Pi Gamma Mu, International Honor Society in Social Sciences

Social Interaction and Social Processes

Author(s): Panos D. Bardis
Source: Social Science, Vol. 54, No. 3 (SUMMER 1979), pp. 147-167
Published by: Pi Gamma Mu, International Honor Society in Social Sciences
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 Social Interaction and Social Processes
(Reprinted from the International Behavioural Scientist, December
1978, pp. 7-32)

Panos D. Bardis
Toledo University,
Toledo, Ohio, USA

Comment
A distinctionis sometimesdrawn between diachronic (sequential) and
synchronic (simultaneous)analysesofthecomponentsofhumansocial life.The
two types of analysis are specialized by discipline(historyanalyzes events
diachronically,the social sciencesanalyze themsynchronically),but theyare
inevitablycomplementary. Whenever sociology, for example, turns to the
problemof social change,diachronicanalysisassumesgreaterimportancein its
deliberations.
In sociology the formalisolation of the basic patternsof social life (the
essentialtools of synchronicanalysis) was vigorouslyadvanced by thinkers
derivingtheiroriginalinspirationfromImmanuelKant. These neo-Kantians
include such notablesas Georg Simmel,Leopold von Wiese, and Robert E.
Park. Since theirobjectwas to extractthecommonelementsininteraction, they
revieweda widevarietyofhistoricaland comparativematerials.Onlyinthisway
could theyhope to isolatetheenduringformsand processesin humansocial life
and determinetheirscope, limitations,and mutualmodification.
Professor Panos D. Bardis's study of "Social Interactionand Social
Processes"workswithinthisrichsociologicaltradition.

I Don Martindale
of Minnesota
University
J

"Thereis an eternalconflictthatneeds a wondrouswatchfulness."

Plato, Laws, 906a

"The tendencyto aggressionis an innate,independent,

instinctualdispositioninman."
Freud, Civilizationand
Its Discontents, Chapter6

I. Social Interaction
II. Social Processes
A. Acculturation
B. Accommodation
C. Assimilation
D. Cooperation
E. Competition
F. Conflict
III. MethodologicalNote

147

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148 SOCIALSCIENCEFORSUMMER1979

Introductory sociologycoursesusuallyneglectthesociohistorical,interdisciplinary,
and cross-culturalapproaches. The purpose of this essay, therefore, is to discuss
severalfundamentalsociologicalconceptsfromthesethreepointsof viewand thus
suggestwhat the authorconsiderscreativeteachingand writingat theintroductory
level. The conceptspresentedhere are social interactionand its repetitivepatterns
knownas social processes- cooperation,competition,conflict,and so on.

/. Social Interaction
When two or more people meet,theymay act toward one anotherin countless
differentways.A stranger,forinstance,mayask wherethenearesthotelis,and another
personmay supplythe neededinformation. The questionin thiscase is thestimulus
and the information givenis the response.The answermay easilybecome the new
stimulusand thus lead to furtherresponsesand interstimulations. This is social
interaction,whichmay involvetwo or morepersonalities, groups, or social systems
that mutuallyinfluenceone another.Interactionitselfmay encompassone and the
same personalone. Such interactionwithoneselfoccurswhensomeoneanalyzesa
givenidea ordiscussestheprosand consofan important issueordecisionwithhimself.
then,is thewayin whichpersonalities,
Social interaction, groups,orsocialsystems act
towardand mutuallyinfluenceone another.1
Unfortunately, theestablishedtermsocial interaction is somewhatredundant, since
interhere means betweenor among personsor groups,whichis what social also
implies.Indeed,whiletheadjectivepsychologicalstressestheindividual,social refers
to the group or collectivity, includinga dyad, or two persons,as in the case of a
husbandand his wife.
Sociologists oftenemploy the termsocial relationshipas a synonymof social
interaction.Symbolicinteraction is also used quitefrequently, but thistermdenotes
interactionthroughhumancommunication.
Social interactionis of numerouspossible degrees.One extremeis occupied by
highlyintenseinteraction, whiletheoppositeextremeconsistsin the"zero degreeof
social interaction,"
or completeisolation.An abandonedchild,forexample,who has
no contactwithotherhumanbeings,is an isolateexperiencing zero social interaction.
ErvingGoffman,in his Encounters(1963) and Behaviorin PublicPlaces{ 1963),has
distinguished two main typesof interaction:
1. Focused interactionis interaction ina groupofpersonsthathavea commongoal.
These personsmayhavebeenfamiliarwithone anotherinthepastortheymaybecome
familiarforthefirsttimeduringtheirfocusedinteraction. An exampleofthisis a group
of studentsstudyingtogetherfora finalexamination.
2. Unfocusedinteraction includesneithera commongoal norsuchfamiliarity even
duringtheprocessof interaction.In fact,theinteracting personsmaybe unawareof
theirinteraction.An example givenby Goffmanhimselfis the interactionbetween
pedestrians,who avoid disastrous collisions by followingtrafficetiquetteand
regulations.
II. Social Processes
Social processesare so importantthatsociologyis oftendefinedas thescienceof
social interaction,or of social processes,since theseare the ways in whichsocial
interactionmanifestsitself.
But, more specifically,whatare social processes?
Social processesmaybe definedas theobservableand repetitive patternsof social
interactionthathavea consistentdirectionor quality.Thus,unlikea structure, which
is a patternidentifiable
at a givenmoment,a socialprocessis notlikea singlesnapshot,
but likea seriesof framesin thecelluloserollofa motionpicturefilm.In brief,social

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 ANDSOCIALPROCESSES
SOCIALINTERACTION 149

processesare specifictypesof social interaction.

This conceptwas borrowedfrombiologyin the19thcentury. A biologicalprocessis
based on two mainprinciples:first,theexistenceofdifferent entities,and second,the
interaction betweentheseentities.Obviously,quantitiesofthesamesubstance,suchas
estrogenand estrogen,or waterand water,do notinteract.One ofthegreatestthinkers
in the area of social processes was Peter Kropotkin(1842-1921), the Russian
geographerand revolutionary who studiedthe processof cooperation.But Ludwig
Gumplowicz (1838-1909), a Polish scholar who taught law in Austria,stressed
competitionand conflict.He and Gustav Ratzenhofer(1842-1904),an Austrian
military authorand officer,influencedAlbionSmall (1854-1926),thefourthpresident
of the AmericanSociological Society (1912-1914) and founderof The American
Journalof Sociologyin 1895.Small publishedGeneralSociologyin 1905and gave us
thefamousphrase,"theongoingofthesocial process."CharlesEllwood(1873-1946),a
notedsociologistand nationalpresidentof Pi Gamma Mu until1936,adoptedSmall's
ideas but emphasizedthe social psychologicalaspects of social processes,namely,
mental interactions.Finally, because Americansociologistshad overstressedthe
conceptofstructure, theUniversity ofChicago cultivatedthestudyofsocialprocesses
morethanever.ThereRobertPark exploredrace relationsand publishedhisclassic,
Race and Culture , in 1950,and ErnestBurgessinvestigatedurban ecology.
Thereare manykindsofsocial process.Sociologists,however,usuallydeal withsix
of them,namely,acculturation, accommodation,assimilation,cooperation,competi-
tion,and conflict.These will be discussedin detail in the presentessay.
Each social processassumesfourdifferent forms:
1. Intrapersonal- interactionbetweenthe partsof a personality.
2. Person to person.
3. Person to group or group to person.
4. Group to group.
Moreover,social processesmay be dividedinto two major categories:
1. Conjunctiveor associativesocial processes,whichdraw people together - for
instance,cooperation.
2. Disjunctive or dissociativesocial processes, which pull people apart- for
example,conflict.
Thesetwotypesofsocial processesoppose each other,suchoppositionperiodically
leadingto a fairlystableequilibriumand social harmony.
It is oftenassertedthata givensocial processis bad or good. DuringtheVietnam
War, forinstance,manystudentradicalsconsideredcompetitionforgradesalmost
evil.2Like all othersocial processes,however,competitionis neutral,thatis, neither
good nor bad in itself.In otherwords,itsworthdependson each society'svaluesand
social norms.This explainswhyeach culturetendsto emphasizea givensocialprocess
at theexpenseof othersocial processes.Thus,as MargaretMead has indicatedin her
Co-operationand CompetitionAmong PrimitivePeoples (1937), some culturesare
primarily competitivewhilesome othersare chieflycooperative.
At any rate,the studyof social processesenables us to understandthe dynamic
aspectsof humansociety,whichmay lead to the creativecontrolof social change.
A. Acculturation
This interestingconcept, whichwas commonin Americananthropology duringthe
19th century,was explored by J. Powell, an officerof the Bureau of American
Ethnology,in his Introductionto theStudyofIndianLanguages(1880). FranzBoas, a
German-American used it in 1896.The British,on theother
culturalanthropologist,
had
hand,have called thisprocessculturecontact.It is clear,then,thatacculturation
its originin the field of anthropology,which has influencedits developmentand

