Tech 408 Notes

Chapter 5 – Transistor Bias Circuits

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V. Transistor Bias Circuits

5.0 Introduction
– Transistors must be properly biased to work as amplifiers.
– DC biasing is used to establish a steady level of transistor current and voltage.
– That point of operation is called the dc point or quiescent point (Q-point).
– We have three possible states in a transistor:
i) Cutoff: Emitter and collector diodes are OFF.
ii) Active: Emitter diode is ON, collector diode is OFF.
iii) Saturation: Emitter and collector diodes are OFF.
– When we want to amplify a signal, we should operate in the active region.
– In general we want to amplify voltage rather than current.
– For example, the heads on a tape player (or VCR) pick up the magnetic traces on
a tape and provide a small voltage output.
– Speakers used to convert the electrical signal to an ac acoustic (sound) signal need
large voltages!
– The stereo amplifier, with tape head input and speaker output, provides the
voltage amplification necessary
– That is, the output voltage from amplifier is greater than the input voltage to
amplifier.
– Amplification is an example of linear applications.
– Amplifiers are the most common linear devices.
– In general, we need to amplify AC signals (time varying signals).
– However, proper operation depends on its DC bias voltages and currents.
– We will not deal with cutoff and saturation.

5.1 DC Operating Point

– A dc operating point must be set so that signal variations at the input terminal are
amplified and accurately reproduced at the output terminal.
– The operating point is given by IC and VCE.
– It is referred to as Q-point (quiescent point).

A) DC Bias
– If an amplifier is not properly biased, it will go either into cutoff or saturation.
– For example, the inverting amplifier:

5.2 Voltage Divider Bias

5.3 Other Bias Methods

Homework 4 (All from chapter 4 problems)

4: 13, 15, 17, 19, 23, 25.
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– Consider the following circuit:

– Adjusting VBB to get a IB = 200 µA we get:

IC = βDCIB = (100)(200 µA) = 20 mA
VCE = VCC - ICRC = 10 – (20 mA)(220 Ω) = 5.6 V

– If we adjust VBB so that IB = 300 µA we get:

IC = βDCIB = (100)(300 µA) = 30 mA
VCE = VCC - ICRC = 10 – (30 mA)(220 Ω) = 3.4 V

– If we adjust VBB so that IB = 400 µA we get:

IC = βDCIB = (100)(400 µA) = 40 mA
VCE = VCC - ICRC = 10 – (40 mA)(220 Ω) = 1.2 V

– We get three different Q points, one for each case:

– Note that when IB increases, IC increases and VCE decreases.

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Chapter 5 – Transistor Bias Circuits
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– When IB decreases, IC decreases and VCE decreases.

– Thus, adjusting VBB shifts the operating point of the transistor along a sloping
line.
– This line is called the dc load line.
– The dc load line intersects the VCE axis at 10 V. At this point VCE = VCC.
– At this point we are entering cutoff (since IB = IC = 0 in the ideal case).
– The dc load line intersects the IC axis at 45.5 mA ideally.
– At this point we are entering the saturation state (IC is maximum, VCE = 0 and
IC = VCC/RC).
– Applying KVL around the collector loop we get:
VCC – ICRC – VCE = 0
IC = -(1/RC) VCE + VCC/RC
– Which indicates that the slope is -(1/RC) and the VCC/RC is the ordinate
intercept.

Linear Operation
– All points along the dc load line, between saturation and cutoff form the
linear region of operation.
– This means that as long as we operate in this region, the output voltage is a
linear reproduction of the input.
– Look at the following example.
– A sinusoidal wave, Vin, is superimposed to the base voltage.
– Vin causes a ±100 µA variation in the base current (IB) with respect to the Q-
point value of 300 µA.
– This causes the collector current to vary 10 mA above and below its Q-point
value of 30 mA.
– In result, the collector-to-emitter voltage varies 2.2 V above and below its Q-
point value of 3.4 V.
– Note that VCEQ, ICQ, and IBQ are the dc Q-point values with no input sinusoidal
voltage applied.

