SELF-CONCEPT AND IMAGE

CONGRUENCE: SOME RESEARCH AND

MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS
Sak Onkvisit
John Shaw

Self-concept, despite its marketing relevance, an understanding of the self-concept and self-
has been overshadowed by other psychological image can provide the means for developing
concepts. The self-concept is, however, significantmore effective marketing programs. Consistency
and relevant to the study of consumer behavior and congruence also play an important part in
because many purchases made by consumers establishing the relationship between the self-
are directly influenced by the image an individual concept, the individual's image, and final pur-
has of himself. A fundamental question involves chase behavior. Other factors also play a part in
the process of the formation of the self-concept. the process and, in some situations, misunder-
Several distinct qualities exist within the self- standings about their importance can result in
concept, and once the self-concept is established, less than effective marketing efforts. Careful
these have a bearing upon the individual's research and analysis of the relevant factors
behavior and his relationship with his objective, affecting the self-concept and their effect on
subjective, social, and ideal self. For marketers, purchase behavior can make for more effective

Sak Onkvisit is an associate professor marketing in the College of Business Administration, San Jose State University.
Dr. Onkvisit has published papers in the Columbia Journal of World Business, Journal of the Academy of Marketing
Science, Journal of Business Education, and Business Horizons. His teaching interests involve consumer behavior,
international business and marketing research, and he has taught at the Pennsylvania State University, The University of
Kentucky, and Northeastern Illinois University.
Dr. Onkvisit is a member of Beta Gamma Sigma, the American Marketing Association, and the Academy of Marketing
Science.
Dr. Onkvisit received his Doctor of Business Administration from The University of Kentucky.
John J. Shaw is an associate professor of marketing at Providence College. His teaching interests involve the marketing
management, promotion, intenational marketing and consumer behavior areas within the marketing discipline. Dr. Shaw
holds membership in the American Marketing Association, Southwestern Marketing Association, and the Academy of
Marketing Science. Dr. Shaw's papers have been published in the Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Business
Horizons. Marketing News, and The Columbia Journal of World Business.
Dr. Shaw received his Doctor of Business Administration from the University of Oklahoma.

Vol. 4 No. 1 Winter 1987 13

 THE JOURNAL OF CONSUMER MARKETING
market strategic planning. This article examines
the various issues related to the marketing
applicability of the self-concept and discusses
its implications in terms of research and market
strategic planning.
Sell-Concept: Significance and
Neglect
When compared with its many psychological
"cousins," the self-concept is a concept that has
been underutilized in the area of marketing.
With a fewexceptions29,30any treatment of this
meaningful topic that does not appear in consumer
behavior textbooks is either brief or implicit.
Given the fact that marketing practitioners seem
to be enthusiastic about self-concept, it is
surprising that it has not received more wide-
spread attention from marketing scholars. As a
result, several important questions concerning
its applicability within a market setting remain
unanswered.
An understanding of the self-concept
and self-image can provide the means
for developing more effective marketing
programs.
Self-concept is relevant to the study of con-
sumer behavior because the image that a person
has about himself frequently dictates specific
behavior patterns. As a basis for behavior, self-
perception may explain why and/ or how con-
sumers are motivated by revealing how they
view reference groups, salespeople, and com-
peting brands, as well as how they choose to
interact with these objects. A study of this nature
could be useful in probing consumers' mental
and covert states. From the marketing standpoint,
understanding the influence of self-perception
on behavior could provide an effective means of
appealing to target markets effectively.
In this article we will examine the richness of
the self-concept in terms of its marketing rele-
vance and thereby justify its inclusion in the
marketing plan. We will also discuss the research
and strategic implications of the concept.
Self-Concept Formation
An individual always examines objects in his
14
environment, and this examination includes an
evaluation of himself as if he is just another
object. Thus, the self-concept involves ideas
and feelings that he has about himself in relation
to others in a socially determined frame of
reference. The formation of a child's self-concept
begins rather slowly and is largely unconscious
at the onset. The process picks up speed when
he enters school, since it permits more opportunity
for social interaction. He sees himself through
the eyes of other people and takes into account
their behavior, attitudes, and approval, among
other things. As a result, his self-perception is
based on an interplay between what he thinks
of himself and what others think of him.
