less permeable zones. Packers and straddle-packer assemblies function by performing
several short treatments over a longer interval to help ensure an even treatment over the entire
zone.

mechanical jar A type of jar that incorporates a mechanical trip or firing mechanism that
activates only when the necessary tension or compression has been applied to the running
string. In slickline operations, the term is often used to describe any jar that does not contain
a hydraulic trip mechanism, such as link and tubular jars that do not incorporate a firing
mechanism.

memory gauge A type of electronic pressure gauge that samples and records downhole
pressures, with the data being stored, ready for downloading to acquisition equipment when
the tool assembly has been retrieved to surface. Memory gauges are generally used to
measure bottomhole pressures and temperatures in response to various production rates in
tests to assess well productivity and reservoir performance.

Mill A tool that grinds metal downhole. A mill is usually used to remove junk in the hole or
to grind away all or part of a casing string. In the case of junk, the metal must be broken into
smaller pieces to facilitate removal from the wellbore so that drilling can continue. When
milling casing, the intent is to cut a window through the side of the casing or to remove a
continuous section of the casing so that the wellbore may be deviated from the original well
through the window or section removed. Depending on the type of grinding or metal removal
required, the shape of the cutting structures of mills varies. Virtually all mills, however,
utilize tungsten carbine cutting surfaces.

mill out To use a mill or similar downhole tool to cut and remove metal downhole. A mill is
usually used to remove junk in the hole or to grind away all or part of a casing string. When
milling out casing, the intent is to cut a window through the side of the casing or to remove a
continuous section of the casing so that the wellbore may be deviated from the original well
through the window or section removed. Successful milling operations require appropriate
selection of milling tools, fluids and techniques. The mills, or similar cutting tools, must be
compatible with the fish or casing materials and wellbore conditions. The circulated fluids
should be capable of removing the milled material from the wellbore. Finally, the techniques
employed should be appropriate to the anticipated conditions and the likely time required to
reach the operation objectives.

mill shoe A downhole tool routinely used in fishing operations to prepare the top and outside
surface of a fish, generally to allow an overshot or similar fishing tool to engage cleanly on
the fish. In some cases, the outer portion of a fish may be milled out to allow the body and
remaining debris to be pushed to the bottom of the wellbore.

Milling The use of a mill or similar downhole tool to cut and remove material from
equipment or tools located in the wellbore. Successful milling operations require appropriate
selection of milling tools, fluids and techniques. The mills, or similar cutting tools, must be
compatible with the fish materials and wellbore conditions. The circulated fluids should be
capable of removing the milled material from the wellbore. Finally, the techniques employed
should be appropriate to the anticipated conditions and the likely time required to reach the
operation objectives.

Minifrac A small fracturing treatment performed before the main hydraulic fracturing
treatment to acquire critical job design and execution data and confirm the predicted response
of the treatment interval. The minifrac procedure provides key design data from the
parameters associated with the injection of fluids and the subsequent pressure decline. The
final job procedures and treatment parameters are refined according to the results of the
minifrac treatment.

Missile Flow control unit used in the pressurization of fluid employed in hydraulic fracturing.
Fracturing fluid enters the missile at low pressure and is directed to the pump trucks for
pressurization. High-pressure fluid returns to the missile and is directed to the well or, in the
case of a multiwell pad, to a frac manifold.

mud acid A mixture of hydrofluoric acid [HF] and hydrochloric acid [HCl] or organic acid
used as the main fluid in a sandstone matrix treatment. Hydrochloric acid or organic acid is
mixed with HF to keep the pH low when it spends, thereby preventing detrimental
precipitates. The name mud acid was given to these mixtures because they were originally
developed to treat damage from siliceous drilling muds. Mud acid is also called hydrofluoric-
hydrochloric acid.

mutual solvent A chemical additive for stimulation treatments that is soluble in oil, water
and acid-based treatment fluids. Mutual solvents are routinely used in a range of applications,
such as removing heavy hydrocarbon deposits, controlling the wettability of contact surfaces
before, during or after a treatment, and preventing or breaking emulsions. A commonly used
mutual solvent is ethyleneglycolmonobutyl ether, generally known as EGMBE.