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150 SOCIALSCIENCEFORSUMMER1979

refinement considerably.
Acculturation maybe definedas a changeinthecultureofa personorgroupthrough
directinteraction withothercultureswhichresultsin theacquiringor exchangingof
culturalfeatures.At the individuallevel,thisprocessis the same as social learning
based mainlyon language.At thesociallevel,itis themodification and diffusionofthe
components of In
culture. thisway, old culturalfeaturesmay vanish or change,while
new customs and other cultural elements may come into existence. In brief,
acculturationis a formof culturechange.3
Whenacculturationrefersto thetransmission ofcultureto a newgenerationin one
and thesame society,thetermsocializationmaybe used. As has alreadybeennoted,
theBritishemploythesynonymculturecontact. Ralph Beals has also seenan analogy
between acculturationin anthropologyand urbanizationin sociology. Another
synonymforacculturationis themeltingpot, whichdenotestheAmericanization of
immigrants, and whichwas introducedin 1909byIsraelZangwill,a Jewishimmigrant,
in his play about Americanimmigrants, The MeltingPot.
The nature of acculturationmay be understoodbetterthroughthe following
examples:
Whenhe visitsa foreigncountry,a personmaydevelopan accentor adopt someof
its dietarypractices.Dominican,Franciscan,Augustinián,and othermissionariesin
Africainfluenced thenativesand, to a certainextent,wereinfluenced bythem.In fact,
beforethespreadofChristianity and Islam,revealedreligionwitha universalmission
was nonexistent in Africa.On thesame continent, thecombinationofnativereligions
and EuropeanChristianity resultedinthecreationofsomesupernatural beingsamong
theNegroesthatencompassedelementsfrombothsources(hereone old cultureplus
anotherold cultureequals a new culturethatis similarto both originalones). The
culturepatternsof immigrants change,at least to a certainextent.A minority may
accept some culturalfeatures of themajorityvoluntarily, or themajoritymayimpose
such featureson the minority.4The AmericanIndians receivedthe whiteman's
firearms.Ghana, which used to be a greatpower in the Middle Ages, was partly
Anglicizedin latertimes.Similarly,theHispanizationof thePhilippines,namedfor
King PhilipII of Spain, commencedin 1521,whenMagellanvisitedthearchipelago,
and continueduntil1898,whentheTreatyofParistransferred theislandsto theUnited
States fora priceof $20,000,000.In ancienttimes,AlexandertheGreatmarriedthe
Bactrianprincess,Roxana (327 B.C.), which,together withotherincidents, ledto some
mutualinfluencesbetweenGreeceand thePersianEmpire.In moderntimes,Japan,
the mostindustrializednationin theOrient,seemsto be undergoingsome degreeof
Westernization.Such industrializationmay soon affectothercountriessimilarly.
Universalculturalhomogeneity, however,is mostunlikely, sincemanydifferences will
always surviveacculturation.In general, acculturationappears to be more prevalentin
cosmopolitancities,suchas New York,San Francisco,London,Paris,Geneva,Hong
Kong, Tokyo, etc.
Some oftheforcesthatinfluence acculturation arethesizeoftheinteracting groups,
theirmutualattitudes,thestatusofeach,thedegreeofculturaldifferences, and so on.
Ofcourse,thereare manydegreesofacculturation betweena limitedinitialcontactand
completeultimateassimilation.
As fortheresultsofacculturation, therearecountlesspossibilities. Belowarefourof
them:
1. The culturalfeaturethatemergesfromacculturation maybe different fromthose
of both the donor and recipientcultures.An example of thisis thepotlatchof the
Kwakiutland TlingtIndiansof thePacificNorthwest.This feastincludesthegiving,
lending,or destroyingof propertyin orderto enhanceone's statusor to console a
relativewho has had an unpleasantexperience.

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 SOCIALINTERACTION
ANDSOCIALPROCESSES 151

2. An individual'spersonalitymay remainbasicallythe same, whilehis cultural

behaviorchanges,as among the Ojibwa Indians in Canada.
3. One's personalityis modifiedfirstand thenculturalalterationsfollow,as among
the Polynesiansin New Zealand.
4. When two interactingculturesdo not differsubstantially,acculturationis
advantageousto bothof them- forinstance,it mayresultin progress.But whenthe
two culturesare extremelydifferent, the less advanced one usuallyundergoessome
humiliationand disintegration.In theUnitedStates,forexample,thereis thecase of
theOld OrderAmish,a ruralgroupthatis extremely ThisChristiansect
conservative.
still uses horse-and-buggytransportation,rejects electricity,believes in limited
education,disapprovesof unions,and stressesmutualaid to enable membersof the
groupto purchaseland fromoutsiders.The surrounding Americanculture,however,
oftenimposes its modern transportation, its new technologyand regulations,its
compulsoryeducation, its unionizationand accompanyingbenefits,and public
auctionsof lands on Sunday,sincetheAmishdo not engagein businessactivitieson
thatday.

B. Accommodation
Even the mostdestructive and violenttypeof social conflictis oftenfollowedby
accommodation.Bythiswe meana mutualadjustmentto groupconflictin which,for
variouscompensatory advantages,theparticipants retaintheirrespective but
identities
avoid open hostility.Accommodation,then,is a mixtureofprejudice,stereotypes, and
friendly interactionthatfacilitatesadaptationto theenvironment. It is based on social
learning,noton biologicalheredity. It maybe consciousorunconscious,and itmaybe
the individualor thegroupthatmakesan adjustment.The participantsmodifytheir
attitudes,habits,behavior,customs,and evenentiresocial institutions. Of course,the
elementsconduciveto conflictare notmaintained.Thus,conflictis eliminated, at least
temporarily, the new state being truce, compromise, conversion, toleration,
subordination, and thelike.As fortheadvantagesgained,theymaybe psychological,
social, economic,and so on.
It was J. Baldwin who firstused the term accommodation,in his Mental
Developmentin the Child and the Race (1895). To Baldwin,accommodationwas
similarto biologicaladaptation.FranklinGiddings(1855-1931),however,thoughtof
it as a kind of conflict.Under Georg Simmel'sinfluence,Robert Park and Ernest
Burgess saw a cycle consistingof four successive stages: competition,conflict,
accommodation,and assimilation( Introductionto the Science of Sociology,1921).
Park furtherstated that, unlike adaptation, which is of a biological nature,
accommodationis based on social transmission and manifestsitselfin two universal
types:superordination and subordination - for instance,father-son, teacher-student,
master-slave, leader-follower, and the like.
The naturalizationof immigrants, whose lifestylechangesas theyadopt a new
occupation,diet, recreation,etc., constitutesan example of accommodation.Two
moreexamplesare union-management compromisesand thepeacefulcoexistenceof
different faithsand nationalities.In the AmericanSouth, Negroesand whiteshave
oftenachievedsomedegreeofaccommodation.The U.S. Constitution theoldest
itself,
writtendocumentof its kind,is an example of the same social process.Indeed,this
document,combinedwithconventions,traditions,and theinformaland formalrules
bywhichithas beeninterpreted, is an adjustmentbetweenNorthand South,smalland
largestates,and poor and richstates.In Guatemalathereis thecase oftheIndiansand
the Ladinos. In Spanish, the latterrefersto cleverpersonswho learnlanguagesand
adopt thecultureof theconqueror,thefirstLadinos beingthosewho wereLatinized
wheneverRome won a victory.Guatemala's population is now about 60 percent

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152 SOCIALSCIENCEFORSUMMER1979

Ladino. This includesmembersof any race, even Indians,who have adopted the
European cultureand rejectedIndian traditions.Thus, Ladinos sleep on highbeds,
speak Spanish,wearshoesand Europeanclothes,etc.Accordingly, someaccommoda-
tionbetweenIndiansand Ladinos has beennecessary.Conquestusuallyleadsto some
formofaccommodation.In Argentina, forinstance,theconquestofthedesertin 1879-
1880 by GeneralRoca resultedin theeliminationof theIndian frontier as faras the
NegroRiver.The Indianswerethusforcedto avoidconflictand accepttheauthority of
the nationalgovernment.
The main typesof accommodationare the followingfive:
1. Individual accommodation. This is at the psychologicallevel and involvesa
person.
2. Groupaccommodation.The oppositerefersto thesocial structure and is at the
collectivelevel.
3. Stable accommodation. This type has resolvedmajor issues and resultedin
substantialsocial harmony.
4. Unstableaccommodation. This is a temporary solutionof minorproblemsonly.
5. Creativeaccommodation. This formis voluntary,stressescommongoals, and
resultsfromonlyminorsacrificesby the participants.