In the process of learning about himself, the
young person chooses certain people to be his
heroes or role models and will imitate them. As
he grows older, he outgrows some of these
fantasies because he learns about capabilities
that he cannot achieve as well as skills he is
capable of attaining. By determining the facts
about himself, he realizes a set of available
possibilities based on his strengths and short-
comings. Subsequently, certain goals, after be-
ing evaluated, are attained, while others are
discarded.
The formation of the self-concept is a lifelong
and evolving process. The modification of the
person's ideas can be quite drastic when he is
in his teens. During that time, the individual is
often frustrated with attempts to establish his
own identity, because he does not know exactly
what he wants. As he matures and comes to
terms with himself, the changes in his self-concept
slow down, even though his experiences still
result in a continuous change in his ideas about
himself.
The Nature of
The Self-Concept
The self-concept has several distinctive prop-
erties, and the identification of such properties
can be useful for an understanding of how the
self-concept operates and how it influences
consumer behavior.
First, self-concept is not innate — it has to be
learned. This learning is a continuous, active
process through which a person determines who
he is and on what basis he should formulate his
ideas and those of others.
 SELF-CONCEPT AND IMAGE CONGRUENCE
Self-concept is stable and consistent. While
it is true that self-perception is subject to change
with time and experience, the self-concept tends
to be relatively stable, especially during the
entire decision-making process for a particular
purchase. Any change will not be abrupt, and
the gradual change explains why a consumer
may be loyal to a particular brand for a long
period of time.
The basic purpose of all human activity
is the protection, the maintenance,
and the enhancement, not of the self,
but the self-concept, or symbolic self.
Self-concept is purposeful. It exists for the
purpose of both protecting and enhancing a
person's ego. When his self-image is threatened
by others' criticisms, the individual becomes
defensive and perhaps angered. Naturally, it is
not a good idea for an advertisement or a
salesperson to attack a person's beliefs directly.
Self-concept is unique, and it promotes
individualism. Automation, computers, and iden-
tification numbers contribute greatly to the
movement of U.S. society toward depersonali-
zation. People, however, resent being reduced
to mere numbers. In order to counter deper-
sonalization, consumers used branded products
to promote their own self-concepts because
distinctive brands can be used to represent "who
they are and where they are at." Fragrances,
like Cie, for example, provide for individualism
by allowing the perfume smell to change from
woman to woman.
The effect of self-concept can be either positive
or negative. When people wear clothes that
they do not like, they feel dull and inactive and
will act that way, but when they wear attractive
clothes, they feel and act attractive and active.
This phenomenon is confirmed by a classic study
involving an unpopular girl,14 whose behavior
changed after she actively dated five men.
Because of the increase in social activity and
attention, she viewed herself as a more social
and attractive person, and the effect on her life
and attitude were significant. Evidently, self-
concept can exert its influence on behavior in
either direction: a negative self-concept affects
behavior adversely, whereas a positive self-
concept serves as a positive reinforcer.
Self-Enhancement
"The basic purpose of all human activity is
the protection, the maintenance, and the en-
hancement, not of the self, but the self-concept,
or symbolic self."16 Since a person's self-concept
is a valuable possession, he will actively promote
it by directing his behavior toward the enhance-
ment of this concept. In the marketing context,
product and store provide two important means
for self-enhancement. As was explained by one
well-known marketing scientist, "a consumer
may buy a product because, among other factors,
he feels that the product enhances his own
self-image. Similarly, a consumer may decide
not to buy a product or not to shop at a particular
store if he feels that these actions are not
consistent with his own perceptions of himself."4
The consumer evaluates the appropriateness
of a product or store for self-enhancement by
developing some beliefs about its specific char-
acteristics through some direct experience or
second-hand information. He looks beyond the
object's immediate utility, forms some perceptions
about it, and intuitively, if not consciously,
compares these perceptions with his own value
system in order to estimate the likelihood that
such characteristics will satisfy his needs.39
Apparently, he goes to a store to buy a product
not only because of the product's primary
functions, but also because of its personal and
social meanings inferred by him.