neutralizing solution A fluid prepared to counteract the corrosive effect of acids or acidic
treatment fluids. Neutralizing solutions generally are used when the components to be
protected cannot be adequately flushed or when there is a risk that residual fluids may cause
problems through prolonged exposure. Neutralizing solutions are commonly formulated with
soda ash to provide an inexpensive, nondamaging alkaline fluid that does not create excessive
disposal difficulties.

nitrified fluid A multiphase fluid incorporating a liquid base and gaseous nitrogen. Nitrified
fluids are frequently used in stimulation treatments to enhance the performance of the
treatment fluid and improve the cleanup process following the treatment.

nitrogen lifting The injection of nitrogen into the fluid column within the production conduit
to initiate fluid flow from the wellbore and production from the reservoir. Nitrogen lifting
through a coiled tubing string is a common technique used in well kickoff.

nominal filter A classification of filter used in the cleaning and treatment of brines and
solids-free fluids. Nominal filters trap or remove most particles of equal or larger size than
the given filter specification.

ovality limit The maximum distortion permitted on the cross-sectional profile of a coiled
tubing string. The mechanical performance of oval tubing deteriorates as the degree of ovality
increases. The most critical effect is the ability of the tube to resist collapse under differential
pressure. String ovality limits are generally determined by the maximum diameter that can
pass through the primary pressure-control equipment. In high-pressure operations, the ovality
limits will generally be reduced to maintain an adequate safety margin against string collapse.
Overflush A specially prepared fluid used to displace matrix acid treatments away from the
wellbore at the conclusion of a stimulation treatment. The overflush is typically formulated
from a weak acid solution or brine to maintain a low pH environment in the near-wellbore
formation that prevents the precipitation of reaction products as the treatment fluids are
flowed back. The overflush is normally a weak acid or brine pumped behind the main treating
fluid (mixture of hydrofluoric [HF] and hydrochloric [HCl] or organic acids). The overflush
has several purposes: · displacement of the nonreacted mud acid into the formation. ·
displacement of mud-acid reaction by-products such as amorphous silica. The minimum
overflush volume should have at least 3 ft [1 m] of radial penetration inside the formation to
displace potential problems away from the critical matrix. · removal of potential oil-wet
relative-permeability problems caused by some corrosion inhibitors.

Overshot A downhole tool used in fishing operations to engage on the outside surface of a
tube or tool. A grapple, or similar slip mechanism, on the overshot grips the fish, allowing
application of tensile force and jarring action. If the fish cannot be removed, a release system
within the overshot allows the overshot to be disengaged and retrieved.

Packoff To effect hydraulic isolation, either with a sealing device, such as a packer, or with a
specialized plastic or fluid, such as a sealing compound.

paddle blender A type of fluid-mixing tank used in the preparation of treatment fluids or
slurries that provides the agitation to achieve a well-dispersed mixture. Paddle mixers are
generally equipped with rotating paddles that provide turbulence for mixing fluids and an
action that prevents the settling of solids prior to being pumped.

paddle mixer A type of fluid-mixing tank used in the preparation of treatment fluids or
slurries that provides the agitation to achieve a well-dispersed mixture. Paddle mixers are
generally equipped with rotating paddles that provide turbulence for mixing fluids and an
action that prevents the settling of solids prior to being pumped.

paraffin scraper A downhole tool, generally run on slickline, used to remove paraffin and
soft wax deposits from the internal wall of production tubulars and completion equipment.

paraffin scratcher A downhole tool, generally run on slickline, used to remove paraffin and
soft wax deposits from the internal wall of production tubulars and completion equipment.

Pickle To use a relatively weak, inhibited acid to remove scale, rust and similar deposits from
the internal surfaces of equipment such as treating lines, pumping equipment or the tubing
string through which an acid or chemical treatment is to be pumped. The pickling process
removes materials that may react with the main treatment fluid to create undesirable
secondary reactions or precipitates damaging to the near-wellbore reservoir formation.