C. Assimilation
Assimilationis thesocial absorptionofan ethnic,racial,or culturalgroup,or ofan
immigrant,into an adopted society,which produces a new, common,and fairly
homogeneousculture.5 In theirnew homeland,the membersof an assimilated
minority are scatteredhereand thereand participatein thesocial lifeofthemajority,
which furtherdecreases theirvisibilityand distinctness.In this way, no cultural
differences remain,as one nationalitychangesintoanother.Usually,it is theweaker
group or the minoritythat is absorbed by the strongergroup or the majority.
Moreover, assimilation most often occurs through immigrationor conquest.
Intermarriage tendsto acceleratethisprocess,as itleadsto theadoptionofnewvalues,
attitudes,memories,sentiments, and customs.As forthetimeelement,assimilation,
whichmaybe botha one-wayprocessor a mutualone,is eitherrapid,as in thecase of
Europeanminorities in theUnitedStates,orslow,as amongAmericanNegroes.When
culturalpluralismis prevalent, assimilationis particularly slowand lessextensive.Two
old assumptionshave been that the initialcontactbetweentwo different groupsis
followedbyconflictbeforeassimilationoccurs,and thattheadoptedsocietydoes not
changeas a resultofsuchcontact.S. N. Eisenstadt,however,inhis TheAbsorptionof
Immigrants (1954),has demonstrated thatsuchconflictis notinevitable.Furthermore,
theadopted societyoftenincorporatessome of theothergroup'sculturalfeatures.In
the UnitedStates,forinstance,March 17 is Saint Patrick'sDay, a holidayof Irish
origin.On thatday, people buyoxalis and shamrocks,whosethreeleaves symbolize
the Holy Trinity,weargreen,and participatein colorfulparades themostfamousof
whichis that of the FriendlySons of Saint Patrickin New York City.In general,
assimilationis influencedby ecological,racial,demographic,structural, psychologi-
cal, and culturalforces.But completeassimilationis usuallyquiteslow,as thecase of
Wales suggests.Wales became a separatecountryafterthe battlesof Chesterand
Dyrhamin theseventhcenturyand remainedindependent until1070.WhenEdwardI
conqueredthe countryin 1283,theWelshretainedtheirlanguageand manyof their
customsand evenreachedtheirgoldenage ofliterature duringthisperiodofconquest.
Absorption into England is still incomplete, Welsh-languageschools and other
as
institutions indicate.
In anthropology, assimilationcorrespondsto acculturation , whichis a changein a
minority'sculturalfeatures.Sometimessyncretism is also used synonymously with

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 ANDSOCIALPROCESSES
SOCIALINTERACTION 153

assimilation,its meaningbeing the mixingof conflicting ideas and organizations.

Anothersynonymis amalgamation, but this is a biological conceptand refersto
miscegenation,or racial interbreeding, that createsa fairlyhomogeneousphysical
type. A furtherrelated term is the meltingpot principle, which representsthe
combinationof theculturesof immigrants thatresultsin a unique Americanculture
whichis oftenconsideredsuperior.In the United States, Americanizationmeans
practicallythe same as assimilation.
In thesphereofrace relations,RobertPark theorizedthataccommodationleads to
thefusingof cultures,thatis, assimilation.This processis morerapidwhenoutsiders
join the opponent culture'sprimarygroups. But when theybecome membersof
secondarygroups,assimilationis slow,whichresultsin theformation ofminorities,as
among immigrants. In thisway,all participantsidentify withone anotheror a new
nationalitymay emerge.When segregationoccurs, it is eitherforced,as among
AmericanNegroes,orvoluntary, as amongPolishAmericans.Ethnicnewspaperstend
to make assimilationratherslow. Park6also spoke of a "race relationscycle" which
consistsoffourstages:contacts,competition, accommodation,and assimilation.This
concept,however,is characterized bya certaindegreeofrigidity, sincethesestagesare
not alwaysinevitable.
The followingcases illustratethe processof assimilation:
In Hawaii assimilationis muchmorerapidamongthesmallerethnicgroups,which
intermarry more frequently than largerones do. In general,mixedmarriagein the
UnitedStatestendsto acceleratethisprocess.Minoritiesthatlivein culturalislands,
however,retaintheiridentity fora longertime,as in thecase oftheold Chinatownin
San Francisco- in 1940,therewere28 Chinatownsin theUnitedStates,and in 1955,
16. Partlydue to theirvisibility, minoritiesof theracial typeare usuallyassimilated
quiteslowly.In London, dark-skinned studentsfromAfricaare oftenunable to find
roomsto rent.In Brazil,immigrants who differfromthemajoritybothraciallyand
linguisticallyundergoa veryslow assimilationprocess.But color is not theonly,or
eventhemain,influencein thisrespect.In New Orleans,Negroesidentify morewith
fourdifferent systems- theisolatedfamily,matriarchy, themalegang,and themiddle
class- than with race itself. In South Africa, the assimilationof nonwhitesis
practicallyimpossible,since the National Partysupportsthe doctrineof apartheid
(separateness).This principlewas introducedin 1949- previouslyit was knownas
segregation - and involves the separate settlement,development,and economic,
social, and politicalexistenceof whitesand nonwhites.HitlerpersecutedtheJews
becausehe believedthattheycould notbe assimilated,whiletheBritishthinkofJewish
peopleas strangers. Then,intheSovietUnionthegovernment pursuestheassimilation
of the Jewishminorityby opposing its cultureand communitylife. Millions of
immigrantsin the United States, however,have been assimilatedthroughadult
educationwhichstressesAmericanhistoryand theEnglishlanguage.Butat leasttwo
othergroupshave refusedto be assimilated.One ofthemis theOld OrderAmishsect,
whichopposesritualism, closelyfollowsNewTestamentteachings,and believesinvery
plainhousing and apparel.The otheris thereligiousnationalistorganizationknownas
Black Muslims,whichwas foundedin 1930 by Wali Farad in Detroit.Its members
preferto keep apartfromwhites,hold some orthodoxIslam beliefs,and evengiveup
their"slave names" and take Muslim ones- the boxer Cassius Clay is now called
Muhammad Ali. Similarly,some French Canadians want Quebec to become a
separatestate.
A special typeof assimilationis what is referred to as coerciveassimilation. This
process has been experiencedby the American Indians in the United States. The
elementofcoercionmaybe seenin thefactthatbetween1778and 1871approximately
1,000,000,000 acresof Indianland weretakenbythewhites.The Dawes SeveraltyAct

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154 SOCIALSCIENCEFOR SUMMER1979

of 1887further attemptedto putan endto thetribalsystemand itscommunalproperty

bygivinga pieceoflandto each Indian.Thus,by 1934,theIndianshad lostalmostone-
third of their tribal land. Moreover, in 1879, the Carlisle Indian School in
Pennsylvaniawas organizedawayfromthereservation in orderto forcetheIndiansto
be assimilatedthrougheducation.Actually,thiswas one ofthemanyboardingschools
foundedbytheBureauofIndianAffairs forthispurpose.The numberoftheseschools,
whose curriculumwas white, was reduced under Roosevelt by the Indian
ReorganizationAct of 1934.

D. Cooperation
The process of cooperation involves two or more individualsor groups that
intentionally combinetheiractivitiesto achievemutualadvantagesor commongoals
whichare to be sharedbytheparticipants. The combinedactivitiesarefairlyorganized
and maybe similaror dissimilar.The former is typicaloffolksocietiesand thelatterof
modernsocieties.Cooperation,whichis necessaryforthe survivalof everysociety,
may be an end in itselfor a means to somethingelse. Even the organicworldis
characterizedby some degreeof cooperation.Needles to add, cooperatinggroups
usuallyhave to give up part of theirautonomy.
As an ethicaland social norm,cooperationhas dominatedpracticallyall major
faithsand philosophicalsystemsof the world.
Confucius(551-479 B.C.) not onlystressedthe value of cooperation,but asserted
thateven whenone man is selfish,greedy,and uncooperative,the whole countryis
plungedinto chaos. "Such is the law of things,"he said.
Buddhismcannotevenconceiveof sucha thingas an isolatedsocial unitthatdoes
not interactcooperatively withothersocial units.In fact,enlightenment withoutsuch
cooperationis impossible.This idea is relatedto the conceptof anatta,or non-ego.
Buddhismdenies the existenceof a permanently isolated self. The beliefin such
permanenceis a heresythatbindsmanto theWheelofLife,an interesting systemofsix
worldsthatis whirledaroundbya demonand symbolizesthemiseries, sufferings,and
limitationsof existence.
The entireBible is repletewithpreceptsstressingcooperation.And the rabbisof
Judaismhave emphasizedboth cooperationand an altruisticattitudebehindthis
process.
A similaridea is foundthroughoutthe Koran (e.g., II, 265).
Plato (427-347B.C.) and Aristotle(384-322B.C.) in ancientGreeceoftenspokeof
cooperationas a creativeprocess.In thesame civilizationwe findtheamphictionies ,
the firstUnited Nations, that dealt with internationalcooperation(Herodotus,
Histories , V, 62; Cicero, De InventioneRhetorica,II, 23). Some of theirmaingoals
wereas follows:international cooperation,combinedwithgood order,forthesake of
achievingcommongoals; economiccooperation,includingcommerce,taxes,and the
issuingof coins; thecooperativebuildingof temples;international religiousfestivals;
solutionof intrastateproblems;settlement of internationaldisputes;defenseagainst
commonenemies;and formationof a body of international law.
In medievaltimes,SaintThomasAquinas(1225-1274)wrote:"Everymanneedsfirst
ofall thedivineassistance,and secondlyalso humanassistance,formanis naturallya
social animal,notbeingself-sufficient forthepurposesoflife"( Summa Theologiae,II-
II, Question 129, Article6). Scholasticismeven developeda complex typologyof
cooperation: divine, formal, immediate, indifferent, material, mediate, moral,
necessary,passive,physical,positive,previous,simultaneous,and universal.
Five of the greatestthinkerson cooperationwereSuarez, Grotius,Spinoza, Vico,
and Kropotkin.
Francisco de Suarez (1548-1617),who was bornin Granada, Spain, was themost