One widely used explanation of self-enhance-
ment states that an individual A examines a
symbol X which may be a product, brand, or
store. The individual next transfers the positive
meanings of symbol X to himself for self-fulfill-
ment. By assuming that symbol X is also socially
meaningful to an audience B, he strives for more
gratification by attempting to gain the audience's
approval. Consequently, he enhances himself in
two ways: first by his own transfer of the symbolic
meanings to himself, and second by the transfer
made by his reference group.10
Image As A Strategic Tool
An image is "the total set of attitudes, the
halo of psychological meanings, the associations
of feeling, the indelibly written esthetic messages
over and above bare physical qualities." The
image can be weak or strong, and it can also be
either vague or clear. Like a person's self-concept,
15
 THE JOURNAL OF CONSUMER MARKETING
corporations, products, and retailers have their
own personalities or images. Such images will
differ from person to person, product to product,
and company to company. These images provide
consumers with the psychological tools to en-
hance their self-concept.
The self-concept is a concept that
has been underutilized in the area of
marketing.
It should be pointed out that there are two
distinct types of product image. While brand
image is the more obvious, a product category
itself is also capable of assuming a unique
personality. We may take the granola bar and
candy bar as examples. In spite of the fact that
these two product categories have become more
physically alike and that most, if not all, granola
bars are more or less candy bars in disguise, the
granola product is still able to maintain its
healthful and wholesome image.
Cigarettes, a product with a strong image,
make a clear distinction in how two product
levels can differ. High-tar cigarettes such as
Winston and Camel are avoided by the intellectual
type and attempt to attract rural smokers. Low-
tar brands, in contrast, are more appealing to
better educated and wealthier people. But such
brands are not necessarily alike. The Now brand
cigarettes use middle-aged models posing as
wealthy horse breeders, while the Merit brand
projects a flamboyant, young-in-spirit image. The
extra-long cigarette is aimed at the fashion
conscious. Furthermore, not all brands in the
120mm category have the same appeal. When
compared with Max, which is a cosmetic product
for women, More has a riverboat-gambler look
for big-city sophisticates. Therefore, product
image can vary from one product form to another
as well as from brand to brand within the same
product form.
Much like products, retail stores can have
two types of image and each retail category can
assume its own distinct personality. Thus,
discount stores and department stores are
perceived quite differently even though they
carry similar merchandise. Department stores
can be broken down further into two subcate-
gories: regular department stores such as Macy's
and Sakowitz are viewed as being different from
16
national chain department stores such as Sears
and Montgomery Ward.
Images of individual stores of the same retail
type tend to vary as well. One good example is
the case of Abraham & Straus, Foley's, Bloom-
ingdale's, Rich's, Sanger Harris, Burdine's,
Filene's, I. Magnin, Bullock's, Shillito's, Gold-
smith's, and Main Street. Each of these stores
has its own image and local affiliation in spite of
the fact that they are all department stores and
that they are all owned and operated by Federated
Department Stores.
Another example is the three prominent de-
partment stores in Chicago: Marshall Field's,
Carson Pirie Scott, and Wieboldt's. Field's, the
one most likely to be associated with Chicago,
is the prestigious one. As a result, Carsons has
been using its "Carsons Chicago" campaign to
shed its image as "that other Chicago department
store." Wieboldt's, on the other hand, attracts a
larger proportion of blue-collar workers. As far
as consumer perceptions and stores' strategies
are concerned, these three local department
stores are significantly different from each other.