Reading: Chapter 5

Chapter Summary
– BJTs have three regions: base, collector, and emitter.
– BJTs have two pn junctions: base-emitter, and base-collector.
– Current in a BJT consists of both free electrons and holes, thus the term bipolar.
– Base is lightly doped compared to emitter and collector.
– There are two types of BJTs: npn and pnp.
– To operate as amplifier, the BE junction must be forward-biased and BC junction
must be reverse-biased (forward-reverse bias).
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Chapter 5 – Transistor Bias Circuits
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Waveform distortion
– If we operate to close to cutoff or too close to saturation, waveform distortion
may occur.
– The top or the bottom of the output wave will appear clipped.
– When the positive peak is clipped, transistor is being driven into cutoff.
– If the negative peak is clipped, transistor is going into saturation.

Example:
Determine the Q-point in the following circuit. Assume βDC = 200. Find the
maximum peak value of the base current for linear operation.
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Solution:
The Q-point is defined by IC and VCE. We find these values as follows:
IB = (VBB – VBE)/RB = (10 V – 0.7 V)/47 kΩ = 198 µA
IC = βDCIB = (200)(198 µA)= 39.6 mA
VCE = VCC – ICRC = 20 V – 13.07V = 6.93 V

Thus the Q-point is at IC = 39.6 mA and VCE = 6.93 V. Since IC(cutoff) = 0, we need
to know IC(sat) to determine how much variation in collector current can occur and
still maintain linear operation.
IC(sat)=VCC/RC = 20 V/330 Ω = 60.6 mA

The dc load line looks as follows:

Thus, before saturation is reached, IC can increase, ideally, by

IC(sat) – ICQ = 60.6 mA – 39.6 mA = 21 mA

And it can decrease by 39.6 mA before cutoff (IC = 0) is reached. The limiting
value is, then, 21 mA. Thus we can see that we are closer to saturation than to
cutoff.

The maximum peak variation of the base current is:

Ib(peak) = Ic(peak)/βDC = 21 mA/200 = 105 µA

5.1 Voltage-divider Bias

– This is the most widely used method for biasing a transistor for linear operation.
– It uses a single voltage source and a voltage divider circuit.
– Unlike other methods, this method results in a β (almost) independent circuit.
– That is, βDC and VBE do not affect the stability of the Q-point.
– Considering the following circuit, we can see that the there are two paths between
point A and ground: through R2 and through the BE junction.
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Chapter 5 – Transistor Bias Circuits
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– If IB is much smaller than current through R2, we can view the circuit just as a
voltage divider consisting of R1 and R2.
– If IB is NOT small enough to neglect, compared to I2, then the dc input resistance,
RIN(base) must be considered.

Input resistance at the transistor base

– Consider the following circuit.
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Chapter 5 – Transistor Bias Circuits
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– The resistance looking into the base of the transistor is

RIN(base) = VIN/IIN

– Applying KVL and assuming VBE << IERE we get

VIN = VBE + IERE
VIN ≈ IERE

– And since IE ≈ IC = βDCIB VIN becomes

VIN ≈ βDCIBRE

– The input current is the base current, IIN = IB. Substituting we get
RIN(base) = VIN/IIN = βDCIBRE/IB = βDCRE

– Thus, the resistance seen by looking into the base of the transistor is the gain, βDC,
times the emitter resistance, RE.

Analysis of a Voltage-Divider Bias Circuit

– Consider the following circuit.

– As shown before, RIN(base) = βDCRE. The resistance from base to ground is

R2||RIN(base) = R2|| βDCRE.
– The voltage at the base is, then,
VB = (R2||βDCRE)/(R1 + (R2||βDCRE))VCC

– Assuming βDCRE >> R2 (at least ten times):

VB ≈ R2(R1 + R2) VCC

– Knowing the base voltage, we can find the emitter voltage: VE = VB – VBE.
– Ohm’s law gives us the emitter current: IE = VE/RE and the rest of the values:
IC ≈ IE
VC = VCC - ICRC
VCE = VC - VE
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– We can also express VCE in terms of IC by using KVL:

VCC – ICRC – IERE – VCE = 0
VCE ≈ VCC – ICRC – ICRE
VCE ≈ VCC – IC(RC + RE)

Example:
Determine VCE and IC in the voltage-divider biased transistor circuit shown below.
Assume βDC = 100.