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 ANDSOCIALPROCESSES
SOCIALINTERACTION 155

importantJesuitphilosopherand theologianof his time.Known as the"Excellent

Doctor,"he contributedso manybrilliantideas to theconceptofcooperationthathe
became one of the fathersof moderninternationallaw.
Hugo Grotius(1583-1645),"The Oracle of Holland,"wroteDe JurePraedae(l604)
and De JureBelli ac Pads (1625). These masterworksgave birthto the scienceof
international law.
Baruchde Spinoza (1632-1677)was one ofthegreatestmodernthinkers and one of
the most popular philosophersin mankind'shistory.His Ethics (1677), a sublime
masterpiecein fivebooks and Spinoza's mostimportanttreatise,has beencompared
witha magnificent drama in fiveacts. Spinoza conceivedof man and his worldas a
stupendous astronomical system,as a wondrousmechanicaluniverse,inwhichsociety
is characterizedby attractionsand repulsions,and the nations of the globe by
gravitations and oppositions.Cooperationis based on a commonhumannature,the
Aristotelianidea that man is a "social animal," and the reign of reason which
obliteratesgreedand selfishness.
GionanniBattistaVico (1668-1744),theson of a Naples bookseller,wroteDi Una
Scienza Nuova (1725), a philosophyof historyin fiveparts.This newsciencemaybe
consideredto be sociology,ofwhichVico was one ofthefounders.Cooperationis one
of the dominantthemesin the Scienza Nuova.
But the mostsignificant treatiseof all timeon cooperationwas writtenby Prince
Peter Kropotkin(1842-1921),a Russian chemist,geologist,geographer,historian,
economist,sociologist,officer oftheCossacks,and statesman.Thiswas MutualAid: A
Factor in Evolution(1902). Kropotkindiscoveredthat,whilethefierceDarwinian
struggleforexistenceis certainlypresentin theanimal kingdom,mutualaid is also a
fact.Accordingto his myriadzoological data, intraspecific (betweenmembersofthe
same species) cooperationis particularly prevalent.In his enthusiasm,however,he
incorrectly overemphasizedthatsurvivalamong animalsis directlyproportionalto
each species'degreeofsocial organization.Kropotkinalso assertedthatcooperationis
conduciveto evolution.Moreover,sincecooperation,mutualaid, and self-sacrifice
aimedat thecommongood are instinctive, naturalevolutionnecessarilycharacterizes
boththephysicaland social worlds.At thehumanlevel,Kropotkinaverred,conflict
does not actuallylead to social progress.
In France,Emile Durkheim(1858-1917)consideredcooperationan ancientsocial
processand dealtwithitthroughhisconceptofmechanicalsolidarity(simpledivision
of labor and blind obediencetypicalof folksocieties).
In the United States, Albion Small (1854-1926) conceived of cooperationand
conflictas the two most importantprocessesin social change ( GeneralSociology,
1905). He further regardedboth of themas creative,but he saw moreadvantagesin
cooperation. He thus advocated programs aimed at changing conflict into
cooperation.Moreover,historicallyspeaking,Small believedthat,as timegoes on,
mankindstressescooperationat the expense of conflict.
Below are some examplesof cooperation:
Variouscommunity welfareagenciesoftenworktogetherto achievetheirpurposes.
Severalgroupsmayorganizethemselvesto oppose a commonenemy.Of course,the
mutualadvantagesare seldomequal, sincethesmallerand weakergroupstendto gain
more,whichexplains whytheyusually are more willingto join cooperativeplans.
Incesttaboo, that is, prohibitingmarriageor sex relationsbetweenclose relatives,
leads to cooperation,as each grouphas to seekmatesamongoutsiders,whichcreates
newbondsand ties.The WorldHealthOrganization(WHO), a UnitedNationsagency
establishedin 1948,is a cooperativegrouporganizedfor"theattainment byall peoples
of the highestpossible level of health." Its aid in the developmentof health
administrations in variouscountriesand itsfightagainstmanymaladiesarepromoted

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156 SOCIALSCIENCEFORSUMMER1979

throughadvisoryservices,internationalhealthconventions,and the publicationof

medicalstatistics.The mostfamousconsumercooperativewas England'sRochdale
Pioneers. This movementwas organizedin Rochdale on December21, 1844,by 28
subscribers.Theircooperativestore,whichbecamequiteinfluential, owed itssuccess
mainly to a combination of dividends on purchases and fixedintereston capital.
The chieftypesof cooperationare as follows:
1. Ecological cooperation. The combinedactivitiesof two or more organisms
working togetherto decrease potential dangers and increase their means of
subsistence.
2. Automaticcooperation. The impersonalcombinationof activitiesbased on
mutual interests- e.g., the sexual behavior of animals,the defenseof two human
groupsagainstan outsider,etc.
3. Traditionalcooperation. Cooperation based on old social norms- e.g., the
medievalguilds,i.e., associationsofpersonsin thesame business,trade,or profession
aimed at the achievementof commongoals throughregulationand cooperation.
4. Primary cooperation. Cooperation involving a combination of similar
- usuallyfoundin folksocieties.
activities
5. Secondary cooperation. Cooperation based on a combinationof dissimilar
- typicalof modernsocieties.
activities
6. Directcooperation. Doing thesameworktogether, althoughthistaskcould be
accomplishedindividually - e.g., fishingtogether.
7. Indirectcooperation. Engagingin dissimilaractivitieswhich,whencombined,
attaina commongoal- e.g., divisionof labor.
8. Competitivecooperation. The association of individualsor groupsworking
togetherfor individualgain- usually,thereis some disagreement about how much
each participantshould receive.
9. Antagonisticcooperation. Cooperationaccompaniedby suppressedantago-
nisms,such suppressionbeingbased on commoninterests.
10. Spontaneouscooperation. The mostnaturaltypeofcooperation,whichis based
not on tradition,command,or contract,but is dictatedby conditionsin thefamily,
play group,neighborhood,and the like.
11. Directed cooperation. Cooperation based on command- e.g., schools, big
business,labor unions,militaryactivities,the atomic bomb project,etc.
12. Contractualcooperation. Cooperationin whichthecontributions and gainsof
theparticipants are specified,and in whichlegalor othersanctionsareincluded- e.g.,
creditunions,consumercooperatives,etc. Such cooperationbecomesmorecommon
as we move fromfolksocietiesto modernsocieties.
13. Coerced cooperation. Cooperationin whichthe goals are not sharedby all
participants, and whichis based on fear.