Image Congruence
Figure 1 shows a conceptual model of the
relationship between a consumer's self-concept
and his images of the manufacturer, product,
and retailer. According to this model, the con-
sumer will evaluate these images in terms of
their symbolic meanings. When they are viewed
as being highly credible and desirable, they
provide an incentive for him to attain them. It
should be noted that each kind of image is not
viewed in isolation. Perception is a dynamic
process, and there is a significant interaction
among the different types of images, self-concept,
and audience. The Gap retail stores, for instance,
are often associated with Levi's apparel in the
mind of many consumers.
The kind of behavior described in the model
is the basis for the image congruence hypothesis,
which states that a consumer tends to select
products and stores that correspond to his self-
concept. Theoretically, the hypothesis derives
some of its support from cognitive dissonance
theory. To minimize a dissonance associated
with a purchase, the consumer must achieve a
consistent self-image by buying the right products
from the right manufacturers at the right stores.
"The variety of goods available permits more
 SELF-CONCEPT AND IMAGE CONGRUENCE
ways of living than was ever the case. Because
of their symbolic nature, consumer goods can
be chosen with less conflict or indecision than
would otherwise be the case."22
Empirically, several studies covering such
consumer products as beer, automobiles, ciga-
rettes, bar soap, and toothpaste support the
claim of the consistency between product image
and self-concept.2,8,10,13,20In one study, 247 coeds
were asked to rate themselves and "the kind of
girl who would most prefer" to read six magazines
or to own seven automobiles.28 The results showed
a strong relationship between self-concept and
brand preference because the "similarity between
self-image and the user image of preferred brands
was much greater than the similarity between
self-image and user image of nonpreferred
brands."
In another study, self-concepts were found to
differ significantly between owners of the Volks-
wagen 1200-1300 and those of the Pontiac GTO.12
Volkswagen owners rated themselves substan-
tially lower than Pontiac owners on such traits
as status consciousness, fashionableness, ad-
venturousness, interest in the opposite sex, sporti-
ness, style consciousness, and pleasure seeking.
Overall, self- concepts tend to be similar among
owners of the same product brand but will dif-
fer across owners of the same product with dif-
ferent brands.
Empirical studies indicate that congruence
between product image and self-concept is a
fairly common phenomenon. This is true regard-
less of whether the self-concept is based on
how consumers view themselves or whether it
is related to the way they would like to be.32 The
congruity subsequently affects product prefer-
ence, purchase intention, product ownership,
product usage, and product loyalty.
In addition to product image and self-concept
congruence, several studies also support the
contention that the selection of retail stores is
significantly influenced by the self-concept.
Consumers tend to patronize those stores whose
characteristics are seen as congruent with their
self-concepts, while staying away from stores
that are perceived to be different from their
self-perceptions. 24,26,30,34,35
Dimensions of Self-Concept
Self-concept is a multidimensional concept.
At least four components have been identified:
(1) real self (actual or objective self) —the way
a person actually is, (2) self-image (subjective
self) —the way a person sees himself, (3) ideal
self (self-actualization) —the way he would like
to be, and (4) looking-glass self (social self)
— the way he thinks others regard him.8 While
most people may not consciously make a distinc-
tion among these four dimensions, such com-
ponents do exist. Alcoholic beverage drinkers,
for example, may not be aware of how they are
sometimes rated by bartenders.6 The "magnificent
seven" in order of tip generosity are those who
drink Scotch (a sophisticated and steady drinker
and tipper), cognac (a class act with a class
tip), bourbon (a good strong drink with a good
strong tip), vodka (no games here in what he
drinks or tips), rum (a traveler and innovator
with money to tip), beer (an old reliable), and
wine (an exclusive sip-and- spend clientele). At
another extreme are the "stiff seven" or those
who drink sours, pink squirrels, grasshoppers,
brandy alexanders, sloe gin fizzes, frozen drinks,
and highballs. These drinkers are perceived to
be inexperienced amateurs at both drinking and
tipping.
Learning is a continuous, active pro-
cess through which a person determines
who he is.
Because of the multiplicity of self-concept, it
should be apparent that the way a person actually
is can differ significantly from the way he
perceives himself and that this actual self in
turn can also depart greatly from the way he
would like to be or the way others regard him.