Solution:
Determine the dc input resistance at the base:
RIN(base) = βDCRE = (100)(560 Ω) = 56 kΩ

Since RIN(base) = 10R2, we may neglect RIN(base). Thus,

VB ≈ R2(R1 + R2) VCC = (5.6 kΩ)(15.6 kΩ) 10 V = 3.59 V
So,
VE = VB – VBE = 3.59 V – 0.7 V = 2.89 V
and
IE = VE/RE = 2.89 V/ 560 Ω = 5.16 mA

Thus,
IC ≈ 5.16 mA
and
VCE ≈ VCC – IC(RC + RE) = 10V–5.16mA(1.56kΩ) = 1.95 V

Since VCE>0, the transistor is NOT in saturation.

Stability of Voltage-Divider Bias

– It was said before that the voltage-divider bias is NOT dependent on βDC.
– To prove this, let’s find a Thevenin equivalent for the circuit shown below.
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Chapter 5 – Transistor Bias Circuits
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– The Thevenin voltage and resistance are:

VTH = R2/(R1 + R2)VCC

RTH = R1R2/(R1 + R2)

– Apply KVL around the equivalent base-emitter loop:

VTH – VR(th) – VBE – V R(E) = 0

VTH = IBRTH + VBE + IERE

– But IB=IE/βDC,
VTH = IE(RE + RTH/βDC) + VBE
– Solve for IE:
IE = (VTH – VBE)/(RE + RTH/βDC)

– As usual, assume RE>> RTH/βDC, then

IE = (VTH – VBE)RE

– Note that the expression for IE is independent of βDC. Thus, varying βDC’s will not
affect IE.
– Thus, IC will also be unaffected by βDC.
– Remember that for this type of biasing (voltage-divider) we must make sure RE is
at least ten times RTH/βDC.
– This is not an unreasonable assumption, since βDC is generally large.

Voltage-Divider Biased PNP Transistor

– Although we have used npn transistors for most of this discussion. There is
basically no difference in its operation with exception to biasing polarities.
Analysis for each part of the circuit is no different than npn transistors.
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Chapter 5 – Transistor Bias Circuits
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5-3 Other Bias Methods

– We will briefly study other biasing methods.
i) Base Bias.
– Looking at the figure below, we can see that
VCC – VR(B) – VBE = 0

– Or
VCC – IBRB – VBE = 0
– Which results in:
IB = (VCC – VBE)/RB

IC = βDC(VCC – VBE)/RB

– Apply KCL at collector to get:

VCC – ICRC - VCE = 0
VCE = VCC – ICRC

– Note that IC is dependent on βDC.

– Any variation in βDC will result in a variation in IC.
– This makes this bias method very unstable!!

Example:
Determine how much the Q-point (IC, VCE) in the circuit below will change over a
temperature range where βDC increases from 85 to 100 and VBE decreases from
0.7 V to 0.6 V (both changes happen at the same time).
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Solution:
Before the temperature rises, we have βDC = 85 and VBE = 0.7 V. Thus
IC(1) = βDC(VCC – VBE)/RB = 85(12 V – 0.7 V)/100 kΩ
= 9.61 mA
VCE(1) = VCC – ICRC = 12 V – (9.61mA)(560 Ω) = 6.62 V

After the temperature rise, we have βDC = 100 and VBE = 0.6 V. Thus
IC(2) = βDC(VCC – VBE)/RB = 100(12 V – 0.6 V)/100 kΩ
= 11.4 mA
VCE(2) = VCC – ICRC = 12 V – (11.4 mA)(560 Ω) = 5.62 V

The percent change in IC and VCE after the temperature change is:
%∆ IC = (IC(2) – IC(1))/IC(1) 100% = 18.6%
%∆ VCE = (VCE(2) – VCE(1))/VCE(1) 100% = -15.1%

This shows that the Q-point is very dependent on βDC. Thus, the bias arrangement
becomes very unstable.

Base bias is very rarely used if linear operation is required (amplification).

However, it may be used in switching applications.

ii) Emitter bias.

– Uses both a positive and a negative power supply voltage.

– KVL yields:
VEE + VR(B) + VBE + VR(E) = 0
VEE + IBRB + VBE + IERE = 0
-VEE = IBRB + VBE + IERE

– But IC ≈ IE and IC = βDCIB, thus IB = IE/βDC. This results in

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Chapter 5 – Transistor Bias Circuits
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IE(RB/βDC + RE) + VBE = -VEE

– Solving for IE
IE = (-VEE – VBE)/(RE - RB/βDC)
– or
IC ≈ (-VEE – VBE)/(RE - RB/βDC)

Q-point stability
– Assuming RE >> RB/βDC and VEE >> VBE, we end up with
IC ≈ –VEE/RE
– Which shows that the collector (and the emitter) current are essentially
independent of βDC and VBE.