E. Competition
Competitionis the struggleby individualsor groupsforthepossessionand use of
goods thatare limitedor are believedto be limited.The demandforsuch goods is
greaterthan theirsupply. The process of competition,which is the opposite of
cooperation,is due to thefinitenatureof ourplanetand thefactthathumanresources
are ratherscarce. Its specificgoals may be materialgoods, social status,power,
positions,and thelike.Moreover,competitionmaybe personal,conscious,and direct
or impersonal,unconscious,and indirect - forinstance,a businessmanmaybe either
aware or unaware of the fact that his success has caused the failureof another
businessman.It shouldalso be notedthatcompetitionand conflictdifferin fourmain
ways: first,competitionis directedchieflytowarda goal, not the competitor,while
conflictoccursagainsttheopponent.Second, competitioncontinuesuntilone ofthe

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 SOCIALINTERACTION
ANDSOCIALPROCESSES 157

competitorsattainsthe desiredgoal, whereasconflictis usuallyinterrupted. Third,

competitionis based on rules much more extensivelythan conflictis. And fourth,
competitionneverincludesforceor violence,whileconflictmay do so.
In thesphereof economiclife,competitionis theoppositeofa monopoly,whichis
thecontrolof a serviceor commodityby a singleseller.
Conscious competitionis usuallyknownas rivalry . For instance,rivalryoccurs
whentwoauto industries competeforthesamecustomersorwhentwopoliticalparties
pursuethe same office.
CharlesCooley (1864-1929)believedthatcompetitors maybe awareor unawareof
theirpursuitof the same goal. For example,a man who qualifiesfora job maynot
knowthathe has beencompetingwithothercandidates.Also,a personmayormaynot
be consciouslyopposed to othercompetitors.For instance,cottonfarmersin Egypt
and in Mississippido not oppose one anotherat a personallevel.
Influencedbytheeconomicsand biologyofthe 19thcentury and thefirstdecadesof
the20thcentury, RobertPark (1864-1944)and ErnestBurgess(1886-1966)thoughtof
impersonaland unconsciouscompetitionas the main concept of human ecology
( Introductionto the Science of Sociology, second edition, 1924). They further
conceivedof thisprocessas interactionwithoutsocial contact,whichoftenchanges
into personal and conscious conflict.Park himselfregardedcompetition,conflict,
assimilation, and accommodationas thefourmainformsofsocialinteraction. Because
competitionis unconscious,he said, it is quite prevalentin the plant and animal
kingdoms.In fact,itis themostimportant ecologicalprocess- Park is consideredthe
"father"ofhumanecology,whichtermhe coined.He also describeda community as a
type of biological equilibrium in which cooperation is dominant. When this
equilibriumis disturbed,competitionforthelimitedresourcesoccurs.As a result,a
new divisionof labor is introduced,a new equilibriumis created,and cooperation
becomesprevalentonce more.
Some examplesof competitionare as follows:
Educationalinstitutions competeforthesame teachersand students,storesforthe
samebuyers,and countriesforthesame sourcesofrawmaterials.Anotherexampleis
Calvinism,the religiousdoctrinewhichstressesthe supremacyof the Bible in the
revelationof truth,man's sinfulness, God's omnipotence, a strictmoralcode, and the
salvationof the elect by God's grace alone. Since Calvinismaccepts no mediator
betweenGod and theindividual,economicsuccessis considereda signofgrace.This
meansthatcompetitionis a virtue,whichpromotedcapitalismin the 17thand 18th
centuries.7
The main typesof competitionare eight:
1. Ecological competition. The processof pursuingthesame limitedresourcesin a
givenarea. This is a conceptusedmainlyinthepastand refers to individualsorgroups,
is impersonaland indirect,involvesno communication, and occursbelow thesocial
level.
2. Social competition."The activityof the person or group in seekingstatusor
social positionwithoutconsciousreferenceto the strivingsof othersand subjectto
limitationsimposedby the social order."8
3. Culturalcompetition . The rivalryof culturalfeaturesforadoptionby different
groups.
4. Institutionalcompetition . The rivalrybetweenor among social institutions
aimedat retainingor increasingthenumberof theirmembersor supporters and thus
perpetuating themselves.Since individual is
support necessary, and sincea personis
unable to supporttoo many institutions, such competitionis inevitable.Another
problemforcompetinginstitutions is the diversityof theirgoals, whichmakesthe
coexistenceofthesesystemssomewhatdifficult. Churchesofferan exampleofthistype

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158 SOCIALSCIENCEFORSUMMER1979

of competition.
5. Causative competition . The pursuitof success in a behaviorthat leads to an
ultimategoal- forinstance,advertisingto promotesales.
6. Effectivecompetition. The redistributing
ofa scarcecommodityamongpersons
who desireit.
7. Cooperative competition . A form of competitionwhich is limitedby the
efforts
participants' to achieve a commonobjective.
8. Competitivecooperation. The association of individualsor groups working
togetherfor individualgain- usually,thereis some disagreement about how much
each participantshould receive.

F. Conflict
Conflict, theoppositeofcooperation,is a formofsocialinteraction involving twoor
moreindividualsorgroupsthatconsciouslyattemptto thwartone another'sgoals orto
defeat,injure,or evendestroytheopponent.Thus, conflictis a highlyintensetypeof
competition, butthelatter,unlikeconflict,is guidedbyrulesquiteextensively and does
not includeforceor violence.Even conflict,however,may not be accompaniedby
violence,as in the cases of strikesand heated parliamentary debates. Moreover,
conflictmaybe directedtowardinanimateobjects,butin sociologythisprocessrefers
exclusivelyto humans.
Ethology,the science of the social behavior of animals, has studied conflict
extensively and intensively.One ofthemostfamousethologistsis Konrad Lorenz,an
Austrianwho won the Nobel prize in 1973, and the author of On Aggression .9
According to ethology,four basic instinctsinfluenceanimal behavior: hunger,
reproduction,aggression,and fear. As for the types of conflict,they are two:
intraspecific(between membersof the same species) and interspecific (between
different species).The functionsof intraspecific conflict,whichis verycommon,are
three:establishment of equilibriumbetweenpopulationand environment, protection
of theyoung,and reproductionby thestrongestmembersof thespecies.In addition,
intraspecific conflictis based on threeprinciples:first,dominance,or superiority of
one memberover another;second,territoriality , or occupationof a*piece of land by
some members;and third,bonding, or peacefuland exclusiverelationships between
membersof the species.
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679),theEnglishphilosopher,believedthatwhatprevailed
beforehumansocietycame intoexistencewas "bellumomniumcontraomnes" (warof
all againstall).
Charles Darwin (1809-1882), the Britishnaturalist,reinforcedthe doctrineof
conflictbymeansofhisconceptofthestruggle forexistence( On theOriginofSpecies,
1859). Thus, unlikeMarxism, whichstressedclass conflict and social reform, social
Darwinismneglectedsocial reformand emphasizedthe"survivalof thefittest " and
conflictbetweenor among societies.
Karl Marx (1818-1883)made the mostimportantcontributions to theconceptof
conflict,whichhe consideredinevitableand conduciveto progress.Such conflictis
based on economicforcesand occursbetweentwo social classes,thebourgeoisieand
theproletariat . More specifically,
thisclassstruggleis determined byownershipofthe
means of productionand, since persons,groups,and social institutions supportone
side or theother,cultureand societybecomelessunified.Also, becausethiseconomic
class strugglecoversadditionalspheres,conflictintensifies. Accordingto Marx, this
conflictgoes through seven stages: individual conflict,minor demonstrations,
organizedeconomicconflict,organizedpoliticalconflict,revolution,dictatorship of
the proletariat,and classlesssociety.
LudwigGumplowicz(1838-1910),in his Der Rassenkampftheorizedthatconflict

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 ANDSOCIALPROCESSES
SOCIALINTERACTION 159