These varying dimensions can all exist simul-
taneously, but they are not mutually exclusive.
They usually overlap at least partially, and the
17
 THE JOURNAL OF CONSUMER MARKETING
extent of the overlap will vary from person to
person.
Some scholars question the necessity and
practicality of making a distinction among the
aspects of self-concept. From the marketing
standpoint, however, the differentiation can be
justified if the person's behavior is affected
differently by what he is, what he has been, and
what he hopes to be (i.e., his past, present, and
future self). Theoretically, since a product may
be used as a means to represent his aspiration,
if one takes upward mobility into account, ideal
self may be the best predictor of buying behavior.17
The self-concept tends to be
decision-making process for a par-
ticular purchase.
Two studies addressing this issue showed
that neither self- image nor ideal self was
dominant in predicting brand preferences.8,21 The
findings were interpreted by some scholars as
evidence of a futile attempt to distinguish the
self-concept components. However, the lack of
evidence for the superiority of ideal self may be
attributed to too crude a classification rather
than too fine a distinction. The level of consumers'
fantasy may explain why one self-component
may or may not be superior to others in predicting
purchasing behavior.
One researcher conducted a study38 which,
although not dealing directly with the self-
concept, provides some insights with regard to
the effect of fantasy on self-perception. The
study classified consumers as low-, middle-, and
high-fantasy people and found that the middle-
fantasy group was best in predicting product
purchases. The relationship is logical. Low fantasy
consumers are satisfied with their situations,
and their real self and ideal self should be quite
similar. In contrast, high-fantasy people are
unhappy with their lives but are not realistic
about their chances for improvement; in this
case, real self and ideal self are simply too far
apart, and ideal self cannot predict product
purchases, because the desired products are
not attainable. The middle-fantasy group are
somewhat dissatisfied with their current self-
image and want to do something about the image
in a realistic way; it is thus possible that they
use products as a means of improving their
lifestyle or ideal self accordingly. Unfortunately,
18
a hypothesis regarding the impact of fantasy
level on the extent of overlap of self-components
has never been tested.
In conclusion, the term "self-image" is too
often used as an all-inclusive term to include all
kinds of self-concept. Future studies should
explicitly specify which self-component is to be
used and should take the extent of fantasy into
account. Some studies8,21 confirmed the benefits
of differentiation because they show that some
purchase intentions are correlated with self-
image while others are more related to ideal
self. The question then is not whether the
distinction is useful, but rather under what
circumstances a particular aspect of self-concept
is employed by consumers in their buying
decisions. Consumers' fantasy level may provide
an answer. Therefore, the differences among
the varying dimensions of self-concept should
be respected.
Perceived Instrumentality and
Value Importance
Image congruence can be expected only when
brands or stores are associated with the con-
sumer's important values.15 As a result, not all
products are capable of being tools for self-
enhancement, and they must be examined in
terms of their relevance and potency. Volkswagen,
for instance, may imply thrift, sensibility, and
practicality and is thus relevant for saying
something about its owner. But these implied
traits, instead of attracting buyers, may turn
some of them away because they may not express
the kind of image desired by these users. This
may explain why Japanese cars are able to take
away market share from Volkswagen; Japanese
imports may imply innovativeness and prestige,
which may be meaningful to young urban pro-
fessionals, or the so-called yuppies.
The above discussion may explain the difficulty
in improving a direct relationship between
consumers' perceptions of themselves as inno-
vative and their attitude toward small cars. Some
studies,18 however, have shown an opposite
relationship: consumers seeing themselves as
conservative, when compared with their inno-
vative counterparts, and expressing a more
positive attitude toward small cars. This unex-
pected finding may not be so illogical as it might
first appear, for two reasons.
First, the small-car product form may simply
 SELF-CONCEPT AND IMAGE CONGRUENCE
imply conservatism rather than an innovative
image. Second, not all small cars are alike, and
the attitude at the product form level may differ
significantly from the more specific attitude at
the brand level. Therefore, small cars as a group
may be neither relevant nor potent enough as
vehicles to deliver the innovative image, whereas
imported small cars may be perceived as being
more likely to do so.