Example:
Determine the variation in Q-points in the following circuit if βDC changes from
85 to 100 and VBE from 0.7 V to 0.6 V.

Solution:
For the lower temperature (βDC = 85 and VBE = 0.7 V):
IC(1) ≈ IE = (-VEE – VBE)/(RE - RB/βDC) = 1.73 mA
VC = VCC – ICRC = 11.9 V
VE = VEE + IERE = -2.7 V
Thus VCE(1) = VC – VE = 11.9 V – (–2.7 V) = 14.6 V

For the higher temperature case (βDC = 100 and VBE = 0.6 V):
IC(2) ≈ IE = (-VEE – VBE)/(RE - RB/βDC) = 1.85 mA
VC = VCC – ICRC = 11.3 V
VE = VEE + IERE = -1.5 V
Thus VCE(2) = VC – VE = 11.3 V – (–1.5 V) = 12.8 V

The percent change in IC and VCE is:

%∆ IC = (IC(2) – IC(1))/IC(1) 100% = 6.94%
%∆ VCE = (VCE(2) – VCE(1))/VCE(1) 100% = -12.3%
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Chapter 5 – Transistor Bias Circuits
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iii) Collector-feedback bias.

– The base resistor is connected to the collector rather than to VCC (as in the base
bias arrangement).
– Collector voltage provides the bias for the base-emitter junction.
– The negative feedback creates an offsetting effect that tends to keep the Q-point
stable.
– If IC increases, it drops more voltage across RC, thus causing VC to decrease.
– When VC decreases, there is a decrease in voltage across RB, which decreases IB.
– The decrease in IB produces less IC which, in turn, drops less voltage across RC
and thus offsets the decrease in VC.

– We can find IB by:

IB = (VC – VBE)RB
– Assume IC>>IB. Thus
VC ≈ VCC - ICRC

IC/βDC = (VCC - ICRC – VBE)/RB

– Solving for IC
IC = (VCC – VBE)/(RC – RB/βDC)

VCE = VCC - ICRC

Q-point Stability
– By making VCC >> VBE and RC >> RB/βDC, we are eliminating the VBE and the βDC
dependency.
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Chapter 5 – Transistor Bias Circuits
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Summary of Transistor Bias Circuits

Biasing Emitter bias Voltage-Divider Collector-feedback Base Bias
Bias bias
Circuit
Schematic
Diagram

Circuit A split(dual polarity) The voltage divider The base resistor is Base resistor
power supply and the in the base circuit. connected between connected to power,
Recognition base resistor the base and emitter to ground.
connected to ground. collector terminals
of the transistor.
Advantages β-independent output β-independent (like- A simple circuit that Simple.
values. emitter bias), but is relatively β
does not require a independent.
dual-polarity power
supply.
Disadvantages Requires the use of a None (as compared Poor ac β dependent.
dual-polarity power to other biasing characteristics.
supply. circuits) in terms of
dc operation.
Applications Used primarily to set Used primarily to Linear amplifiers Switching
the dc biasing for bias linear applications.
linear amplifiers. amplifiers.

Homework 5 (All from chapter 5 problems)

5: 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 12, 14, 15, 19, 20, 21, 26, 27
Reading: Chapter 6
Chapter Summary
– The purpose of biasing a circuit is to establish a proper, stable dc-operating point (Q-
point).
– The Q-point is defined by the values for IC and VCE.
– A dc load line passes through the Q-point on a transistor’s collector curves
intersecting the vertical axis at approximately IC(sat) and the horizontal axis at
VCE(cutoff).
– The linear (active) region of a transistor lies along the load line, below saturation, and
above cutoff.
– The dc input resistance at the base of a BJT is approximately βDCRE.
– Voltage divider provides good Q-point stability with single polarity supply voltage.
– Voltage divider biasing is the most popular bias circuit.
– Base bias circuit arrangement has poor stability because its Q-point varies widely
with βDC.
– Emitter bias generally provides good Q-point stability, but requires both positive and
negative supply voltages.
– Collector-feedback bias provides good stability using negative feedback from
collector to base.