beganwithprimitive hordes.As timewenton, conflictbecamemoreextensivedue to

overpopulation,hunger,injustice,inequality,slavery,etc. William Sumner(1840-
1910)attributed conflictto thedistinction betweentheingroup(us) and theoutgroup
(all others).Albion Small (1854-1926) distinguishedsix typesof human interests:
knowledge,health,sociability,wealth, beauty,and Tightness( General Sociology,
1905).Conflict,Small believed,is generatedbytheoppositionbetweenknowledgeand
the otherfiveinterests.Georg Simmel(1858-1918),in his Conflictand the Web of
Group Affiliations, whichinfluencedRobert Park, developeda dualistictheoryof
conflict.In otherwords,he spokeofpairsofforcesopposingeach other:changeversus
continuity, nonconformity versusconformity, versussympathy,
hostility and conflict
versuscooperation.He also conceivedof conflictas universaland attributed someof
itsformsto innateaggression.Intergroupconflict,Simmelfurther stated,oftenleads
to intragroupcooperation.
In 1895, Sigmund Freud and JosephBreuerexplained conflictin termsof two
mutuallyexclusivetasksor ideas. Anna O., forinstance,theirfamouspatient,became
hysterical whenshe was caringforherill father;forherdevotionwas opposedbyher
wishforherfather'sdeath,whichwish she had repressed.
Robert Park regardedconflictas one of the mostimportanttypesof interaction
whichmaygeneraterelativesocial unity(Park and ErnestBurgess,Introduction to the
Scienceof Sociology,1921).He also thoughtthatconflictdevelopsfromunconscious
competitionand determinesthe social statusof both individualsand groups.Race
conflict,he said, is due to culturaland color differences. As forwar, it is the most
destructive formofconflictand occurswhenthreeconditionsarepresent:aggressionin
humannature,tradition(e.g., Italiannationalism),and a specificsituation,suchas the
assassinationof an ambassador.RobertMaclver ( Society, 1937)definedconflictas a
strife amonghumansforsome objectiveand distinguished twobasictypes:first, direct
conflict, whichoccurswhenhumansimpedeor restrainor thwartor injureor destroy
one anotherin an effortto attaina goal; and second,indirectconflict,whichmerely
involvesan attemptto obstructtheachievement ofthesameobjective(thisis similarto
competition). GeorgeLundbergconsideredconflictthetermination ofcommunication
(The Foundationsof Sociology,1939),whileRalfDahrendorfhas revisedtheMarxist
theoryof conflict. 10More specifically,he has stressedpower and authorityat the
expense of social class. This createsoppositionbetweengroupsthatenjoypowerand
groupsthatlack power,conflictthusbeinginescapable.AnatolRapaport11describes
threekindsofconflict: fight,whosegoal is to injuretheenemy;game,whoseobjective
is merelyto winovertheopponent;and debate,whichis aimedat convincing theother
side of thevalue of a point.Max Gluckman12sees conflictas a seriesof oppositions
generatedby the verystructureof social organization.Finally,Lewis Coser believes
thatfunctionalism has neglectedthestudyofconflict,althoughitis foundeverywhere
in humansociety.Becauseconflictive relationsoverlap,a personorgroupmaybe one's
enemyin sphereA, butone's allyin sphereB. This tendsto makesocietyratherstable,
whichmeansthatregulatedconflictis somewhatcreative.Coser definesconflictas a
strifeovervaluesorclaimsto power,status,and limitedresources,inwhichthegoals of
theopponentsare bothto gain thedesiredvalues and neutralize,injure,or eliminate
one another.
At thepresenttime,conflicttheorystressesbargaining, voting,compromise, and the
like as means to social harmony.
Some ofthecausesofconflictareegoism,orthetendencyto satisfy one'sneedsat the
expenseof otherhumanbeings;thescarcityofresources(power,materialgoods,and
services);different interestsand values; and economic changes,industrialization,
urbanization,etc., which createnew lifestylesthatlead to strife.
Conflict,which is universal,may occur at the physical,spiritual,or intellectual

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160 SOCIALSCIENCEFORSUMMER1979

levels.It mayinvolveanygroup,fromthefamilyto thenation,and maymanifest itself

withinor betweengroups. It may be organizedor unorganized,and temporaryor
enduring.Its degreesalso varyconsiderably.Having begunwithancientfeudsand
tribalstruggles,it later became a strike,13 riot,14revolution,15civilwar,and world
war.16Of course,the object of conflictpresentsmanydegreesof importance,too.
The conflictmodel developedby Marx and his present-day followers,is based on
the centralidea that the best analysisof societyconsidersboth potentialand real
conflict.Subordinationof some groups to othersis taken forgranted,and social
harmonyis regardedas the resultof the impositionof the will of those in power
througheducation and the mass media. When power moves fromone group to
another,a major social changeoccurs.Most sociologistsacceptmanyof theseideas.
Specificexamplesofconflictarecreditors versusdebtors,buyersversussellers,ruled
versusrulers,and thelike.In Israel,theso-calledBlack Panthers,a groupofOriental
Jews,are in conflictwiththemajority.The RussianRevolutionof 1870-1905was due
to povertyamong the peasants,starvationwages, humiliatingworkingconditions,
denial of fundamentalrights,the political weakness of the bourgeoisie,and the
absolutismofthetsar.In ancientRome, Spartacus,a Thracianshepherd,managedto
organize90,000slaves,brigands,and dissidents,and capturedmostofsouthernItaly
(73 B.C.). Throughouthistory,conflicthas been discussedin mythology, religion,
philosophy,literature,etc. The Aztecs spoke of the FeatheredSerpentversusthe
SmokingMirror.The Mayas describedthe strugglebetweentheevilGiantsand the
HeavenlyTwins.In China we findYang versusYin, or lightversusdarkness.In India
thereis thestrifebetweenIndra,theupholderof heaven,and theSerpentDemon. In
Zoroastrianism,Ahura-Mazdah, the lord of light,opposes Ahriman,the lord of
darkness.In BabyloniatheevilgoddessTiamat threatensthegods ofgood. In Egypt
themalevolentgod Set attacksOsiris.In Greece,Zeus combatstheTitansand Giants.
In theNorth,Nidhug,theserpentof death,gnawsat therootsofYgdrasil,thetreeof
life.Heraclitus(540-475B.C.) said that"conflictis thefatherofall things."Pythagoras
(500 B.C.) spoke ofthestrifebetweengood and evil.Plato (427-347B.C.) wroteabout
class conflict,or therichversusthepoor (cf.Marx). In theNew Testament,"Michael
and his angels foughtagainstthe dragon." Seneca (4 B.C. - 65 A.D.), the Roman
"
philosopher,believedthat Militiaest vitahominis"(humanlifeis conflict).Voltaire
wrotein his Mahomet:"Ma vie est un combať (my lifeis a struggle).And so on.
As forthefunctionsof conflict,theoppressedusuallyaverthatconflictis creative,
while the rulingclasses condemnit as destructiveand attemptto regulateit. Even
scholarsare similarlydividedin thisrespect.One of thecommonargumentsis that,
sinceconflictis prevalent, itis necessaryforprogress.Moreover,politicalleadersoften
advocate law and order,thus gainingpower and influencingsocial change. Such
changealso occurswhentheaffectedgroupsorganizesocial movements withvarious
social goals. Some of the specificfunctionsof conflictare as follows:
1. It createsnew social norms.
2. It identifiesproblemsto be solved.
3. It generatesgroupsolidaritywhenthereis somethreatfromoutside(indeed,the
earlytradeunionsused to sing,"SolidarityForever").
4. When a certain degree of conflictis expressed,major explosions may be
prevented.
The main kindsof conflictare the followingeight:
1. Culturalconflict . Hostilitybetweentwoculturally homogeneousgroupsthattry
to eliminatesome of each other'sculturalelements - e.g., Dutch versusFrenchin
Belgium,FrenchversusEnglishin Canada, and 845different languagesand dialectsin
India (accordingto the census of 1951).
2. Class conflict. Violentoppositionbetweentwodistinctgroupseach ofwhichhas

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 SOCIALINTERACTION
ANDSOCIALPROCESSES 161

special social characteristics - religion,education, occupation, income, etc.- for

instance,lower classes versus upperclasses,workersversusemployers, radicalsversus
reactionaries,liberalsversusconservatives, and so on. The conservative
groupsusually
controltheirsociety'sresources,goods, and servicesmainlyfor theirown benefit.
When the exploitedclasses fail to secure a fairshare of thiswealth,conflictoften
results.
3. Race conflict . The strugglebetweentwo racial groupsmotivatedprimarily by
race consciousness.Not infrequently, however,thereare variousnonracialmotives
leadingto conflict.
4. Revolutionaryconflict . A violentand ratherrapidstrifethatinvolvesnewsocial
normsand movements.In this case, the governmentmay change drasticallyand
authoritymaypass fromone politicalpartyor social class to another.Revolutionary
conflictis progressive, notconservative;swift,notevolutionary; violent,notpeaceful;
and all-encompassing, not limited.
5. Overtconflict . Open strife.
6. Covertconflict . Hostile attitudesor clandestinedestruction.This is typicalof
conquest,captivity,slavery,frustration, etc.
7. Destructiveconflict.Struggle allowing no compromise and stressingthe
opponent'sinjuryand annihilation.
8. Constructiveconflict . Hostilitybetweentwo groups that oppose each other's
goals but also seek compromisesconduciveto harmony.
III. MethodologicalNote
Some of the social processesdiscussedin the presentessay have been studiedby
means of interesting attitudescales. Below is a briefdescriptionof a fewof these
instruments:
1. Lakie CompetitionScale. This is a devicemeasuringattitudestowardthe"win-
at-any-cost"philosophyin athletics.The scale consistsof 22 itemsand the possible
rangeof scoresis 22-90.17
2. McCue Competition Scale. This technique deals with attitudes toward
competitionin team games and stressesthe followingareas: personality, recreation,
physicaldevelopment,skill,safety,humanrelationships, and publicrelations.Its 77
itemsgivea theoreticalrangeof scoresfrom-154 to +154.18
3. McGee Competition Scale. McGee's instrumentcovers attitudestoward
participationin teamgamesby highschoolgirls.It includespersonality involvement,
recreation,physicaldevelopment, The
publicrelations,safety,skill,and relationships.
70 itemsresultin a possible score of -70 to +70.19
4. Cohen ConflictScale. This instrument, whichmeasuresconflictand tensionin
thefamily,givesscoresthatrangebetween0 and 8.20
5. Cohen Explicit Opposition Scale. Cohen's second scale explores social
aggressivenessin the family.21
6. Day-QuackenbushWar Scale. This 13-itemtechniquestudiesattitudestoward
threetypesof war: cooperative,defensive,and aggressive.22
7. Stagner War Scale. Stagner's techniqueconsists of 27 items and measures
attitudestowardwar. The possiblerangeof scoresis 1.24-4.76.23