A consumer tends to select products
and stores that correspond to his self-
concept.
To determine the relevance and potency of a
product, researchers should take both the per-
ceived instrumentality and the value importance
of each product attribute into consideration. At
the onset, it is necessary to investigate whether
a particular object is perceived as being capable
of helping an individual to attain his desired
goal (i.e., image). Next, assuming that this goal
can be achieved, it is still important to determine
the importance of this goal or value in terms of
its ability to provide the satisfaction expected.
The approach just mentioned should be helpful
in isolating products that are appropriate for
self-enhancement from those that are not. Let
us take General Motors cars as an example.
While automobiles are highly conspicuous prod-
ucts without a doubt, some are more relevant
than others in being image makers. A Chevette,
designed for a mass market containing all types
of people, does not stand for something strong,
unique, or definite. A Camaro, on the other
hand, has a more definite image, and it is more
suitable as an image vehicle. It is thus not
surprising that it attracts a disproportionate
number of female buyers.
Relatively speaking, a Corvette or a Camaro,
specifically designed to appeal to a particular
type of buyer, does not have the Chevette's
diffused image. Not only is the Corvette capable
of making a strong statement (i.e., perceived
instrumentality), but also that strong statement
appeals to particular groups of people (i.e., value
importance) such as those who view themselves
as swingers or young-at-heart adventurers. Of
course, for the more conservative type, this type
of consumer is not interested in the Corvette no
matter how instrumental it can be in delivering
that image, since it is not their desired image in
the first place.
Influence of Intervening Variables
The self-concept does not operate in isolation;
other variables can moderate its impact. Price
and income, for instance, may explain why image
congruence does not always materialize. Some
researchers believe that the predictive power
of the congruity models is a function of product
life cycle, consumer involvement, product utili-
tarianism, and product value expressiveness.33
Another important intervening variable which
can affect the final outcome is role. "A person's
self-image can vary with the particular role being
assumed at the moment. The significance of
this phenomenon is that the interaction of the
person's self-concept and role may exert some
influence on his purchasing behavior."25 This
point is well illustrated by National's rent-a-car
commercial. One young man rents different kinds
of cars according to his varying situations and
roles. He chooses a Camaro when he has an
important date, a big car when his sister-in-
law's large family is in town, a Chevette when
he visits his folks, and a Cadillac for his class
reunion.
In order to counter depersonalization,
consumers used branded products to
promote their own self-concepts.
Since there is evidence that consumers change
their self-image with different situations, it is
desirable to determine these situations. One
research technique advocates the use of the
situational self-image which is the result of a
person's repertoire of self-image and percep-
tion of others in a specific situation.31 Likewise,
a study of role and its impact may also shed
some light on why self-concept varies from one
situation to another. Finally, it may be useful
to study how the influence of such situational
variables may vary across products. The self-
concept can be useful in the search for a dif-
ferential advantage.
Implications for
Marketing Practitioners
There are several aspects of the self-concept
that marketing practitioners should consider in
preparing their strategic plans. The application
of the self-concept to marketing should include
a consideration of the importance of a distinct
19
 THE JOURNAL O F CONSUMER MARKETING
image, the part that image congruence plays in
purchase behavior, and the effect of public and
private product image on consumption behavior.
Market planners should also be sensitive to the
possibility that there may be sometimes erroneous
assumptions made regarding the relationship
between the consumer's self-concept and the
product that image marketers are projecting.
Erroneous Assumptions
A marketer should avoid making wrong as-
sumptions about his customers. It is often
assumed that the self-concept is created mainly
through interactions with other people and that
an individual plays only a negligible role in
shaping his self-concept. According to these
assumptions, the individual is basically passive
and simply accepts the ideas of other people.
When being marketed to, this consumer is viewed
as a puppet which can be easily aroused and
controlled by business firms. These unfortunate
assumptions often result in advertisements that
degrade consumers.