Summary
Sociology is usually definedas the science of social interaction,which is an
extremely importantconcept.In thepresentessaythisconcepthas been exploredin
detail and the ways in whichit manifestsitselfhave been analyzed.These waysare
known as social processes, the chief ones being acculturation,accommodation,
assimilation, and conflict.Each ofthemainsocialprocesses
cooperation,competition,

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162 SOCIALSCIENCEFOR SUMMER1979

was definedand described,examplesand thekindsof each weregiven,and themain

theoriesconcerningeach were presented.An effortwas also made to reveal the
continuitywhichcharacterizes man'sthinking, fromancienttimesto thepresentand in
variouscultures,about social interactionand social processes.
An unusual featurethathas been added to the presentessay is a methodological
note.This containssome ofthebestresearchscalesmeasuringattitudestowardsocial
processes.Since such techniquesrepresentpart of the most rigorousand scientific
thinkingin sociology,it is usefulfor the studentsto be exposed to thisvaluable
approach. It is furtherhoped that the studentswill scrutinizea fewof the original
studiesdescribingtheseattitudescalesand evenemploythemto conductminorsurveys
merelyforthesake of becomingfamiliarwithsomeofthewaysin whichsociological
researchis done.

NOTES
!Cf.Gunter Remmling andRobert Campbell, BasicSociology,
Totowa,NewJersey:Littlefield,
Adams,
1970,p. 367;A. Hareetal, editors,SmallGroups, revised NewYork:Knopf,
edition, Robert
1965; Bales,
InteractionProcess Analysis,Reading,Massachusetts:Addison-Wesley,1950.
2Max Marshall, Teaching Without Grades,Corvallis,
Oregon: OregonStateUniversityPress,1968;
Science, "Medical Education," September 14,1973;pp.1027-1029;Howard Beckeretal, Making the
Grade , NewYork:Wiley, 1968.
3Margaret Mead,TheChanging CultureofanIndian NewYork:
Tribe, Columbia Press,
University 1932.
4RalphLinton, editor,AcculturationinSevenAmerican IndianTribes,
NewYork:Appleton, 1940.
5Cf.Milton Gordon, AssimilationinAmerican NewYork:Oxford
Life, Press,1964.
University
6Robert Park,"OurRacialFrontier onthePacific,"Survey,1926,pp.192-196.
7R.Tawney, ReligionandtheRiseofCapitalism, NewYork:Penguin, 1947,Chapter4.
8Henry Fairchild,
editor,
DictionaryofSociology, NewJersey:
Paterson, Adams,
Littlefield, 1962,p.278.
9NewYork:Harcourt, BraceandWorld, 1963.
10ClassandClassConflict inIndustrial Stanford,
Society, California:
Stanford Press,
University 1959.
11
Fights, Games andDebates, AnnArbor, Michigan: ofMichigan
University Press,1960.
12Politics,
LawandRitualinTribal Society,
Chicago: Aldine,1965.
13
AlvinGouldner, WildcatStrike,YellowSprings, Ohio:AntiochPress,1954.
14Morris Janowitz, TheSocialControl ofEscalatedRiots,Chicago: ofChicago
University Press,1968.
15Crane Briton,TheAnatomy ofRevolution,revised NewYork:Vintage,
edition, 1965.
16Quincy Wright,A Study ofWar, second edition,
Chicago: ofChicago
University Press,1965.
17W.Lakie,"Expressed Attitudesof VariousGroupsofAthletes TowardAthletic Competition,"
Research Quarterly,1964,pp.497-503.
18B. McCue,"Constructing anInstrument forEvaluatingAttitudes
Toward Intensive
Competition in
TeamGames," Research Quarterly,1953,pp.205-209.
19R.McGee, "Comparison ofAttitudesToward Intensive
CompetitionforHighSchool Research
Girls,"
Quarterly, 1956,pp.60-73.
20Melvin Cohen etal ,"Family Interaction
Patterns,
DrugTreatment,andChange inSocialAggression,"
Archives ofGeneral July1958,
Psychiatry, pp.50-56.
21Ibid.
22D. Day andO. Quackenbush, "AttitudesTowardDefensive, andAggressive
Cooperative, War,"
Journal ofSocialPsychology, 1942,pp.11-20.
23R. Stagner,"SomeFactors Related toAttitudeToward War,1938," JournalofSocialPsychology,
1942, pp.131-142.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
•Allee,Warder,Cooperation
Among With
Animals, HumanImplications,
revised Boston:
edition,
Beacon,1958.
2Baechler,
Jean, NewYork:Harper,
Revolution, 1975.
3Beals,Ralph,and HarryHoijer,An Introduction
to Anthropology,
fourth NewYork:
edition,
Macmillan,1971.
4Broom, Leonard,andNorval
Glenn,TheTransformation
oftheNegro NewYork:Harper,
American,
1965.

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 SOCIALINTERACTION
ANDSOCIALPROCESSES 163

5Cartwright,D., andA. Zander, editors,GroupDynamics,Evanston, Illinois:

Row,Peterson, 1953.
6Clark,Kenneth, DarkGhetto, NewYork:Harper, 1965.
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S. N.,TheAbsorption
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Pot,Cambridge, Massachusetts:MITPress,
1970.
10Gordon, Milton, Assimilation
inAmerican Life,NewYork:Oxford University Press,1964.
1Romans,George, SocialBehavior,NewYork:Harcourt BraceJovanovich, 1974.
12Kroeber,Alfred, Anthropology,revised NewYork:Harcourt,
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Cooperation andCompetitionAmong PrimitivePeoples,Boston:Beacon,
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Self-Test
1. Define social interactionand explain whythistermis redundant.
2. What is the differencebetweensocial interactionand social processes?
3. What fourdifferent formsdoes each social processassume?
4. Distinguishbetweenconjunctiveand disjunctivesocial processes.
5. Defineacculturation,give examples,and discusssome of its results.
6. What is accommodation?Give some examplesand explain its main kinds.
7. Defineassimilationand give a fewexamples.
8. What is cooperation?Give some old and modernexamplesand discussseveral
of its forms.
9. Explain competition,give a fewexamples,and distinguish itsmostimportant
types.
10. Defineconflict, givesomeexamples,presenta briefoutlineofthehistory ofthis
concept,mentiona fewof its functions,and explain its main kinds.
11. Brieflydescribea fewattitudescales dealingwithsome ofthesocial processes.

ResearchSuggestions
1. Describethemostimportantformsof social interaction in whichyou engaged
today.
2. Writea shortpaper on social processesnot discussedin thisessay.
3. Discuss a formof acculturationin yourcommunity.
4. Writea briefhistoryof the meltingpot conceptand presentits positiveand
negativeresults.
5. Researchthe acculturationof an AmericanIndian tribe.
6. Writea detailedpaper on the potlatchcustom.
7. Find a case of academicaccommodationin yourschoolnewspaperand writea
researchpaper about it.
8. Do you believein the assimilationof immigrants?Why?Explain in detail.
9. Compare Park's "race relationscycle"withrecentrace relationsin theUnited
States.
10. Interviewa sample of studentson some race issue and writea paper on your
findings.
11. Evaluate coerciveassimilation.

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164 SOCIALSCIENCEFORSUMMER1979

12. Writea paper on the conceptof cooperationin some major religions.

13. Do you thinkinternational politicalcooperationis graduallybecomingmore
dominant?Explain in detail.
14. Outlineexamplesof cooperationin yourfamily.
15. Interviewstudentsand instructors on thevalue of competitionforgradesand
writea paperon theprosand cons. Comparesuchcompetitionwithlatercompetition
foremployment, promotion,etc.
16. How has competitionin the historyof yourmajor fieldpromotedscience?
17. There is a fairlynew fieldcalled polemology.Writea paper about it.
18. Compare animal conflictwithhumanconflict.
19. Researcha case ofconflictbetweenstudentsand administrators inyourschool.
20. Do you accept the Marxistconflictmodel?Why?
21. Make a list of examplesof conflictfoundin worldliterature.
22. War has made manyimportantcontributions to mankind.Writea paperon this
subject.
23. Select one of theattitudescales presentedin thisessayand use it in a research
projecton yourcampus.

Dictionary
1. Accommodation . A mutualadjustmentto groupconflictin which,forvarious
conpensatoryadvantages,theparticipantsretaintheirrespectiveidentitiesbut avoid
open hostility.
2. Acculturation . A change in the cultureof a person or group throughdirect
interactionwithothercultureswhichresultsin theacquiringorexchangingofcultural
features.
3. Amalgamation . Miscegenation,or racial interbreeding,
that createsa fairly
homogeneousphysicaltype.Oftenused synonymously withassimilation.
4. Americanization . Oftena synonymforassimilation.
5. Amphictiony . Interstateorganizationin ancient Greece. The firstUnited
Nations.
6. Antagonisticcooperation. Cooperationaccompaniedby suppressedantago-
nisms,such suppressionbeingbased on commoninterests.
7. Apartheid. Separatenessin South Africa.The separatesettlement, develop-
ment,and economic,social, and politicalexistenceof whitesand nonwhites.
8. Assimilation.The social absorptionofan ethnic,racial,or culturalgroup,or of
an immigrant, into an adopted society,whichproducesa new,common,and fairly
homogeneous culture.
9. Associativesocial process. A social processthatdraws people together.
10. Automaticcooperation.Impersonalcombinationofactivitiesbased on mutual
interests.
11. Bonding.In ethology,peacefuland exclusiverelationships betweenmembersof
a species.
12. Bourgeoisie.The capitalistclass in Marxism.
13. Causativecompetition.Pursuitofsuccessina behaviorthatleadsto an ultimate
goal.
. Violentoppositionbetweentwodistinctgroupseach ofwhichhas
14. Class conflict
special characteristics - religion,education,occupation,income,etc.
15. Class struggle . In Marxism, the conflictbetweenthe bourgeoisieand the
proletariat.Its stagesare seven:individualconflict,minordemonstrations, organized
economic conflict,organized political conflict,revolution,dictatorshipof the
proletariat,classlesssociety.
16. Coerced cooperation.Cooperation in whichthe goals are not shared by all

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 ANDSOCIALPROCESSES
SOCIALINTERACTION 165

participants,and whichis based on fear.

17. Coerciveassimilation . Assimilationincludingan elementof force.
18. Competition . Struggleby individualsor groupsforthe possessionand use of
goods thatare limitedor are believedto be limited.
19. Competitivecooperation. Association of individuals or groups working
togetherforindividualgain.
20. Conflict. Social interactioninvolvingtwo or moreindividualsor groupsthat
consciouslyattemptto thwartone another'sgoals or to defeat,injure,or evendestroy
the opponent.
21. Conflictmodel A systemby Marx and hisfollowersbased on theidea thatthe
best analysisof societyconsiderspotentialand real conflict;that some groupsare
subordinatedto others;thatsocial harmonyresultsfromtheimpositionofthewillof
thosein power;and thatwhenpowermovesfromone groupto another,a majorsocial
changeoccurs.
22. Conjunctivesocial process. An associativesocial process.
23. Constructiveconflict . Hostilitybetweentwo groupsthatoppose each other's
goals but also seek compromisesconduciveto harmony.
24. Contractualcooperation. Cooperationin whichthecontributions and gainsof
the participantsare specified,and in whichlegal or othersanctionsare included.
25. Cooperation. Intentionalcombinationof activitiesby twoor moreindividuals
or groupsto achievecommongoals whichare to be sharedby the participants.
26. Cooperativecompetition . Competitionlimitedby the participants'effortsto
achievea commonobjective.
27. Covertconflict . Hostile attitudesor clandestinedestruction.
28. Creativeaccommodation . Voluntaryaccommodationstressing commongoals
and resultingfromonlyminorsacrificesby the participants.
29. Culturalcompetition.Rivalryof culturalfeaturesforadoption by different
groups.
30. Culturalconflict.Hostilitybetweentwoculturally homogeneousgroupsthattry
to eliminatesome of each other'scultural elements.
31. Culturecontact.The Britishtermforacculturation.
32. Debate. Conflictaimed at convincingthe otherside of the value of a point
(Anatol Rapaport, 1960).
33. Destructiveconflict.Struggle allowing no compromiseand stressingthe
opponent'sinjuryand annihilation.
34. Directconflict . Conflictbetweenhumansimpedingor restraining or thwarting
or injuringor destroyingone anotherin an effortto attaina goal (RobertMaclver,
1937).
35. Directcooperation.Doing thesameworktogether, althoughthistaskcould be
accomplished individually.
36. Directedcooperation.Cooperationbased on command.
37. Disjunctivesocial process. A social processthatpulls people apart.
38. Dissociativesocial process. A disjunctivesocial process.
39. Dominance. In ethology,the superiorityof one memberof a species over
another.
40. Ecological competition.Impersonaland indirectpursuitof the same limited
resourcesin a givenarea, whichoccursbelow the social level.
41. Ecological cooperation.The combined activitiesof two or more organisms
working togetherto decrease potential dangers and increase their means of
subsistence.
42. Effectivecompetition.Redistributing of a scarce commodityamong persons
who desireit.

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166 SOCIALSCIENCEFOR SUMMER1979

43. Fight. Conflictwhose goal is to injurethe enemy(Anatol Rapaport, 1960).

44. Focused interaction . Interactionin a groupofpersonsthathavea commongoal
(ErvingGoffman,1963).
45. Game. Conflictwhose goal is merelyto win over the opponent(Anatol
Rapaport, 1960).
46. Groupaccommodation. Accommodationat thecollectivelevelwhichinvolves
the social structure.
47. Guild. Medieval association of persons in the same business, trade, or
professionaimed at the achievementof common goals throughregulationand
cooperation.
48. Indirectconflict . Conflictbetweenhumanswhichinvolvesonlyan attemptto
obstructtheachievementof thesame objectiveby theother(RobertMaclver, 1937).
49. Indirectcooperation. Engagingin dissimilaractivitieswhich,whencombined,
attaina commongoal.
50. Individualaccommodation. Accommodationat thepsychologicallevelwhich
involvesa person.
51. Institutional competition . Rivalrybetweensocialinstitutions aimedat retaining
or increasingthe numberof theirmembersor supportersand thus perpetuating
themselves.
52. Marxism. The systemof Karl Marx, whichstressesclass conflictand social
reform.
53. Mechanical solidarity . Cooperation based çn a simpledivisionof labor and
blind obedience,whichis typicalof folksociety(Emile Durkheim).
54. Meltingpot. Acculturation or Americanizationofimmigrants (IsraelZangwill,
1909).
55. Overtconflict . Open strife.
56. Potlatch. A feastamongtheKwakiutland TlingtIndiansincludingthegiving,
lending,or destroyingof propertyin orderto enhanceone's statusor to console a
relativewho has had an unpleasantexperience.
57. Primary cooperation. Cooperation involving a combination of similar
activities.
58. Proletariat. The workingclass in Marxism.
59. Race Conflict . Strugglebetweentworacialgroupsmotivatedprimarily byrace
consciousness.
60. Race relationscycle. The sequenceof contacts,competition, accommodation,
and assimilation(Robert Park, 1926).
61. Revolutionaryconflict . Violentand ratherrapidstrifethatinvolvesnewsocial
normsand movements.
62. Rivalry. Conscious competition.
63. Rochdale Pioneers. A cooperative store organized by 28 subscribersin
Rochdale, England,in 1844.
64. Secondary cooperation. Cooperation based on a combinationof dissimilar
activities.
65. Segregation . The separatesettlement, development, and economic,social,and
politicalexistenceof different races.
66. Social competition . The processinwhicha personorgroupseeksstatuswithout
consciousreference to theefforts ofothers,and whichis subjectto limitations imposed
by society.
67. Social Darwinism. The philosophythatemphasizessocial conflictand survival
of the fittest.
68. Social interaction . The wayin whichpersonalities, groups,or socialsystems act
towardand mutuallyinfluenceone another.

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 ANDSOCIALPROCESSES
SOCIALINTERACTION 167

69. Social process. An observableand repetitive patternof social interactionthat

has a consistentdirectionor quality.
70. Social relationship. A synonymforsocial interaction.
71. Socialization. Acculturationinvolvingthe transmissionof cultureto a new
generationin one and the same society.
72. Spontaneouscooperation. The mostnaturaltypeofcooperation,whichis based
not on tradition,command,or contract,but is dictatedby conditionsin thefamily,
play group,neighborhood,etc.
73. Stable accommodation. Accommodationwhichhas resolvedmajorissuesand
resultedin substantialsocial harmony.
74. Survivalof thefìttesi. The Darwinian idea that the superiormembersof a
specieswin over weakermembers.
75. Symbolicinteraction . Social interactionthroughhumancommunication.
76. Syncretism . The mixing of conflictingideas and organizations,oftenused
synonymously withassimilation.
77. Territoriality.In ethology,occupationofa piece ofland bysomemembersofa
species.
78. Traditionalcooperation. Cooperationbased on old social norms.
79. Unfocusedinteraction . Interactionamong people who have no commongoal
and are not familiarwithone another(ErvingGoffman,1963).
80. Unstableaccommodation. Accommodationinvolvingthetemporary solution
of minorproblems.
81. Urbanization. According to Ralph Beals, a sociological equivalent of
acculturationin anthropology.

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