Self-concepts tend to be similar among
owners of the same product brand but
will differ across owners of the same
product with different brands.
According to some researchers, it is time to
abandon an advertising style that is "exploitative,
debasing, lacking in taste, and insulting to the
dignity of man" based on a wrong assumption of
a person as "a fundamentally irrational creature,
helplessly pushed around on the one hand by
guilt, anxiety, self-doubt, and other neurotic self-
conceptions,"27 and as the unresisting victim of
external stimuli such as products and ads on the
other hand. Two products that have been heavily
promoted provide good examples of this view.
'Body Odor, the old Lifebuoy ads shouted, and
the psychologically insecure and inadequate be-
came uncomfortable and apprehensive." In the
other advertisement, women were urged to dream
"of appearing in public without their blouses—
an embarrassment from which a Maidenform
Bra stands ready to rescue them with glory."
It is interesting to note that Maidenform, after
all these years, has finally decided to drop its
controversial campaign theme. Apparently, there
is a need to revise the advertiser's image of
the consumer, because the underlying assump-
tions of these advertisements are either in-
20
valid or negative. The lesson in these adver-
tisements is that ads should reflect consumers'
self-concepts in a more positive manner.
The Necessity of A Distinct Image
Some products, such as salt, sugar, shoelaces,
and other commodity items, by their nature,
have no significant meaning to consumers, and
any advertising effort to create images for such
products are likely to be futile and wasteful.
Surprisingly, many products that can be differ-
entiated do not have distinct images; Dodge (a
division of Chrysler) is a prime example. A
"diffused image" may be caused by (1) poor
creative advertising, (2) frequent changes in a
brand's advertising theme and/ or media pattern,
(3) an attempt to be all things to all people,
resulting in a constant switch in themes for
diverse segments, and (4) a promotional effort
to change a strong image, resulting in public
confusion. In such cases, "the image is blurry
and stands for nothing definite."3
Whenever possible, a strong and distinct image
is essential. While manufacturers, products,
and/ or stores may be similar, their images are
not and can be shaped by marketers. As was
demonstrated by the tobacco industry, smokers
are self-image buyers. They buy the product not
because of tobacco grade but rather because
the product conveys an image with which they
like to identify. Camel is for one-of-a-kind males,
Virginia Slims for women who have "come a
long way," and Eve for the feminine type.
Marlboro was able to change its original feminine
image by using ads featuring the most rugged-
looking men and cowboys "who came up the
hard way." This unique image of virile men and
their he-man lives allows an individual to project
himself through the cigarettes he smokes. It is
this image that has kept Marlboro on top since
1976, when it replaced Winston, whose image
was not as distinct nor strong.
The Significance of Image Congruence
Product image can serve to explain why a
purchase is not a random process. Because of a
consumer's insistence on a differentiated brand,
not all brands have an equal preference for
being purchased. The consumer wants a product
that gives the illusion that it was made exclusively
for him, that it matches his personality, and that
it responds to his needs.7"Rare indeed is the
smoker who will accept any brand. He is emo-
tionally attached to 'my brand.' Like a sparrow
 SELF-CONCEPT AND IMAGE CONGRUENCE
fixing a nest, he pieces together various ra-
tionalizations which permit him to justify fervently
why he smokes 'my brand.'23
A person's self-image can vary with
the particular role being assumed at
the moment.
A purchase is not likely to take place when
there is a lack of congruence between product
image and self-concept. Any product information
that is inconsistent with the consumer's self-
concept is unlikely to gain his attention, accep-
tance, and retention. Where incongruence exists
and a purchase does take place, the consumer
is unlikely to repeat such a purchase. Therefore,
it is not enough just to have a distinct image for
a product, but it must also be a desirable image
which is capable of enhancing the consumer's
self-concept. At the same time, the image should
be distinctive from those of competitors in order
to discourage any product/store switching. As
is illustrated by the fragrance industry, while
mass fragrances attempt to appeal to a large
number of people, they are still positioned with
a particular type of woman in mind— e.g., Charlie
(independent woman), Enjoli (super woman who
is all things to all people), Vanderbilt and Le
Jardin (floral romantics), and Epris and Scoundrel
(steamy and provocatives). The mission of
Whisper or Musk, when compared with Scoun-
drel's fantasy and overstatement, seems to be to
attract the opposite kind of woman—those who
want romance which is based on reality and
those whose image of sex is being subtle,
sophisticated, sizzling, slow, and sensitive.
A study of consumer perceptions of each brand
can be useful in determining whether image
congruence is likely. A perceptual map can also
be generated for this purpose. In one study, two
dimensions of fragrances were studied.19 One
dimension identified was a playful realism-dreamy
fantasy, and the other dimension was concerned
with individual focus on couples. Enjoli, Cachet,
and Cie are fragrances which fall under the
playful realism/focus on individual category. This
particular technique is especially useful because
it allows the mapping of "ad images, brand images,
and consumer preferences all onto a single map,"
enabling a firm to monitor its advertising impact
on its brand image.
Audience, Visibility, and
Public Consumption
There is evidence of the existence of higher
congruence between the self-concept and images
of socially consumed products in contrast to a
lower consistency of congruence that exists be-
tween the self-concept and images of privately
consumed products such as soap.8,1 The fact
that socially desirable products, when compared
to those of low social desirability, are seen as
being more similar to a person's self-concept is
not surprising since the self-concept encourages
public consumption. Automobiles and jeans, for
example, have high visibility and are often used
as a means of upgrading consumers' self-concepts.
Some products such as soap and men's under-
wear are not publicly conspicuous or consumed.
Consequently, consumers maynotbevery careful
in their product selection. To remedy the situa-
tion, a marketer should bring his product out
into the open in order to create more visibility
and image. One commercial by Hanes, for example,
shows a well-dressed man on his motorcycle who
is waylaid at a stop light by a young woman
who unbuttons his shirt just to feel his under-
shirt. By the same rationale, Joy makes its liquid
detergent for dishes more conspicuous by claim-
ing that it can "say something kind of nice about
you" and that "your company may just sit up and
notice how shiny your dishes are."
It should be noted that social desirability does
not apply only to purchase and consumption.
The behavior engaged in during the search and
before the purchase is also another means of
achieving a positive self-concept. This behavior
includes the consumer's display of his self-
confidence and negotiation skills to impress his
"audience." Chivas Regal, long noted for its
snob appeal, has one advertisement with a man
in his tuxedo rehearsing in front of a mirror in
how to order Chivas Regal to please himself and
to show himself off to his "audience." The entire
copy reads: "Chivas, please...Chivas Regal,
please... I'll have a Chivas ...I'll have a Chivas...
Chivas-on-the-rocks-please...Let me have a...."
This advertisement demonstrates how the im-
portance of the audience can be emphasized to
the consumer.
21
 THE JOURNAL OF CONSUMER MARKETING

Conclusion As one of the most fundamental concepts in

It is a misjudgment to assume that a consumer
is interested in a product because of some
combination of basic ingredients. Far from this
being the case, the consumer is seeking a great
deal more: he also wants reputation, prestige,
and other meaningful symbols. This need, derived
from the desire to enhance himself, can be
satisfied only by the social meanings associated
with the image of the manufacturer, product,
and retailer. A marketer can capitalize on this
desire by creating a distinct product image that
will fit the consumer's self-concept.
the social sciences, self-concept offers a mean-
ingful perspective to the understanding of
consumer decision making. From the marketing
standpoint, it is important to determine whether
a product is relevant and significant to the self-
concept enhancement and, if relevant, whether
it expresses the kind of self-concept desired by
the consumer. Any incongruence between product
image and self-concept may unnecessarily pre-
clude potential buyers by failing to motive them
properly. A clear understanding of the influence
of the self-concept on behavior can result in
better marketing control and planning.

ENDNOTES
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